Chapter 4

The Receiver Front End:

An Overview

The front end of the receiver is key to its dy-
namic performance. Specifications such as the
dynamic range, intermodulation distortion, −1
dB compression point, and third-order inter-
cept point demonstrate how well the front
end of the receiver performs.
FRONT-END ARCHITECTURES
Several different architectures are used in re-
ceiver front-end circuits. Figure 4.1 shows
the simplest form of front-end architecture. It
consists of a mixer stage and local oscillator
preceded by a bandpass filter. The input sig-
nal to the bandpass filter will come from the
antenna. The bandpass filter can be narrow
or broad depending on design.
Two main theories stand behind this
type of architecture. First, it costs less than
the other architectures in some implementa-
tions. Second, some authorities ask, “Why
amplify noise prior to mixing?” The goal is to
not use up the mixer’s head room with

ANTENNA

BANDPASS TO IF
MIXER
FILTER AMPLIFIER

Fig. 4.1
Bandpass filter at the input of the OSCILLATOR
receiver.

37
38 THE TECHNICIAN’S RADIO RECEIVER HANDBOOK
unneeded energy. This theory has some
merit, as was evident in the Squires-Sanders
SS-1 receiver in the 1960s.
The main attributes of the bandpass filter
are good forward performance (i.e., within
the passband) and good reverse isolation. The
isolation is needed to prevent the local oscilla-
tor signal from reaching the antenna, where it
can be radiated. The bandpass filter has three
important duties:
1. It must limit the bandwidth of the in-
put signal to minimize intermodulation
distortion.
2. It must attenuate spurious responses,
mainly the image frequency and the
1/2-IF frequency problems.
3. It must suppress local oscillator energy
to prevent it from reaching the antenna.
A second version of the front-end ar-
chitecture is shown in Figure 4.2. This ver-
sion uses an RF amplifier. The gain of the
RF amplifier is low, certainly less than 20
dB. Gains in excess of 20 dB may compro-
mise stability, and the intercept point may
not be achieved. The purpose of the RF am-
plifier is to isolate the mixer as well as give
the signal a small boost prior to mixing.
The boost overcomes the losses in the
mixer and the bandpass filter. The principal
ANTENNA
RF AMPLIFIER
BANDPASS
FILTER
Fig. 4.2 RF amplifier and bandpass filter at the input of the receiver.
benefit of the RF amplifier is that it im-
proves the isolation of the mixer/LO circuit
from the antenna circuit.
A third version is shown in Figure 4.3.
Like the other two architectures, this has a
mixer and local oscillator circuit (or a con-
verter, which contains both mixer and local
oscillator). The difference between this archi-
tecture and the previous ones is in the addi-
tion of a second bandpass filter.
This second bandpass filter may have
the same frequency as the first bandpass fil-
ter but that is not the only arrangement.
The second bandpass filter often is tuned to
the image frequency. This frequency is the
RF frequency plus or minus twice the IF, lo-
cated on the other side of the local oscilla-
tor from the RF signal (Figure 4.4). That
way, the image frequency gets the same
treatment in the mixer as the RF, so it
comes through the system as a valid signal.
By having a filter tuned to notch the image
frequency, while passing the desired fre-
quency, we can limit this problem. Of
course, the image filter must track the
bandpass filter at the input if the receiver
has multiple frequencies.
The second bandpass filter also may at-
tenuate the receiver’s other spurious re-
sponse and direct IF pick-up. Further, it
attenuates noise originating in the RF ampli-
TO IF
MIXER
AMPLIFIER
OSCILLATOR

ANTENNA
RF AMPLIFIER
BANDPASS
FILTER 1
Fig. 4.3 Dual RF bandpass filters.
LO
RF IMAGE
FREQUENCY
Fig. 4.4 Image frequency.
fier, preventing the noise from reaching the
mixer. Finally, it suppresses the second har-
monic energy arising in the RF amplifier,
thereby improving the receiver’s second-
order intercept point. This filter should
have no return responses at high frequen-
cies, because the mixer has poor response
for odd harmonics of the receive frequency
and they therefore may ride through the
system.
The RF bandpass filter’s attributes are
determined by a combination of the first IF
frequency and the injection side of the local
oscillator signal. If low side injection is se-
lected, some of the spurious signal prod-
ucts may be on the low side of the RF
signal. On high side injection, just the op-
The Receiver Front End: An Overview 39
BANDPASS TO IF
MIXER
FILTER 2 AMPLIFIER
OSCILLATOR
posite occurs: All the spurious signals will
be on the high side of the RF signal. The
trade-off between insertion loss and selec-
tivity in the filter usually is made in favor of
insertion loss in bandpass filter number 1,
but it can be sacrificed in bandpass filter
number 2.
MIXER AND LOCAL OSCILLATOR
PERFORMANCE
The performance of the first mixer is key to
the performance of the receiver. It is a nonlin-
ear device. Furthermore, it usually sees the
highest-level radio frequency signals in the
system (the LO, largely). It therefore needs to
have a very high intercept point. Single-device
active mixers are cheap, but they have the
poorest performance of all the mixers (see
Chapter 7). The best performance, generally
speaking, is in the passive, double-balanced
mixers. These filters generally have the high-
est intercept points and better noise balance
than most mixer designs. Table 4.1 shows the
mixer performance parameters and the things
they affect.
A trade-off is made in the selection of
the type of mixer circuit used in a receiver.
Passive mixers have better intermodulation
distortion performance than active mixers.
However, they provide no conversion gain
and, in fact, are lossy devices. Active mixers
40 THE TECHNICIAN’S RADIO RECEIVER HANDBOOK

Table 4.1 Mixer Attributes also perform normally under microphonic

Third-order Intermodulation conditions of vibration and impact to the
intercept point distortion receiver.
Second-order intercept 1/2 IF response
point
Noise balance Sensitivity and AM noise
NOISE PERFORMANCE OF
rejection THE SYSTEM
LO to RF isolation LO energy radiated by
antenna
All radio reception is a matter of manipulat-
ing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the
RF to IF isolation Direct IF pick-up
system. Because of this problem, the noise
Conversion loss Sensitivity generated by the mixer, local oscillator,
Note: Sometimes a third bandpass filter is located at bandpass filters, and RF amplifier should be
the interface between the mixer and the local oscil- minimized.
lator. This LO filter is used to attenuate wideband The noise figure for a passive, lossy de-
noise and its harmonics around the LO frequency, vice, such as the filter or some mixer stages,
which could degrade the mixers second-order inter- is given by
cept point.
( L − 1) T
F =1+ (4.1)
290

require less in the way of local oscillator where

power but have no better noise performance F is the noise factor of the device;
than passive mixers. Furthermore, at high L is the loss of the device (1/G);
temperatures the high third-order intercept T is the temperature of the device in
point performance of the active mixer may degrees Kelvin (K).
be deteriorated.
A diplexer network often is positioned (Some double-balanced mixers can have
between the mixer’s IF output and the IF am- slightly higher noise figures.)
plifier. The diplexer network absorbs some Friis’s equation for noise governs the
frequencies, while passing others. The di- system:
plexer network must be nonreflective up to
F2 − 1 F 3 − 1
several times the LO frequency. Otherwise, F = F1 + + +K
those frequencies would be reflected back to G1 G1 G2
the mixer, degrading its performance. Fn − 1 (4.2)
The single-sideband phase noise per- +
G1 G2 K Gn − 1
formance of the local oscillator is important
to the receiver’s adjacent channel selectivity. where
The wideband noise often afflicts the re-
F is the equivalent noise factor;
ceiver sensitivity. Further, the LO signal
F1, F2, and F3 are the noise factors of
must be as pure as possible to prevent spu-
stages 1, 2, and 3;
rious responses in the receiver. It is not pru-
Fn is the gain of the nth stage;
dent to ignore the LO signal, because it is a
G1, G2, and G3 are the gains of stages
large signal that causes switching in the
1, 2, and 3;
mixer (which generates its own harmonics).
Gn−1 is the gain of the stage before the
Rather, the LO signal should be as pure as
nth stage.
possible.
The local oscillator must be able to The overall noise factor of the receiver
operate normally despite changes in tem- is determined by the noise performance of
perature and power supply voltage. It must the stages within the system.

SPURIOUS RESPONSES
A spurious response is one that is unintended.
On a superheterodyne receiver, these spurs
can be created in the mixer stage, although
they have their origin elsewhere. Most re-
ceiver spurs are a result of the heterodyning
of the receiver, according to
FIF = mFRF ± nFLO (4.3)
where
FIF is the IF frequency;
FRF is the RF frequency;
FLO is the local oscillator frequency;
m and n are either integers or zero.
By solving equation 4.3 for FRF, we get
two possible RF frequencies at which spurs
can occur:
nFLO − FIF
FRF = (4.4)
m
nFLO + FIF
FRF = (4.5)
m
The most common spurs are as follows:
1. Image frequency (previously defined,
see Figure 4.5).
2. 1/2 IF (see Figure 4.5).
3. Direct IF pick-up.
4. n × LO frequency.
5. LO spurious frequencies.
6. Second mixer spurs (dual conversion
receivers only).
Full duplex radio receivers (i.e., those
used in conjunction with a transmitter at the
same time) have two additional responses
that must be considered: full duplex image
and half duplex image:
Full Duplex Image = FT − ∆f (4.6)
∆f
Half Duplex Image = FT + (4.7)
2 2
The Receiver Front End: An Overview 41
FIF FIF
FRF FRF + FIF/2 FLO IMAGE
FRF + 2 FIF
Fig. 4.5 Spectrum analyzer presentation of 1/2 IF.
where
FT is the transmitter frequency;
∆f is the difference between the trans-
mitter and receiver frequencies.
INTERCEPT POINTS
The intercept points are a measure of circuit
linearity. They allow us to calculate inter-
modulation distortion levels from the input
signal levels. The intercept point represents
an input amplitude (Figure 4.6) at which the
desired fundamental frequency is equal in
amplitude to the undesired signal.
SECOND-ORDER INTERCEPT POINT
The second-order intercept point (SOIP)
comes from the operation of the second-
order products of a signal and increases at
a rate of 2 dB for a 1 dB increase in the fun-
damental level. The 1/2 IF response of the
mixer can be predicted from the second-
order intercept point. The 1/2 IF point is due
to the second harmonics of the RF signal
and the LO signal, both of which are inter-
nally generated (2FRF ± 2FLO). The 1/2 IF re-
jection is
IP2 − S − C
1/2 IF rejection = (4.8)
42 THE TECHNICIAN’S RADIO RECEIVER HANDBOOK

nth-Order Intercept Point

OUTPUT LEVEL (PO) IN dBm

Response of
Fundamental Signal

nth-Order Response

Fig. 4.6
The nth-order intercept point. INPUT LEVEL (Pin) IN dBm

where where
IP2 is the second-order intercept point; IM is the intermodulation rejection
S is the receiver sensitivity (dBm); ratio (dB);
C is the capture ratio or the cochannel IP3 is the TOIP;
rejection in dB. S is the receiver sensitivity (dBm);
C is the capture ratio or cochannel re-
For example, suppose a receiver has a jection in dB.
second-order intercept point of 45 dBm
and a sensitivity of –120 dBm. If the co- Equation 4.9 covers the situation for
channel rejection is 6 dB, the 1/2 IF rejec- one carrier. Unfortunately, real receivers see
tion is (45 dBm – 120 dBm – 6 dB)/2 = 159/2 many carriers. The number of such products
= 79.5 dB. is n(n − 1), where n is the number of carriers
present for both (2F1 – F1) and (2F1 + F2),
and (for triple beats) n(n – 1)(n – 2)/2 for
THIRD-ORDER INTERCEPT POINT (F1 + F2 – F3) situations.

The third-order intercept point (TOIP) is the

point at which the fundamental signal and nTH-ORDER INTERCEPT POINT
its own third-order products are equal in
amplitude. The TOIP increases 3 dB for With knowledge of the input levels of signals
each 1 dB increase in the fundamental signal. applied to the receiver, we can calculate the
The TOIP predominantly is responsible for nth-order intercept points:
the intermodulation distortion performance
of the receiver, defined as the difference (in nPA − PIM N
IPN = (4.10)
dB) between the receiver’s sensitivity and the n −1
signal level that is sufficient to produce a
where
specified level of interference. It can be cal-
culated from IPN is the nth order intercept point;
n is the order of the intercept point;
2 IP3 − 2S − C PA is receiver input signal power level;
IM = (4.9)
3 PIMN is the power level of the IMD signal.

RF AMPLIFIER
The RF amplifier can have a deleterious ef-
fect on the performance of the mixer stage;
hence, the entire receiver. A number of
methods can be used to reduce the effect.
The first method is to use a high-power de-
vice operating well below its maximum
range. A trade-off with noise performance,
however, must be taken into consideration.
Second, you can reduce the signal level to
the device. This can be done with attenuators
The Receiver Front End: An Overview 43
in some cases. Care must be taken to balance
the needs of sensitivity in this respect. Third,
you can reduce the stage gain. Again, noise
and SNR considerations apply. Fourth, you
can use negative feedback in the amplifier.
Fifth, you can increase the selectivity of the
RF amplifier. A narrower bandpass produces
less noise than wider bandwidths. A sixth
way is to use push-pull amplifiers, because
they tend to cancel even-order products
(odd-order products are not affected), which
tend to take up mixer head room.