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OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION LIMITED
INSTITUTE OF DRILLING TECHNOLOGY
DEHRA DUN, INDIA INDEX
CHAPTER 1 : Basic Terms, BHP & Leak Off Test
Topics 3 = ai: ___ | Page No. |
>_Kick, Blow out, Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Well Control
> Bottom Hole Pressure
> Normal and Abnormal formation Pressure
» Causes of Abnormal Pressure
> Hydrostatic Effects
> Causes of reduction in Hydrostatic Pressure
>_U Tube concept
> Leak Off Test
>» _MAASP
> Top Hole Drilling
> Shallow Gas Control Procedure
» Top Hole Drilling with Riser
> Well Control in Shallow Holes V/S Deep Holes
[> Gas Cutting
> _Effect of Gas Expansion in Riser
[> Swab and Surge Effects _
> Trip Margi
Slow Circulation Rate
> Choke Line Friction
| > Equivalent Mud Density in the Annulus
= Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD )
CHAPTER 2 : Kick Indications & Shut - In Procedure
[Mepiesee) bali astra
> Causes of Kicks 33
> Early Warning Signs es17 nik tulle beg: re 34
> Positive Kick Signs 37
>_Kicks while Tripping 38
> Line up for Shut-in a 38 ]
> Shut-in Procedures for Land & Jack up rigs 41
Vv
Shut-in Procedures for Floating Rigs zs meeseemee | > Shut-in Pressure Interpretation
43
> Type of Influx 45
‘> Gas Influx behaviour inOpenWell _ |46
> Gas influx behaviour in Closed Well ap
> Behaviour of different types of influx 50
> _Closed in Condition Circulation 51
CHAPTER 3 : Well Killing Methods
Topics Page No
> Bringing the Pump to kill Speed 55
>_Driller’s Method 55
> Wait & Weight Method an 59
> Comparison of mehtods 60
> Pressure behaviour of different points during Well Killing 62
> Volumetric Mehtod 66
»_Subsea Consideration related to Well killing 7A
> Trapped Gas below Preventer after Killing ie
>_ Stripping & Snubbing 72
>_ Stripping with Annular Preventer B
{Das tppinaibomnvevertet = Sais eee
>_Maximum casing Pressure, Shoe Pressure & Pit Gain 75
>_Well Control Considerations Horizontal Wells 7
> Well Control in Multilateral Wells 79
> Associated Problems Some Considerations 83
1. Higher Pressure than Surface Equipment Rating | 83
2. Casing Burst | 83
3. Under ground Blow Out | 84
4, Volumetric Considerations for Wells With Long Liners 85
5. Checking for Trapped Shut In Pressures 85
6. Choke Line Friction Loss Consideration When SICP < CLFL 85
7. Unusual Shut In Pressures 86
8. Kick In Uphill section ( Fish Hook Profile ) 86
9. Gas Kicks - Some Special Considerations 86 CHAPTER 4 : Unusual Situations in Well Control hur 1
Topics Page No.
> Plugged or Washe
[> Pump Failure
> Plugged or Washed choke 90
> String Wash Out ot
> Lest Circulation a = __|92
> Barite Plug, Gunk Plug ‘ 94
> Low Choke Pressure Method F nak 1) SD
>_Over Kill Method : e 96
> Reversing out of Influx through Drill Pipe lens 196
> Use of Pill ahead of Kill Mud = 98
> Bull-heading 98
> Hydrate Formation 99
lems and their remedial actions during Well Killing by Drillers | 100
method (1% Circulation ) = sith
> Problems and their remedial actions during Well Killing by Dr:
method ( 2" Circulation ) |
> Problems and their remedial actions during Well Killing by Wait & | 103
Weight Method.
ing operational problems 100
>
_CHAPTER 5 : Blow Out Preventer Equipment Surface/Subsea
[Voplesebj __| Page No.
» Annular Preventer 107
> Packing Element of Annular Preventer itt
> Hydraulic Operator Test of Annular Preventer 17,
|» Pipe Ram Preventer t plgss <
Blind Ram and Variable Bore Ram z 119
Blind Shear Ram & Dual Ram 120
| > Description & Visual Inspection of Ram Preventer 121
> Emergency Plastic Packing Seal ( Secondary Seal ) 123
>_Cameron Wedge Lock 125
> Shaffer Poslock Tee 126
> Shaffer Ultralock 127
> Koomy Auto Lock psi 20 pritesT @1itap:
> _Hydril MPL 129 Hydraulic Operator Test of Ram Preventer
130.
y
> Changing of Ram block Seals 132
[> Accumulator Bottles avi HB bones 36 [135
> Inspection of BOP Control Unit 147
_Selector/Manipulator Valves 149
> By-Pass Valve ag mea BEONE_5 |
> Usable Fluid 151
¥ Sizing of Accumulator for Surface Unit 152
> Sizing of Accumulator for Sub-sea Unit 153
> Kelly Cock 154
> Safety Valve & Inside BOP [156
> Drop in Check Valve, Bit Float o8 oe S|
» _Sub-sea BOP Stack i 160
> Hydraulic Fluid Mixing System sa 163
>_Marine Riser & Riser Dump Valve 166
s Hydraulic Latch, Low Pressure Connector 168
>_SPM Valve & Shuttle Valve 169
> Sub-sea BOP Control System 170
> Operating Sequence of Indirect Hydraulic Control System 174
Multiplex BOP Control System nee fie
+ Acoustic Backup Control System Z 182
> Choke Manifold a 185
> Kill Manifold 188
Diverters z [190
> Selection of Well Control Equipment 194
> Classification of Well Control Equipment * 195
| > Control System for Surface BOP Stack 200
& Electro Pneumatic BOP Control System 201
¥ PlCbased BOP control systems __ [203
> _Sub-sea Blowout Prevention Equipment 204
[> Single Stack System Subsea BOP 204
> Two Stack System Subsea BOP 206
> Control System for Subsea BOP Stack 209
> Function & Pressure Test - Surface BOP Equipment 210
> Testing of Subsea BOP Stack 214
> Pressure Testing of inside BOP, Kelly Cock ete. 219
> Trip Tank om = wa) 220% > _Mud Gas Seperator PRS sear
222
> Vacuum Degasser 224
> Pit Volume Recorder 225
> _Mud flow Indicator ba 225 3
>_Mud flow Sensor 226
>_ BOP Drills 227
> Ring Gaskets & Connections 232
[> Table for Annular Preventer 235
Closing and Opening Ratio i { laW batnivad } 40d aseduliZay,
[> Table for Ram BOP 238
> Rotating Head : 241
[> Rotating BOP e 242
CHAPTER 6 : Deep Water Well Control
[nrepieseeeona as ga a tite Page No.
>_ Shallow Flows On Floating Rigs ii 245
> Drilling Without Riser __ [246
> Drilling With Riser 246
>_Kick prevention & Detection 248
> Well Shut ~In Procedures i 249
> _Well Killing Techniques ees 251
> Choke & Kill Line Considerations 3 252
> Removal of Trapped Gas z 254
> Calculation Of Accumulator Bottles For Deep Water 2550 |
| > Hydrate Formation & Prevention See 257
> Deep Water Equipment Consideration 258
> Riser Booster Pump & Remote Operated Valve 259
> Pressure testing of BOP 260
CHAPTER 7 : Formulae, Exercises and Kill Sheets
ak ___( Surface & Subsea)
Topics Page No.
>_IWCF Formulae Sheet 261
> Exercises on IWCF Formuloe Sheet [264
>_ Other related Formulae & Exercises 280 [> Caleulation of maximum Pressure at Shoe _
> Exercises for Subsea 290
> Filling of Surface Vertical Well Kill Sheet 293
> Filling of Surface Highly Deviated Well Kill Sheet 297
> Filling of Subsea Vertical Well Kill Sheet 302
> Blank Surface BOP (Vertical Well) Kill Sheet 306
> Blank Surface BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet 308
> Blank Subsea BOP ( Vertical Well ) Kill Sheet 311
> Blank Subsea BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet 313
> Exercise on Casing Shoe failure 316
> Sizing of Mud Gos separator so 317
> Hydraulic Control Schematic for BOP Control System 320
> Conversion Table 321 INDEX OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1
Figure Title __| Page No.
& Artesian Effect | 04
> Faul | 05
> Abnormal Pressure due to Salt Dame [05
= Gas Cap Effect 06
> Abnormal Pressure due to charged Sand 07,
>_Hydrostatic Effect 08
> _U- Tube Effect ie fee
>_Leak off Test Graphs 13-14
> Riser Pipe Collapse _| 23
> Equivalent Circulation Density 29
CHAPTER 2
| Figure Title Page No.
[> Line Up for Soft Shut -in = tn: [30 <
> Line Up for Hard Shut -in 40
)>_ Open Well Gas Migration ba =
y Closed Well Gas Migration a7
CHAPTER 3
Figure Title Page No.
| > Pressure Profile 1% cycle of Driller’s Method 56
> Pressure Profile 2"! cycle of Driller's Method 57
> Pressure Profile Wait and Weight Method 59
> Pressure behaviour during Killing 62
> Casing Shoe Pressure Profile 65
> Volumetric method - Mud Bleeding Process ae a ES |
> _ Stripping & Snubbing 72
> _Swabbed Gas Kick Tn Horizontal Well 77 > _Gas Kick From High Pressure Zone In Horizontal Well
> _Step Down Schedule For A Highly Deviated & Horizontal Well 78
[> Junction Classification In Multilateral Wells eoine (e0)
> Free Expansion Of Gas 87
CHAPTER 5
[ Figure Title
> Operating Pressure Graph of Hydril Annular Preventer
> Operating pressure Graph of Shaffer Annular Preventer
>_Hydril GK Annular Preventer
© Closing sequence of Annular Preventer
> Cameron D’ type Annular Preventer
Shaffer Spherical
Hydril MSP Annular
Hydril GK Annular Preventer
Hydril 6X Annular Preventer
Hydril GL Annular Preventer
Different hook Ups of GL Annular Preventer a wie
Piston Stroke Indicator 114
Replacement of Packing Element 116
Pipe Rams 118
Blind Rams 19
Variable Bore Ram [119
Blind Shear Ram 120
Cameron Ram Preventer and its fluid path ia |
Cameron Wedge Lock 125
Shaffer Poslock
Shaffer Ultralock
Koomey Autolock
Hydlril MPL
YY
let eS Ba ylarrre re SOE
> _Hydril Ram Preventer: 131
> Parts of Cameron U type Ram BOP 133
> BOP Control Unit with pneumatic Annular Regulator 136
> Accumulator Bottle with Charging & Gauging Assembly 138 >_BOP Control Unit with Manual Annular Regulator
> Bypass Valve in Low Position
>_BOP Control Unit showing Unit/Remote Switch Dot
> Bypass Valve in High Position
> Ram BOP Operation from the Remote Panel
> Manipulator /Selector Valve in open Piston
> Manipulator Valve.
Selector Valve
>_ Bypass Valve in Low Pressure Position
= Bypass \ in High Pressure Position _
> Kelly Cock / FOSV:
> Safety Valve in Top Drive System
> Inside BOP
>_Bit Float
> Subsea BOP Stack and its components E
> _LMRP & main Stac!
> Hydraulic Mixing System 163
> Subsea BOP Hook Ups and Controls [164 |
> Subsea BOP System and its components 165
> Marine Riser Systemand its components 167
> Lowering of Hydraulic Latch 168
> Shuttle Valve = 169
> General arrangement Sub-sea Hydraulic System 172
} Subsea BOP Operating Sequence Close Function 175
> Subsea BOP Operating Sequence Block Function 177
> Subsea BOP Operating Sequence Open Function 179
> Multiplex BOP Control System 183
% Acoustic BOP Control System. 184
>» Choke Manifold 185
[> Manually Operated choke 186
> Remote Operated Hydraulic Choke 187
> Gate valve & Fail Safe Valve 189
>_Diverter with Low Pressure Annular Preventer _| 194
> Diverter with insert type Packer 192
>. Hydraulic Schematic of Diverter System 193
> Blow Out Preventer arrangement for 2M ie |
> Blow Out Preventer arrangement for 3M and 5M 198
ix > Blow Out Preventer arrangement for 10M, 15M and 20M
Pressure Service Subsea installation
Service Subsea installation
> Surface BOP Remote Control Panel 200
> Electo-Penumatic Remote Panel - Operating Sequence Close 2028 < |
> Example of Subsea BOP Stack illustrating operational location for | 205
Killand Choke Line
> Example of BOP arrangement for 2m and 3m rated Working 207
> Example of BOP arrangement for 5M, 10M rated Working Pressure | 2(
> Mud Gas Separator 9
> Vacuum Degasser
>_Mud Flow Sensor
> Conventional Mechanical Snubbing Unit
» Hydraulic Snubbing Unit
3 _Different type of Connection
> Ring Gaskets, Type 68 Flanges & Type 6BX Flanges
»_Rotating Head & BOP
CHAPTER 6
Figure Title ee
> Loss Of Buoyancy
> Choke Pressure Fluctuations
|= Use Of Two Choke Lines As BOP Separator Effect _ Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
CHAPTER-1 BASIC TERMS, BHP, & LEAK OFF TEST
4.4 KICK
Itis defined as an influx or flow of formation fluid into the well-bore & can occur any time
the formation fluid pressure is greater than the bottom hole pressure being exerted in
the well bore.
4.2 BLOWOUT
It is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluid at the surface or sub surface from the well
bore. A Blow-out is the result of an uncontrolled kick.
4.3 PRIMARY WELL CONTROL
During normal drilling operations the hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid is greater than
the pressure of the fluids in the formation. The maintenance of sufficient hydrostatic
head exerted by drilling fluid to hold back the formation fluid pressure is termed as
“Primary Well Control”.
1.4 SECONDARY WELL CONTROL
If due to any reason hydrostatic pressure in the well bore falls below the formation
pressure, formation fluid may enter in the well bore & if so happens, the primary control
may be temporanily lost and a proper use of blow out preventers & kill procedures will
provide Secondary well control, or in other words secondary well control involves
detection & safe handling of kicks so as to re-establish primary well control
4.5 TERTIARY WELL CONTROL
It involves the techniques used to control a blow-out once the primary & Secondary
Control are lost, This primarily involves a re-establishment of the secondary control
system such as : the well bore conduit, well head & BOP equipment & subsequently
establishing the Primary Control
1.6 PRESSURE
‘The term ‘pressure’ is defined as force exerted per unit area. The field unit for pressure
is psi. Various pressure terms used in well control are discussed below:
4.6.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Itis the pressure exerted by a static column of fluid by virtue of its density. Or it can be
termed as the pressure due to static effect of a fluid column. It depends on the vertical
height (TVD) of the column and the density of the fluid,
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = Depth ( TVD-feet) x Mud density (ppg) x 0.052
(0.082 is a conversion constant )
4 Wel Gontrof School, IDT-ONGC
4.6.2 Pressure Gradient
When pressure of fluid of a given density is measured over a given unit depth, the term
is known as Pressure Gradient.
For example, fresh water has a density of 8.33 ppg & one foot column of it shall exert a
pressure of
8.33 x 1 x 0.052 =0.433 psi
Therefore pressure gradient of fresh water is 0.439 psi /ft. If this fluid is used in well
bore of 10,000 feet depth, it will exert a hydrostatic pressure of:
0.433 (psi /ft) x 10,000 ( feet) = 4330 ( psi)
Similarly salt water has a density of 8.92 ppg ( 1.07 gm /cc ) & one foot column of it
shall exert a pressure of :
8.92 x 1x 0.052 = 0.465 psi
Therefore, pressure gradient of salt water is 0.465 psilft.
Normally accepted value of Overburden gradient is taken as 1 psilft.
4.6.3 Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP )
It is defined as sum total of all pressures ie. static , surface as well as dynamic
pressures that are being exerted at the bottom of the hole :
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Surface Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic pressures are exerted by either due to fluid movement (Annular pressure
losses) or pipe movement in the well bore ( Swab! Surge pressure).
BHP in different well situations :
a) When not circulating
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure due to mud column
b) While drilling
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Annular Pressure Losses
c) Shutting the well after a kick
i) In Drill String
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
i) In Annulus
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Hydrostatic Pressure of kick fluid
+ Shutin casing Pressure
d) While killing operation
i) For Surface BOP Stack
BHP = Sum of hydrostatic Pressure of various fluids in the annulus
+ Annular Pressure Losses + Casing Pressure
ii) For Subsea BOP Stack
BHP = Sum of hydrostatic Pressure of various fluids in the annulus
+ Annular Pressure Losses + Choke line friction Losses + Casing
Pressure
Note: Usually annular pressure losses are not taken into account for calculation of
BHP during Killing. Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
e) While tripping in
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Surge Pressure
f) While tripping out
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud — Swab Pressure.
(Note: Terms surge & swab pressure are explained at 1.20 in deteils )
1.6.4 Formation Pressure
Formation prossure or pore pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluids trapped in the
pores of the formation. Formation pressure is categorised as normal or abnormal
pressure depending upon the formation pressure gradient
4.7 NORMAL AND ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE
As the rock layers are deposited one upon another, formation water is squeezed out of
the pores due to the overburden. This process is called compaction. As long as the
formation water has escape avenues, the formation pressure bleeds down to the
‘normal value’. The generally accepted normal value is ranging from 0.433 to 0.465
psifft as determined from studies done in the basins of Gulf Cost areas of United States.
This is equivalent to hydrostatic pressure gradient of a column of salt water.
When formation water, which is trying to escape due to overburden is trapped by
impermeable formations which does not allow its normal escape, abnormal formation
pressure develops. This is because the water now supports more of the overburden
than in the normal case
Basically, in any given situation the overburden is supported by both the formation fluid
& the matrix of the rock
or Overburden pressure = matrix stress + pore pressure
Matrix stress is the amount of overburden pressure that is supported by the rock itself &
pore pressure is the amount of overburden which is supported by the fiuid in the pore
spaces of the rock. The sum of the two is necessary to support the overburden itself.
If the normal overburden gradient is taken as 1.0 psi/ft (assuming average rock density
of 19.88 ppg, though it is somewhat less at shallow depths ) and the normal pore
pressure gradient as 0.465 psift then the normal matrix stress gradient works out to be
0.535 psiftt.
Abnormal pore pressure gradient ranges from 0.465 psi/ft to 1.0 psifft. Whereas,
subnormal pressure are pore pressure gradients less than 0.433 psi/ft, such pressure
are usually found in depleted reservoirs.
4.8 CAUSES OF ABNORMAL PRESSURES
4.8.1 Under Compaction
Compaction of sediments originally deposited as clay and loose sand is an ongoing
process. With the passage of time the excess water gets squeezed out from the
sediments, If the process is slow and gradual, excess water can escape to surrounding
formations & full compaction results. However, if rate of depositions is high, formation
a Wet Control School, IDT-ONC
water may not be able lo escape at a proportionate high rate & shall then support more
part of the overburden. Such formation shall have abnormal pore pressure. Though
with geological time such abnormal pore pressure will dissipate into neighbouring
permeable formations, but deep inside the clay-body escape of formation water
becomes progressively inhibited due to reduction in porosity caused by the compaction
process. These shales in which pore fluid is trapped by this mechanism has a higher
fluid content then the similar shales which have been compacted slowly. These shales
have relatively high porosity and abnormal pore pressures. This phenomena is called
‘under compaction’ since it results from lack of normal compaction process
1.8.2 Artesian Effect
When a aquifer or water bearing permeable rock outcrops at the surface, high up in a
mountain area, then the formation fluids at any depth within the rock are under a
hydrostatic pressure which is equivalent to the height of the outcrop. Therefore, the
formation fluid in the valley below shall be abnormally pressured.
Figure 1.4 ARTESIAN EFFECT
As shown in figure 1.1 above, the permeable formation has outcropped at higher
altitude . While drilling in the valley below, at 3,000 ft the formation pressure shall be:
0.485 x 4,000 = 1,850 psi ( assuming normal formation pressure for depth of 4,000ft}
Formation pressure gradient at 3,000 ft well depth = 1,860/ 3,000 = 0.62 psi /ft
This is more than normal pressure gradient value of 0.465 psi/ft and hence abnormal.
1.8.3 Faulting
Faulting is up-thrusting of deep rocks. Most rocks are fractured during earth crust
movement, resulting in cracks called joints. If the rock layers on one side of a fracture
have moved as shown in figure 1.2 in relation to the other side, the fracture is called a
fault. Displacement of formations may range from only a few centimetres to kilometres.
4 Well Gontrot School,
DT-ONGG
Since the formation pressure normally increases with depth, when deep rocks get
faulted up, they have higher than normal pressure with respect to the new depth they
now occupy. Therefore, when drilling across a fault, there is a possibility of
encountering abnormally high formation pressure.
Normal Pressure Abnormal Pressure
Figure 1.2 FAULTING
1.8.4 Salt Dome
Salt is totally impermeable to fluids, and unlike other rocks transforms physically under
pseudo-plastic movements, thereby exerting pressure equal to the overburden load in
all directions. Since salt has very little rock frame structure the properties of pressure
transmission are more like fluids than solids. Moreover as it has little strength and
underlying formations have no fluid escape possibilities, the water in the shales just
below the salt bears the entire burden of the salt plus the burden of sediments above,
which together can approach 1 psifft. In the salt dome areas, movement of salt upwards
brings strata from deeper depth to shallower depth and causes abnormal pressures.
SALT
Figure 1.3 ABNORMAL PRESSURE DUE TO SALT DOME Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
1.8.5 Gas Cap Effect
Most of down hole formations are dipping or folded reservoirs. In a folded permeable
formation, formation pressure at various places across the fold, though in direct
communication to each other, varies depending upon the nature of the fluid trapped in
the pores. Difference in the density between the gas and water causes the abnormal
pressures where hydrocarbon occur above water. The magnitude of this pressure
depends upon the structural elevation of the top of the hydrocarbon reservoir. As shown
in the figure 1.4 the reservoir fiuid being gas is lighter than water, an abnormal pressure
gradient will be encountered on drilling into the shallow section of the reservoir.
7000 ft
Gas gradient 0.1 psi/ft
Formation pressure gradient at 8,000 ftis 0.465 psi/ft
Figure 1.4 GAS CAP EFFECT
Formation pressure at 8,000 ft = 8000x0465 = 3,720 psi
Hydrostatic pressure of gas 1,000 x 0.4 (00 psi
Formation pressure at 7,000 ft 3,720 - 100 3,620psi
Formation pressure gradient at 7,000 ft = 3,620 ~ 7,000 517 psifft
Hence the same formation which was normally pressurised at 8,000 ft is abnormally
pressurised at 7,000 ff.
6 Well Conirol School, IDT-ONGC
1.8.8 Charged Sands
Upper sands can get charged with formation fluid much greater than normal for their
depth due to uncontrolled underground biow-out from a previous well. As shown in the
figure 1.5 the previous well that blew out under ground was successfully abandoned
but the fluid from the lower zone entered the wellbore & escaped to an upper sand.
When the next well is drilled, unexpected shallow high pressure sand is encountered
Figure 1.5 ABNORMAL PRESSURE DUE TO CHARGED SAND
4.9 HYDROSTATIC EFFECTS
Hydrostatic effects due to different density of fluids in the bore hole can be realised by
following example: Well Contro! School, IDT-ONGC
Oft
10 ppg m|
>] 3,500 ft
my 7,500 ft
8,000 ft
Figure 1.6
Fluid column Density —_ Hydrostatic pressure
1. 3,500 ft 10 ppg 3,500 x 10 x 0.052
2. 4,000 ft 08 ppg 4,000 x 9 x 0.052
3. 0500 ft 11 ppg 0500 x 11 x 0.052
Hydrostatic Pressure at 7500 ft = 1820+1872
Hydrostatic pressure at bottom = 1,820 + 1,872 + 266
Similarly in case wellbore contains
Prossuro at surface, pressure at various points
10 ppg mi
P—N 2,000 ft
Figure 1.6 b
Pressure at 3500 ft= Hydrostatic at 3500 ft + Surface pressure
Pressure at 7500 ft= Hydrostatic at 7500 ft + Surface pressure
Pressure at bottom= Hydrostatic at 8000 ft + Surface pressure
8
uuu
1,820 psi
1,872 psi
286_ psi
3692 psi
3,978 psi
rent density fluids & also has some back
wellbore can be worked out:
1820+500 = 2320 psi Wet Controf School, 1DT-ONGC
4.10 CAUSES OF REDUCTION IN HYDROSTATIC HEAD
The well is in a balanced condition as long as the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
drilling fiuid in the hole is equal to or more than the formation pressure. If the pressure
exerted by driling fiuid is less than the formation pressure, the well is in under balanced
condition. If the former is too high, losses into formation may occur. In drilling operation
a hydrostatic pressure somewhere between balanced and lost circulation condition must
be maintained by the drilling fluid
The various causes of reduction in hydrostatic head are listed below.
1.10.1 Failure to fill the hole
The failure to fill the hole during pulling out is one of the main causes of reduction in
hydrostatic head. Should the reduced hydrostatic head becomes less than the formation
pressure, an infiux of formation fluid can enter the well, if a permeable formation is
exposed in the borehole.
Lot us calculate the reduction in hydrostatic pressure due to failure to fill the hole.
Example:
A wall has been drilled to 10,000 ft and pulling out was started for bit change. Mud
density was 10 ppg and formation pressure at 10,000 ft was 5,000 psi. What shall be
the effect on bottom hole pressure after pulling out 10 stands (90 ft each) of 5", 19.5 ppf,
drill pipe, dry without filing the hole.
Metal displacement of 5” dill pipe - 0.0080 bbiift
95/8” casing shoe > 1,000
Dril pipe capacity - 0.0177 bblift
Casing capacity - 0.0747 bbiift
‘Annular volume 5° x © 5/8” casing - 0.0475 bbl
Solution:
Level drop in annulus and drill pipe due to failure of filling mud after pulling out 10
stands dry’
Metal Displacement (bbIft) x Length of pipe pulled out(ft)
{Casing Capacity(bb/tt) - Metal Displacer
0.0080 x 90 x 10 stands 7.20
Banca = ee 113 ft
{0.0717 - 0.0080} 0.0637
Hydrostatic pressure of this column = 113 x 10x 0.052 = 59psi
Therefore, failure to fill hole after pulling out 10 stands of drill pipe dry shall cause a
reduction of 59 psi in hydrostatic pressure. Weil Control School, IDT-ONGC
Example:
In the above example, if the string is pulled out wet without filling the hole then reduction
of hydrostatic head will be more . This can be calculated as follow:
Solution:
Level drop in annulus due to failure of filing mud after pulling out 10 stands wet
{Metal Displacement (bbI/ft) + d/p capacity(obi/ft)} Volume Pumped
Figure 1.8 LEAK OFF TEST GRAPH
13 Weil Contro! School_ 1DT-ONGC
Surface Leak Off Pressui
ongaaen'y anwHhRED
> Volume Pumped
Figure 1.9 LEAK OFF TEST GRAPH
Example:
Casing shoe depth - 8,000 ft (TVD)/ 8,250 ft (MD)
Mud weight - 10 ppg
LOT pressure 1,200 psi
Find out Formation Leak - off pressure & LOT value.
Solutio!
Formation leak-off pressure .200 + (10 x 0.052 x 8,000) = 5,360 psi
LOT value = 5,360 + (8,000 x 0.052) 12.88 ppg
1.12.2 Leak off Test Cautions
i) Leak off test is not carried out in lime stone, dolomite or fractured shales.
ii) LOT shall be conducted preferably in the first permeable zone below casing shoe:
ii) In general formation becomes stronger with depth, but not always. In case it is
suspected from cuttings etc. that a weaker formation has been drilled, it is
recommended to carry out formation integrity test against the cpen hole
iv) The value of formation strength obtained from leak off tests in vertical wells may not
be directly applicable in deviated wells where the formation is drilled at an angie
(and vice versa).
v) The point on the curve at which stabilised pressure begins to deviate from the trend
line, indicates the point at which formation begins to take fluid, no permanent
damage shall be done to the formation at this stage, provided it is not subjected to
further increase in pressure. Further pumping shall cause a fracture & this would
14 Weil Control School IDT-ONGC
be indicated by a sharp pressure drop at the surface. If so happens, the formation
strength shall be impaired, although it may ‘heal’ itself after some time.
1.43 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP)
MAASP is the maximum surface pressure that —enialelensTsSae ES CESS?
‘safely MAASP is the minimum of
a) The maximum surface pressure that the casing and/or well head will hold.
b) The maximum surface pressure that the shoe will hold
(Since the selection of well head and the casing is based upon the maximum
anticipated surface pressure, the limiting factor usually is the pressure that the shoe
will hold.)
Example:
A leak-off test is conducted at 9,000 ft casing shoe TVD with mud density of 11ppg &
surface leak-off pressure is 1,500 psi. What is the MAASP for 11 ppg mud density?
Solution:
MAASP with 14 ppg mud density is 1,500 psi (surface leak-off pressure).
Note:- MAASP value must be known & posted on the rig at all times during drilling. As
the mud weight is changed or another LOT is conducted, MAASP must be recalculated
accordingly.
Example:
For casing shoe at 9,000 fi. (TVD) MAASP with 11 ppg mud was 1,500 psi, what shall
be the MAASP if mud density is increased to 12 ppg, while drilling at 12,000 ft.
Solution:
MAASP with 41 ppg mud = 1,500 psi
Maximum. mud density that can be used without formation breakdown
= 11+ 1,600 + (9,000 x 0.052) = 14.2 ppg
MAASP with 12 ppg mud = (14.2-12) x 0.062 x 9,000 = 1,030 psi.
1.13.1 Maximum Influx Volume that can be safely shut in ( Kick Tolerance )
If the MAASP is known, the maximum infix volume that can be safely shut in, can be
calculated as below:
Example :
Influx Volume - 10 bbl
SIDPP - 600 psi
15 Wel Control School, IDT-ONGC
> sicp = 750 psi
Tvb = 9.000ft
Mud Density - 11 ppg
Drill Collar - s00ft
Annular Volume against drill pipe 0.046 bbi‘ft
Annular Volume against drill collar- 0.03 bbi/ft
MAASP = 1,200 psi with 11 ppg Mud
Calculate influx gradient & maximum influx volume that can be safely shut in.
Solution :
a) Influx Gradient
Influx Volume (bb!)
Height of Influx = =
Annular Capacity (bbIift)
= 10 + 0.03=333.3ft = 333 ft
As length of drill collar is 500 ft so Influx is around drill collar only.
Influx Gradient = Mud weight x 0.052 - {(SICP - SIDPP) = Influx Height)
11 x 0.052 - {(750 - 600) = 333)
0572-0450 = 0.122 psifft
Ones the value of the influx gradient is known, the maximum height of influx that can be
safely closed in can be calculated using the same formula :
Influx Gradient = Mud weight x 0.052 - {(SICP - SIDPP) = Influx Height}
In the above equation maximum influx height can be calculated by substituting the
value of MAASP in place of SICP
0.122 = 11x 0.052 — {1200 - 600) = Influx height }
Influx height = (1200 - 600) = (11 x 0.052 - 0.122)
600+ 0.450 = 1333 ft
Now the height of influx can be converted into annular volume.
Drill collar length = 500 feet.
Annular Volume against drill collar = 500x003 = 15bbl
Height of influx around drill pipe = 1333-500 = 833ft
Annular Volume against drill pipe . 833 x 0.046 = 38.3 bbl
Total influx volume that can be safely closed before MAASP is reached :
= 15+383 = 53.3 bbl
16 ‘Well Gonirol School,_IDT-ONGG
1.14 TOP HOLE DRILLING
In upper part of the hole, driling rate is normally too fast, hole sizes are large & porosity
is very high. Cutting carrying capacity of the drilling fluid is poor since hole is about 30%
to 40% larger than nominal size & high annular velocities can not be obtained. This
leads to concentration of cuttings in the annulus thereby increasing the equivalent mud
density in the annulus. Formation strength in the top hole section is normally low, more
0 in a marine woll since part of the overburden there consists of seawater rather than
formation, As such while drilling a top-hole section the chances of bulk mud losses are
high, which if happens can lead to a shallow formation flows. The various problems
faced while drilling tophole section are as below
a) The formation being weak is vulnerable to bulk mud losses.
b) Soft, fast drilling formation generates large volumes of cuttings that tend to
accumulate in the bore hole.
©) Annular velocity is very low (due to large hole) and tophole mud has a poor
cutting carrying capacity.
d) Kicks occur quickly & since shallow reservoir can have high permeability, time
for action is very limited.
The shallow gas kicks are difficult to detect at an early stage because most of the
standard flow detection techniques fail. Flow checks on drilling breaks become
impractical as drilling rates generally are very fast & penetration rates vary
‘tremendously. Mud volume is continuously being added to active mud system therefore
pit level indicator at times can not be made use of. The only reliable indicator is
differential fiow sensor. On the other hand reaction time is minimal since gas expands
almost immediately upon entering the well bore, which further reduces the hydrostatic
head and allows more and more influx to enter the well bore. As such well can not be
closed because flow might broach to the outside of the shallow casing.
The major hazards of shallow gas influx
i) It can lead to blow-out
ii) It can cause serious damage to the personnel, rig & equipment.
ii) It can broach through outside of shallow casing leading to instability of bottom
supported rigs.
iv) Risk of crater , fire & loss of rig is very high.
A typical approach to a shallow gas kick is to allow the well to flow through a diverter.
The diverter system is designed to pack off around Kelly, casing or drill string. It does
not shut in the well, but allows the flow to be diverted through a vent line to a safe
distance away from the rig. Well is allowed to flow and simultaneously mud or water is
pumped through the drill string at maximum rate to keep as much fluid in the well as
possible. Either the well shall flow till the formation depletes (or annulus bridges) or the
well is brought under control by increasing the mud weight.
~
7 Well Conirol School, IDT-ONGC
41.15 SHALLOW GAS CONTROL PROCEDURE
Diverter system should be used to control shallow gas kicks as discussed below.
4.18.1 During Drilling
a) At first sign of flow , immediately stop rotary, raise the kelly until tool joint is
above rotary.
b) Open diverter overboard line valves depending upon wind direction.
¢) Close diverter packer.
d) Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump rate
e) Remove the non essential personnel from the rig.
1.15.2While Tripping
a) Set pipe on slips.
b) Install FOSV and close it.
c) Open diverter line valves depending upon wind direction.
d) Close diverter packer.
e) Conneot Kelly or circulating head
f) Open FOSV.
g) Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump_ rate.
(Note : Step b and Fare not required if string contains a float valve )
h) Remove the non essential personne! from the rig.
1.15.3 Control of some critical drilling parameters
Since shallow gas kicks occur quickly and time for action is limited, it is useful to contro!
some critical drilling parameters to prevent shallow gas kicks.
a) Penetration Rate:- The rate of drilling is normally very fast in top holes, it adds
tonnes of drilled cuttings in the hole to create mud density much higher than what is
required. It can lead to fracture of formations & bulk mud losses & therefore result in
shallow gas influx. Thus there is need for limiting the actual penetration rates to a
value less than that can be achieved.
b) Mud Density:- Avoid mud density increase downhole by -
()._ Drilling large diameter holes in two stages (i.e. drilling a pilot hole)
(i) Circulating out the cuttings with viscous mud sweeps.
©) Tripping:- Higher tripping speeds should be avoided, upper formations are usually
sticky (more so in offshore) & has more tendency to ball the bit thus enhancing the
probability of swabbing. If necessary the drill string should be pumped out of the hole
to limit swabbing. Whenever the pilot hole has been drilled, hole enlargement with
underreamer should be preferred as it can be collapsed before starting pulling out in
oder to reduce the swabbing effect.
In addition to above, following measures are suggested.
18 Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
4.18.3.1 Heavy Mud
Aminimum of one reserve mud tank weighing about 2-3 ppg more than the drilling mud
should be kept reserve.
1.15.3.2 Mud Losses
When ever losses are encountered, they should be sealed before drilling ahead. Bits
should have large nozzles to allow pumping of LCM material.
1.18.3.3 Active Mud System & Flow Checks
Mud pit volumes should be continuously monitored so as to detect any change in active
mud volumes, Periodic flow checks should be made while drilling in potential gas zones.
1.15.3.4 Float Valve
Afloat valve may be run in the string to prevent sudden flow through the drill pipe.
1.16 TOPHOLE DRILLING WITH RISER
In subsea operation a riser is used to provide a conduit (or annulus) for carrying mud
from seabed to ficating drilling vessel. If the riser is not used the retums are discarded
at the mud line, in such case at any given time the full hydrostatic pressure of seawater
(depending upon water depth) is acting on the formation.
4.16.1 Advantages
a) A ‘riser provides a flowpath for mud returns to the surface, thereby providing a
relatively early warning of shallow gas influx.
b) Itreduces mud cost.
©) Allows easy diverting of shallow gas kicks in shallow to medium water depth, since
flow rate is not high & diverter / riser can easily handle it.
d) In shallow waters, while drilling with riser, no tisk to floating rig because of loss of
buoyancy due to shallow gas influx.
1.16.2 Disadvantages
a) Very high pump rates may be required to kill the well with a riser.
b) Ithas been seen that even low flow rates of shallow gas will rapidly unload a riser ofF
mud. With riser becoming void, a very high flow rate may develop. Whereas without
riser, the seawater itself shall maintain a constant hydrostatic head on the formation
and as a result gas influx will be reduced,
©) In dynamic kill, use of higher mud weight is not possible as it may cause formation
breakdown at shoe.
4) In deep waters, the riser with gas inside may collapse due to hydrostatic head of
sea water acting outside.
¢) In emergency situations process of unlatching of hydraulic connector from well head
will hamper the immediate release of floating rig from the location.
19 Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
However to prevent the riser collapse & to retain the sea water hydrostatic head
against a flowing well & to be able to use large volumes of heavy mud without risk of
formation breakdown, the bottom joint of riser should be provided with a dump valve
that can be operated from the rig floor immediately after it is known that the mud is
being displaced from the riser.
4.17 WELL CONTROL IN SHALLOW HOLE Vs DEEP HOLE
In shallow well control, when only shallow casing has been set, shutting-in the well wil
cause formation fluid to fracture to the surface and all control of the well will be lost. This
can result in a crater or loss of rig. The problem is more severe in offshore because of
the reduced fracture gradients. The only way to tackle the shallow kick is to divert the
flow, The well will flow until the formation depletes or the well is brought under control
by increasing the hydrostatic pressure in the well bore. Whereas in deep hole well
control, the well is immediately shut-in after recognising the influx in the hole. Shut-in-
pressures are monitored and a killing procedure is chosen depending upon the volume
& nature of influx taken, position of the bit in the hole & closing pressures. Control over
the well is not lost as long as the kick is recognised at an early stage and an appropriate
killing procedure is carried out.
1.17.1 COMPARISON
[s. Deep Kick ‘Shallow Kick
fi ao asco lle I, |
1 | Equipment BOP stack choke & kill| Annular BOP/Diverter and
manifold diverter lines
2__|Killpump rate | 1/2 to 1/3rd of normal rate_| Increased to maximum possible
3 | KillMud weight | Based on shut in pressures | Based on fracture pressure at
casing shoehvhat ever light fluid
available like sea water
4 | Closing ‘Stop pump, close BOP Open Diverter lina, close diverter,
sequence increase pump rates
5 [Kick indications [Reliable kick warning | Kicks occur quickly and normal
signals indications of kicks difficult to
recognise
1.18 GAS CUTTING
Out coming mud can become gas cut due to following :
1.18.1 Drilling gas bearing sand
While drilling a gas bearing formation, the out coming mud will be gas cut due to the gas
breaking out of the pore spaces of the drilled cuttings. As long as the mud gradient is
sufficient to generate adequate overbalance, there is no risk of the well kicking. It so
happens that when drilled gas enters the wellbore at the bottom of the hole, itis under a
pressure equal to the bottom hole circulating pressure. But as the gas is circulated up to
20 Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
the surface, the pressure reduces causing the gas to expand & this expansion causes
the mud weight to reduce. With deep reservoir at high pressure the effect of fully
expanded gas on the mud weight at the surface is substantial But the effect is
concentrated near the surface only & a large reduction in surface mud density can
normally be tolerated since the reduction in BHP due to gas cutting is very ttle.
The degree of reduction in BHP due to surface gas cutling can be estimated as follows:-
(W1-w2) BHCP
Change in BHP (psi) = 3272 — - log
(w2) 14.22
Where wi In going mud density (ppg)
we Gas cut mud density (ppg)
BHCP= Bottom hole circulating Pressure (psi)
i ass with
show etc. Nevertheless, the severity of the gas cutting
lepend upon the penetration rate, permeability & is independent of mud weight. More
the penetration rate, porosity & permeability of the gas bearing formation, more severe
shall be gas cutting,
White driting tight formations je. formation with low permeability which contain gas at
high pressure, small quai a cant gas cutting
ressure reduction and a possible kick.
ised to make regular flow checks and if the well is not flowing, resume
drilling. If flow is suspected, close the well and check the shut-in pressure. Some casing
Pressure and zero drill pipe pressure indicates expanded gas in the annulus.
Before pulling out in such conditions, it is advised to make a short trip and circulate
bottoms up to ensure that hole is gas free. At times when the drilled gas reaches the
surface it causes ‘belching’ of drilling fiuid through the bell nipple, if it continues for
considerable time it may cause reduction of hydrostatic head in the annulus. To prevent
the expanding gas to cause ‘belching’ of the mud through bell nipple, annular preventer
must be closed & drilling fluid be circulated through full open choke.
1.18.2 Drilling through shale containing high pressure gas
Since shale is impermeable, gas is released only from the cuttings and the freshly
exposed walls of the hole. A self flow test, normally will be negative, This gas is called
shale gas or back ground gas.
21 Weil Gontrot School 10T-ONGC
1.18.3 Connection/Trip gas
While drilling with minimal overbalance, smail slug of gas can enter the well bore when
string is raised for connection with pumps off, provided a permeable formation is
exposed. When the circulation is started after the connection, this gas will resuit in gas
cutting at the surface after bottoms up. Such gas cutting normally does not cause much
reduction in BHP. Nevertheless, following precautions are recommended :
a) Continuously run the vacuum de-gasser
b) At no time there should be more than one slug of connection gas in the
borehole
c) The connection time should be minimised
1.19 EFFECT OF GAS EXPANSION IN THE RISER
In shallow/ medium water depths ( 150 — 1,000 ft ) , there is no significant change in
gas flow rate with or without a riser. As flow rate normally is not high so diverter
-tiser combination can handle it. In deep waters the magnitude of the pressure in
gas zone is quite high & therefore the flow rate of gas will be high.
There is a big difference in gas flow rate with or without a riser. The reason is that if
the riser is not used and retums are discarded at mud line ,the hydrostatic pressure
of sea water is constantly acting on the formation and hence flow rates are
considerable reduced
In deep waters while drilling shallow gas sands the use of riser can be hazardous due
to very high flow rates which may have to be sustained for an indefinite period. It can
cause =
a) Large volume of gas venting on the rig creating a fire hazard
b) A seabed blow out if efforts are made to reduce the flow.
©) Riser collapse in deep waters if mud is evacuated from the riser as shown in figure
1.10 & it is filled with low density gas. The collapse resistance of riser is further
reduced due to riser tension & bending , it may fall below the sea water
hydrostatic pressure acting on the outside of the riser. Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
RISER
i den
GAS:
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