Lab Report no.

01

Phy-305

BY

Muhammad Faizan

Submitted to

Dr. Javed Iqbal Saggu

 Experiment No. 01

Measurement of AC Signal’s frequency using Oscilloscope

OBJECTIVES:
i. To understand the wave form of AC signal.
ii. To understand the basics of alternating currents in resistive circuits.
iii. To learn how to generate AC using oscilloscope.
iv. To measure AC voltages, and the amplitude and frequency of a waveform with an oscilloscope.
APPARATUS:
i. Oscilloscope.
ii. Transformer
iii. Resistor
iv. Power supply
INTRODUCTION:
The oscilloscope:
The oscilloscope is a versatile instrument from
which quantitative measurements of voltage and
time can be made. Advantage is taken of this
capability in order to measure the peak-to-peak
voltage and frequency for alternating current
(AC) signals.
The vertical distance from a crest to a trough for a
sinusoidal signal represents the peak-to-peak
value of the voltage. Count the number of
vertical divisions on the CRT and multiply this
value by the value on the VOLTS/DIV setting.
For example, if the number of division is 3.7 and
the VOLTS/DIV setting is 0.2, then the peak-to-peak voltage is (3.7 div) x (0.2 volts/div) = 0.74 volts.
The frequency of the sinusoidal signal is found by first determining the period of the oscillation, the
calculating the reciprocal (f = 1/T). The period is the time for one complete oscillation and is represented
on the oscilloscope by the horizontal distance from a crest to an adjacent crest. The value of the period is
found by counting the number of horizontal divisions from one crest to the next adjacent crest, then
multiplying this number by the TIME/DIV setting. For, example, if the number of division is 5 and the
TIME/DIV setting is 0.5 ms/div, then the period is (5 div) x (0.5 ms/div) = 2.5 ms = 2.5 x 10-3 sec. The
corresponding frequency is 2.5 x 10-3 = 400 Hz.
Alternating Current:
Full form of AC. When we encounter the term AC we should accept it as a "handle" for sinusoidal
waveform. An AC voltage might be defined by,
v(t) = Vsin(ωt)
We are familiar with the nature of this function from our math courses. It is the basic signal in
communications, signal processing and waveforms in general.
What is the implication of a sinusoidal voltage or current? Consider a sinusoidal waveform as shown in
Figure 1.1. The magnitude of the function varies between + 150 and -150 volts at a frequency of 60 H
(hertz). The frequency of all power distribution systems in the United States is 60 Hz. In most of Europe
and the Country of Japan the frequency of the power system is 50 Hz.

Figure 1.1: A sinusoidal voltage waveform.

We recall that t (time, in seconds), f (frequency, in hertz) and co (radian frequency, in rad/sec) are related
by,
ω=2πf f = T-1 T= period
T= period Eq. 1.2 The implication of a 60 hertz sine wave voltage is that the polarity of the voltage
changes from positive to negative, 60 times per second. The implication of a 60 hertz current is that the
electrons are changing direction 60 times per second. Try moving your finger back and forth 60 times per
second! Think about electrons changing direction at 3,000,000,000 times per second, the speed of today's
PCs: Blows your mind. The salvation here is that we only must move electrons and they do not weight
much. Having said all this, let us take a look at what goes on in an AC circuit.
Transformer:

Transformers:
Three major areas in which we use transformers are in (a) power distribution, (b) converting AC
voltage to DC voltage, and (c) electronics.
Of these three, the power transformers used for stepping-up and stepping-down voltage is the
most familiar and the most widely used application of this device. Power transformers are rather
large. Most of us have seen the giant transformers in substation yards. These require using
special cooling fans and a circulating fluid. At the next level we find transformers used in
distributing power to industry and residential areas. We have all seen transformers mounted on
power poles and in more modem subdivision, mounted in a metal housing at ground level. You
will have the opportunity to study more about power transformers in your junior year. For this
laboratory exercise we will focus on the transformers used in electronics.
In electronics, small transformers ( compared to power transformers) are frequently used for
converting AC to DC. In addition to AC to DC conversion, transformers are also used for
isolating one circuit from another and for impedance matching.
In this laboratory exercise you will take a brief look at the application of stepping-up and
stepping-down voltage (current) and impedance reflection from one side of the transformer to the
other.
One can separate transformers into two categories: the linear transformers and the ideal
transformer. The coils of a linear transformer are wound on a non-magnetic material such as
plastic, wood, and air core. Refer to your text for a further explanation of how to analyze the
linear transformer. A brief background of the ideal transformer is given in the following
paragraphs.
Three main distinguishing features of the ideal transformer are:
• The coils are wound on a magnetic material such as laminated iron.
• The inductances L1, L2 and M are very large, that is, they approach infinity. In this case
L1 is the inductance on the primary side of the transformers, L2 the inductance on the
secondary side and M the mutual inductance.
• The coefficient of coupling of the transformer is unity. This implies that the coils are
tightly wound with respect to one another. In reality they are wound together, with the
wires of the primary intermeshed with those of the secondary.
• The coils are lossless, that is, the resistances (R1 and R2) of both the primary and
secondary are assumed to be zero.
The schematic (symbol) used for the ideal transformer is shown in Figure 1.11.

The primary voltage and current are related to the secondary voltage and current by the turns
ratio and dot markings. We assume a transformer with the dot markings, voltage polarity, and current
direction as shown in Figure.
By assuming all the flux of the primary links all the turns of the secondary and by assuming that
the resistances of the primary and secondary are zero, we can write (Faraday's Law).

Taking the ratio ofv2 to v 1 and assuming phasor voltages gives

By assuming a lossless transformer we can say that the power supplied to the primary is equal to
the power delivered to the secondary. Mathematically, this means that

One things worth mentioning here is:

 If one of the plus signs on the polarity markings of the transformer is reversed then in the ratio of
V 2 to V 1 there will be a negative sign in front of n. Similarly for current; if the direction of
either I1 or I2 is changed, there will be a negative sign in front of n.

HISTORY:
Who needs AC circuits? Sophomores majoring in electrical and computer engineering have their own
ideas about this. So did prominent physicist and engineers in the late 1800s. DC was in the Market place
at that time. It was used, although to a limited extent, for power distribution. Some Engineers wanted to
continue to use DC: others believed that AC was easier to generate and distribute. As we know AC won
the battle, so to speak. The decision to use AC was based primarily on the generation and efficiency of
distributing AC power, particularly over long distances.

METHODOLOGY:

i. Connect the channel 1 probe across the entire secondary; connect the channel 2 probe across 1/2
the secondary by using the center-tap. BE SURE THAT THE GROUNDS OF THE TWO
PROBES ARE CONNECTED TOGETHER.
ii. Measure the peak-to-peak values of the sine wave.
iii. Measure the frequency of the sine wave, that is, measure the period T and then compute the
frequency f. It should be 50 Hz.
 Observations and Calculations

Peak to Peak Voltage ( V ) Time Period (T) ms Frequency ( f ) Hz

12 19 52
12 20 50

Mean Time Period = 19.5 ms

Mean Frequency = 51 Hz
RESULTS:
As we have conducted an experiment to measure frequency of an AC signal using Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope and it has come out to be 51 Hz which is almost same as that of frequency of AC in
Pakistan.
DISCUSSIONS:
Alternating Current (AC) is the world standard for driving motors and other electrical equipment. As the
name implies, an alternating current continually and periodically changes direction, going first one way
and then reversing. One may consider an alternating current to be a DC current, which is constantly, and
periodically changing amplitude and direction. The time necessary for the current to undergo one
complete change of amplitude and direction is called a cycle. The number of cycles which occur in one
second is called the frequency, which is measured in Hertz (cycles per second). In North America, AC
system frequency is standardized at 60 Hertz. Much of the remaining world has chosen a 50 Hz standard.
Alternating voltages also reverse polarity in a periodic manner with continually changing amplitude. The
shape of the voltage waveform is dependent upon the manner in which it is produced. One may construct
a device that produces voltage waveforms which are square waves, triangular waves, etc. However, one
type of waveform is most suitable to the use of electric power in transformers and electric motors, the sine
wave. Pure sinusoidal waveforms of a single frequency minimize mechanical and electrical losses in
transformers and motors, thus allowing for the highest efficiency of energy conversion. If one considers
the Fourier Transform of a triangular wave or square wave, which consist of a large number of sinusoidal
waveforms at many frequencies, it becomes clear that there is increased potential for detrimental effects
such as mechanical resonance, eddy currents, sequence currents, etc. A pure sine wave undergoing
electrical transformation (either integral or derivative) remains a pure sinusoid, minimizing losses.
Another advantage of sine wave voltages is that the resulting current waveforms are also sinusoidal. This
is not necessarily true of other waveform shapes. Having consistent wave shapes reduces the burden of
power calculations and the analysis of electric systems.
PRECAUTIONS:
i. Ensure that CRO is calibrated correctly.
ii. Checking that CRO is triggered correctly.
iii. When the transformer is plugged in, do not allow its secondary leads to touch. Contact of the
secondary leads puts a short circuit across the transformer output. Since a short circuit represents
effectively zero resistance, a very large current would be drawn and the result would be to
overheat the transformer windings
FAQ:
i. Why frequency remains constant in transformer?
ii. Why frequency of DC is zero?
iii. Why frequency in Pakistan is 50 Hz and in USA is 60 Hz?