©2013 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 108, pp. 11–35

Geology, Mineralization, and Geochronological Constraints of the

Mirador Cu-Au Porphyry District, Southeast Ecuador
JOHN DROBE,1,† DARRYL LINDSAY,2,* HOLLY STEIN,3 AND JANET GABITES,4
1 Dorato Resources Inc., 2300 - 1177 West Hastings Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6E 2K3
2 ExplorCobres S.A., Av. República de El Salvador #1082 y NN.UU., Ed. Mansión Blanca, Torre París, Mezanine
3 AIRIE Program, Department of Geosciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1482, and
Geological Survey of Norway, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
4 Pacific Center for Isotopic and Geochemical Research, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia,
6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4

Abstract
The Mirador porphyry Cu-Au district is located in the southernmost sector of the northern Andean
Cordillera, in Zamora-Chinchipe province, southeastern Ecuador. The district contains two significant por-
phyry Cu-Au ± Ag ± Mo deposits, Mirador and Mirador Norte, and an interconnected series of narrow, min-
eralized structures known collectively as Chancho. The principal mineralization in the porphyries is dissemi-
nated to blebby chalcopyrite developed primarily in potassic alteration, with overlying chalcocite supergene
enrichment zones. Prior to radiometric dating presented in this study, these deposits were considered Late
Jurassic based on close similarity, and therefore assumed age equivalence, with the well-dated Panantza, San
Carlos, and Sutzu porphyry copper deposits located 40 km to the north. New U-Pb zircon ages confirm a Mid-
dle Jurassic age for granodiorite of the Zamora batholith at this location (163.8 ± 1.9 Ma), and Late Jurassic
ages for subvolcanic intrusions (156.2 ± 1.0 and 153.1 ± 1.3 Ma). Re-Os molybdenite ages average 156 ± 1.0
Ma and indicate coeval mineralization between Mirador and Mirador Norte. Mineralization and related sub-
volcanic igneous activity are closely associated at Mirador and represent the same temporal event recorded at
Panantza-San Carlos and Sutzu, as well as coeval porphyry, skarn, and epithermal Au mineralization extending
at least 80 km south, defining a north-south Cu-Au metallogenic belt spanning over 120 km.

Introduction The Mirador deposits were considered Late Jurassic in age

THE MIRADOR porphyry Cu-Au district is located in the
Cordillera del Condor, in the southernmost sector of the
northern Andean Cordillera in southeastern Ecuador, 340 km
south of Ecuador’s capital city of Quito (Fig. 1), in the
province of Zamora-Chinchipe. Elevations range from about
800 to 1,800 m above sea level. The area has a wet equatorial
climate with an average rainfall of 2,300 mm/yr. Over the past
decade, this subandean region has emerged as a significant
metalliferous belt bridging important, world-renowned dis-
tricts in northern Peru and Colombia. The Mirador district
comprises two main porphyry Cu-Au ± Ag ± Mo deposits,
Mirador and Mirador Norte, as well as a subparallel, inter-
connected series of narrow, mineralized structures known
collectively as Chancho (Norte, Central, and Sur zones). At
the time of writing, total indicated resources for Mirador and
Mirador Norte, using a 0.4% Cu cut-off, were estimated at
609 million metric tons (Mt) of 0.58% Cu, containing 7.8 bil-
lion pounds (Blb) of Cu, 3.2 million ounces (Moz) of Au, and
22 Moz of Ag. Additional inferred resources, at the same cut-
off, are estimated at 281 Mt of 0.52% Cu (Drobe et al., 2008).
The related Panantza and San Carlos porphyry deposits, lo-
cated 40 km to the north, contain additional inferred re-
sources of 463 Mt at 0.66% Cu, and 600 Mt at 0.59% Cu, re-
spectively, using a 0.4% Cu cut-off. Thus, these four deposits
taken together contain approximately 25 Blb of Cu.
† Corresponding author: e-mail, jdrobe@doratoresources.com
*Present address: Batero Gold Corp., 3703-1011 Cordova St., Vancouver,
BC V6C 0B2, Canada.
(Drobe et al., 2008) based on their similar geology and
assumed age equivalency with Panantza and San Carlos,
which had been radiometrically dated (Coder, 2001). Prior to
dating, sedimentary rocks of the Aptian (base at 125 Ma)
Hollin Formation (Tschopp, 1953), which unconformably
overlie the south margin of the Mirador deposit, provided a
minimum age constraint for Mirador. This unconformable re-
lationship is also present at Panantza and the Sutzu porphyry
deposit, located 15 km south of Panantza. Host rocks for
these deposits are reported by Chiaradia et al. (2009) as being
between 160 to 153 Ma (40Ar/39Ar method), with mineraliza-
tion between 158 to 153 Ma (Re-Os, molybdenite). The
geochronological ages presented here confirm a Middle
Jurassic age for plutonic rocks of the Zamora batholith (ca.
164 Ma), and a Late Jurassic age for both the hosting subvol-
canic intrusions and the mineralization (156 Ma). Mineraliza-
tion is related to and slightly postdates the onset of subvol-
canic igneous activity at Mirador.
This study presents the first geochronological dates for the
Mirador district and describes their significance to both the
local and regional geology. The local geology of these deposits
is based on detailed mapping and sampling of stream out-
crops and tropical saprolite profiles along drill trails and ridge
crests, combined with logging of nearly 52 km of diamond
drill core. Despite the heavy jungle cover at surface, drill
holes spaced at approximately 75-m centers at Mirador and
100-m centers at Mirador Norte permit a robust interpreta-
tion of lithology, alteration, and mineralization relationships.
By dating multiple intrusive phases and their related min-

Submitted: April 21, 2011

0361-0128/13/4080/11-25 11 Accepted: April 5, 2012
12 DROBE ET AL.

78°W

N COL Mocoa Cu-porphyry

OMB
IA

0° CUCHILA 0°

s ta
QUITO
(LA BONITA)
BATHOLITH

rra

e
an 198-210 Ma

nt
o
p

Co
Na
R io
Oce

Sie

ie
ABITAGUA
BATHOLITH

Or
162-173 Ma
i fi c

Guayaquil
Tertiary to Recent sediments

al
Pac

a Re
Tertiary to Recent Continental volcanics
m Cretaceous to Tertiary I-type intrusions

iller
io a ora

Z
CUENCA

R
Cretaceous accreted island arc, ocean floor,
Machala
Mirador

or
Cord and marine sedimentary rocks

nd
Cu-Au
Co
Jurassic I-type intrusions
Triassic to Cretaceous sedimentary +
l
District
de
volcanic rocks
4° Zamora
ZAMORA Paleozoic to Cretaceous metamorphic rocks
a
er

BATHOLITH
0
ill

200km
PERU 164 - 190(?) Ma
rd
Co

78°W

FIG. 1. Inset shows location of the Mirador Cu-Au district, located in southeast Ecuador toward the northern end of the
Zamora batholith, the southernmost of three Jurassic I-type intrusions within the sub-Andean region. Modified from Gen-
dall et al. (2000).

eralization at Mirador and proving the temporal association to
porphyry and epithermal deposits located elsewhere in the
Cordillera del Condor, we underscore the exploration signifi-
cance of the ca. 156 Ma Late Jurassic, subvolcanic, calc-alka-
line igneous event that affects Middle Jurassic plutonic rocks
of the extensive Zamora batholith, as well as older volcano-
sedimentary pendants within the batholith, and volcano-sedi-
mentary sequences unconformably overlying the batholith.
The ages also help clarify and constrain Mesozoic tectonos-
tratigraphic events in the Northern Andes.
Regional Geology
Mirador and the other documented Late Jurassic porphyry
copper deposits within 40 km are associated with subvolcanic
intrusions intruding equigranular plutonic rocks comprising
the regionally extensive Zamora batholith, a loosely defined
Middle to Late Jurassic, calc-alkaline igneous complex that
extends over 200 km along a NNE trend, between latitudes 3°
and 5° S, and at least 100 km wide (Baldock, 1982; Aspden et
al., 1990; Litherland et al., 1994). The batholith is the domi-
nant geologic entity in the sub-Andean region of southeast
Ecuador, especially in the Cordillera del Condor, the moun-
tain range that forms the international border in the area, and
along the Rio Zamora to the west of that range. This
batholith, together with the lithologically correlative Abitagua
and Cuchilla batholiths to the north and similar rocks in the
Cordillera Oriental of Colombia (Fig. 1), are interpreted as
remnants of a volcanic arc constructed along an Andean-type
continental margin (Sillitoe, 1988, 1990) that was well-estab-
lished by the Middle Jurassic. The batholith was intruded
along a north-south regional structure, as evidenced by north-
south intrusive contacts with roof pendants. The current
northeast orientation of the batholith is the result of dextral
slip along northeast, post-Cretaceous, Andean orogeny faults.
It remains unclear how many intrusive and volcanic phases
the Zamora batholith comprises, their age relationships, and
age range. This is due to several factors, but primarily re-
gional-scale mapping of discontinuous, weathered exposures
in a largely inaccessible area, and the inclusion within the
batholith of volcanic-textured rocks ranging from Triassic to
post-Cretaceous age (Litherland et al., 1994). However, the
batholith can be broadly divided into two intrusive types: (1)
equigranular plutonic rocks of medium-grained granodiorite,
diorite, and tonalite, and very coarse, K-feldspar megacrystic,
monzogranite (collectively referred to as “granodiorite” in
this paper), locally with aplite and leucogranite predominat-
ing (as at Panantza); and (2) younger subvolcanic intrusions
comprising feldspar (albite>>coarse microcline)-hornblende
± quartz porphyry of andesitic to dacitic composition that
clearly intrude the plutonic rocks. Subvolcanic rocks occur as
dikes and stocks (<2-km diam) and give the youngest of the
reported ages for the batholith. Importantly, they are
uniquely associated with copper and gold mineralization,
whereas plutonic intrusive margins are notably unmineral-
ized. Textures vary with size of the intrusions. Larger intru-
sions, comprising plugs or stocks several hundreds of meters
wide, show seriate textures transitional between subvolcanic
and plutonic; in weathered exposures these are easily con-
fused as phases of the Zamora pluton, though the diagnostic
euhedral hornblende phenocyrsts aid in distinguishing them.
There is some confusion about the plutonic and subvol-
canic elements of the Zamora batholith in the literature due
to naming conventions applied to subvolcanic rocks, which
are sometimes described using volcanic classifications (dacite,

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 12
 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR
andesite, etc.; as in Litherland et al., 1994), and sometimes as
plutonic (granodiorite, etc.; as in Gendall et al. 2000). We
argue that the volcanic nomenclature is more useful, as it
helps divide the subvolcanic units that were intruded after
significant uplift, erosion, and partial burial of the plutonic
rocks and that are associated with mineralization. The subvol-
canic units are perhaps more usefully included within the
Misahuallí Member of the epicontinental Chapiza Formation
(Tschopp, 1953), rather than the Zamora batholith. There is
some precedence for this, as Litherland et al. (1994, p. 24) in-
cluded porphyritic rocks of the “highest-level igneous facies
of the Rosa Florida pluton” within the Misahuallí Member.
The porphyritic, subvolcanic stocks and dikes form small
complexes every 15 to 20 km along the NNE axis of the
Zamora batholith, and almost all are associated with signifi-
cant mineralization (Fig. 2). There appear to be at least three
controlling north-south−oriented structures, with the most
active aligned with the Panantza-San Carlos, Mirador, Fruta
del Norte, and Chinapintza deposits; dikes continue south on
both sides of the border for at least another 20 km. A parallel
structure 20 km to the west is evident at the Nambija Au
skarn and just west of Yantzatza. Another parallel structure
occurs 15 km east of the main trend and hosts the Warintza
porphyry Cu-Mo deposit (Fig. 3); this one is the least well
studied due to its remoteness but shows up on regional sedi-
ment geochemistry maps. All the porphyry Cu deposits in the
region are associated with these feldspar-hornblende-quartz
porphyries, which show varying degrees of mineralization.
Notably, NNW- and NW-trending dikes are mineralized,
whereas NE-trending dikes are post- or late mineralization
and therefore younger.
Initially the dikes were differentiated based on their degree
of mineralization into three categories of early, intra-, and late
mineralization dikes. Additional drilling indicates it is only
possible to differentiate the dikes as pre- (or “early”) and
post- (or “late”) mineralization. Based on drill core observa-
tions, an early dike can have varying degrees of mineralization
along strike, and the degree of mineralization appears to be
more a function of degree of fracturing prior to the mineral-
ization event, rather than the apparent timing of intrusion rel-
ative to mineralization; metal grades change little or gradually
at contacts. Late or postmineral dikes have sharp changes in
grade across their contacts and are essentially barren of cop-
per, though some show minor pyrite mineralization and chlo-
rite-epidote alteration.
Along its eastern margin the Zamora batholith intrudes ma-
rine sedimentary and minor andesitic volcanic rocks of the
Lower Jurassic Santiago Formation (Tschopp, 1953; Baldock,
1982; Litherland et al., 1994; Gaibor et al., 2008; Fig. 2). While
defined within Ecuador as having a Lower Jurassic base, the
correlative strata in northwestern Peru, the Pucará Group, ex-
tend into the Upper Triassic. The calcareous units are in-
tensely hornfelsed and calcsilicate altered to a fine-grained,
dark rock that has been misidentified as andesite of the Mis-
ahuallí Member by past workers (e.g., Litherland et al., 1994;
Gendall et al., 2000). Steeply W dipping, N-S−trending pen-
dants and large xenoliths of calc-silicate−altered, thin-bedded
marine shale and sandstone occur north of Mirador and south
of Chancho Norte along the Rio Tundayme; vesicular, aphyric
andesite cobbles are common in the Rio Quimi drainage.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
13
Farther south, at Nambija, intermediate volcano-sedimen-
tary rocks of the Piuntza unit of the Santiago Formation form
a roof pendant within the Zamora granodiorite (Litherland et
al., 1994; Paladines and Rosero, 1996; Chiaradia et al., 2009).
The upper and lower contacts of the enigmatic Piuntza unit
are unknown, as it occurs as inliers within the batholith.
Based on lithology and tentative fossil evidence of a Triassic
age (Litherland et al, 1994), it may correlate better with the
Pucará Group of Peru, specifically with the volcaniclastic Oy-
otún Formation intermediate volcanic rocks. These overlie
carbonates of Upper Triassic age and are thought to extend
into the upper Lower Jurassic (Jaillard et al., 199-0). While
most Triassic volcanic rocks in Peru are considered of in-
traplate origin, in northwest Peru these volcanic rocks are re-
ported to have a calc-alkaline arc component by the Early
Jurassic (Romeuf et al., 1995; Rosas et al., 1996).
The volcanic rocks continue north of Nambija and are
widespread west and northeast of Yantzatza. These were orig-
inally mapped as probable Misahuallí unit (Litherland et al.,
1994), but based on our limited mapping of this area they are
probably better included with the Piuntza unit as they are in-
truded by granodiorite of the Zamora batholith. Calk-alkaline
volcanic rocks are common over the extent of the Zamora
batholith, both intruded by and unconformably overlying the
batholith, and are currently all (with the exception of those at
Nambija) grouped into the Misahuallí unit, a convention ini-
tiated by Litherland et al. (1994). The original definition of
the Misahuallí Member by Tschopp (1953) was as the upper
volcanic Member of the dominantly continental-type, coarse-
clastic sedimentary, Upper Jurassic Chapiza Formation.
Litherland et al., (1994) placed both sedimentary and vol-
canic successions into the Santiago Formation and included
all continental-type, calc-alkaline volcanic rocks that are (1)
spatially associated with the Zamora batholith, and (2) under-
lie the Cretaceous Hollin Formation and overlie the Santiago
Formation, and therefore of Jurassic age, as the Misahuallí
unit. The underlying sediments of the Chapiza Formation
were redefined as the Chapiza unit. As Coder (2001) pointed
out, this scheme puts a marine rift succession (Santiago For-
mation) together with collisional volcano-sedimentary se-
quence (Misahuallí Member of Tschopp) and ignores the
major regional igneous event of the intrusion of the Zamora
batholith.
There is now sufficient mapping and dating in the region to
return to the more restrictive, original definition of the Mis-
ahuallí (and Chapiza Formation) by Tschopp (1953). This
works better to separate Late Jurassic subvolcanic and vol-
canic rocks, which are closely associated with significant
metal deposits, from both plutonic rocks of the Zamora
batholith and intermediate volcanic rocks intruded by the
batholith, the latter of which are better grouped with the Pi-
untza unit of the Santiago Formation. Therefore, the mainly
andesitic, calc-alkaline volcanic rocks on the west and north
side of the batholith that were included as Misahuallí unit by
Litherland et al. (1994) and Romeuf et al. (1995; 172 Ma by
40Ar/39Ar) are in this study assigned to the Piuntza unit of the
Santiago Formation, as they are intruded and altered by
Zamora granodiorite.
Late Jurassic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks equivalent
and coeval with the subvolcanic units are preserved in a re-
13
14 DROBE ET AL.

74000

750000 mE

760000 mE

770000 mE

780000 mE

790000 mE
12.20
12.20
11.20
11.20
11.20
Layered Rocks11.20
12.20 ±±
11.20±
12.20
12.20
11.20 ±±0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
±0.3
0.4
0.3 Rio

Overburden (alluvium, talus, slides) •

Cretaceous
81.0±
86.0
86.0
81.0
81.0
86.0
86.0
81.0 ±±
Napo Fm. shale and carbonate
81.0
86.0
81.0 3.0
4.0
±3.0
±± 4.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
San
San
San
San
San Juan
Juan
San Juan
Juan
Juan Bosco
Bosco
Juan Bosco
Bosco
Bosco
Bosco
•
Hollin Fm. quartzite •
157
157
157
157
157±±
157±±±44
±444
4
Mid to Late Jurassic •
Panantza
Panantza
Chapiza Formation •
153.3 ±±±
153.3± 0.5 • •
0.5
±0.5

ora
153.3
153.3
153.3 0.5
0.5 152
152 ±±±
152± 555
±5 5

Zam
152
152
Misahualli Member: basalt, andesite, tuff •

Rio
conglomerate,0.0249
arenite-arkose sandstone, shale
0.0249
0.0249
0.0249
0.0249 Rio
Yan
San
San Carlos
Carlos
• 157.0
guz
a

157.0
157.0
157.0±
157.0
157.0 ±±
±±0.6
0.6
±0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
Late Triassic - Early Jurassic
153.5
153.5
153.5
153.5±±±
153.5± 1.5
±1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
Santiago Formation (Pucara Gp.)
151.9±
151.9
151.9
151.9
151.9 ±1.5
±±± 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
Piuntza/Oyotún unit: calc-alkaline tuffs, flows
0.0249
0.0249
0.0249
0.0249
0.0249
0.0249
Limestone, calcareous shale, sandstone, tuff Rio
Ap

Metamorphic Units • dio

9640000
s
on
mN

skarn
mainly shale Sutsu
Sutsu•

R.
K al
agla
mainly metavolcanics

s
154.9±
154.9
154.9
154.9
154.9 ±0.5
±±± 0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Intrusions
Tertiary to Late Cretaceous
9630000 mN
Felsic dikes, sills, & plugs
Diorite, equigranular and porphyry
• Rio Yucateiz

Zamora
Late Jurassic
Phreatic breccia Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Hornblende-feldspar-quartz porphyry dacite • •
a
boiz

Middle Jurassic
Bom
Rio

9620000 mN
Zamora granodiorite, quartz monzonite

Faults Paved roads

R io

Streams Dirt roads

Border • Prospects
•
ora
Zam
Rio

Dating Method 9610000 mN

Ar-Ar Rio
Chu
chum
blez
a

Mirador
Mirador Norte
Norte
• 155.7±
155.7
155.7 ±0.5
±±± 0.5
0.5
0.5
K-Ar
155.7
• 155.7 0.5
Mirador
Mirador
i
im

e
Qu

ym

•
wa
o
Ri

Wa
Rio

Rb-Sr 163.8±
163.8
163.8
163.8
163.8 1.9 •
±1.9
±±±1.9
1.9
1.9 • 156.5
156.5±±±0.5
156.5 0.5
0.5
y

153.7±
153.7
153.7 ±0.8
±±± 0.8
0.8
0.8 155.8±
155.8
155.8
155.8
155.8 ±0.5
±±± 0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Hw

Re-Os 153.7
153.7 0.8
153.1
153.1±±±1.3
153.1 1.3
1.3
153.1±±±1.3
153.1
•153.1 1.3
1.3
a
or
m
Za
o
Ri

U-Pb Rio
Ma
ch
ina
9600000 mN
•
za

•
0 5 10
kilometres
187.0±
187.0
187.0
187.0
187.0 ±17
±±± 17
17
17
17

193.0
193.0
193.0
193.0
193.0 ±±
193.0± 9.0
9.0
±9.0
±± 9.0
9.0
9.0 •
9590000 mN

134.0±
134.0
134.0
134.0
134.0 ±21.0
±±± 21.0
21.0
21.0
21.0
21.0
187.0±
187.0
187.0
187.0
187.0 ±2.0
±±± 2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0 Fruta
Fruta Del
Del
178.0
178.0
178.0
191.0±
191.0
191.0
191.0
230.0
230.0
230.0
178.0
178.0
178.0
191.0
191.0
230.0
230.0
230.0 ±±
±± 10
±10
14
14
10
1410
14
10
10
14
14
188.0
188.0
188.0
188.0±±±
188.0± 666
±6 6 Los
Los
Los
Los
Los
Los Norte
Norte • 155.4
160.1
160.1±
160.1
160.1
160.1
155.4
155.4
±±± 0.2
±0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
155.4± ±±
±± 1.0
1.0
±1.0
•155.4
••155.4 1.0
1.0
1.0
Encuentros
Encuentros
Encuentros
Encuentros
Encuentros
Encuentros Epithermal
Epithermal 169±
169
169
169
169 ±±±1
±± 1
11
11 9580000 mN
• •
126.0
166.0
166.0
166.0
126.0
126.0
166.0
166.0
126.0±±±
126.0± 4.0
±4.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
5.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
Au
Au
Yantzatza
Yantzatza
Yantzatza
Yantzatza
Yantzatza
Yantzatza
• •• •
ra

• •
mo

•
Za

9570000 mN

Zumbi
Zumbi
Zumbi
Zumbi
Zumbi
Zumbi
Rio ••
RR

•
OO

Paquisha
Paquisha
Paquisha
Paquisha
Paquisha
Paquisha
DD
AA

UU

171.0±
171.0
171.0
171.0
171.0 ±6.0
±±± 6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0 9560000 mN
UU

RR
CC

EE

FIG. 2. Geology of the Rio Zamora region. Radio-

PP
EE

145.65
145.65±
145.65
145.65
145.65
145.65 ±0.52
±±
±± 0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.52
• Nambija
Nambija 198.0•±±±±±34
198.0
198.0
198.0
198.0 •
34
34
34
34
metric dates from Eguez et al. (1997), Coder (2001),
157.7
157.7±±±1.4
157.7 1.4
1.4
• Au-skarn 151.0
151.0±±±5.0
151.0 5.0
5.0 • 157.7 157.7±±±1.4
157.7 1.4
1.4
Stewart and Leary (2007), and this study. Major min-
Au-skarn •• • 164.7 164.7±
164.7
164.7
164.7 ±2.2
±±± 2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
eral deposits are shown. North of Mirador Cu ± Mo
• district 153.0±
153.0
153.0 ±12.0
±±± 12.0
12.0 •
12.0••30.6• ±±±±±1.4
30.6
30.6 1.4
1.4
district 153.0
153.0
153.0
153.0
153.0 ±±±
12.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
30.6
30.6 1.4
1.4 9550000 mN porphyry systems dominate, whereas to the south Au
• Chinapintza
Chinapintza
153.0
• 145.92
145.92
145.92
145.92
145.92 ±±
±±
145.92± 0.46
0.46
±0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46 •153.0
153.0±±±4.0
156.0±
156.0
156.0
156.0
156.0
4.0
4.0
±5.0
±±± 5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0 epithermal and skarn systems prevail. The Mirador dis-
•0.45
145.58±±±0.45
145.58
145.58 0.45 153.0±
153.0
153.0
153.0
153.0 ±10.0
±±± 10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
Au-Ag
Au-Ag Vein Vein trict lies at the transition and contains significant por-
• district
district
• • • phyry Cu and epithermal Au mineralization. Jefp =
• • 178.0±
178.0
178.0 ±5.0
±±± 5.0
5.0
5.0
El
El Hito
Hito early porphyry dikes, Jhbp = postmineral dikes, Jzgd =
178.0
178.0 5.0
Zamora granodiorite. Geology of parts of Ecuador and
• 9540000 mN
Peru modified from compilation by Karl Roa of Kinross
246.0
246.0
246.0
246.0
246.0 ±±
±±
246.0± 17
17
±17
17
17
17
Sta. Barbara•
Sta. Barbara Gold Corporation (with permissions).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 14
 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR 15

A bimodal series of rhyodacite dikes, sills, and plugs, and

780000 mE

800000 mE

a
diorite-diabase stocks and dikes, intrude Lower Cretaceous

or
m
Za
RZiaom
ora Rio
Rio
Rio
Rio
Rio S
a
sedimentary rocks along the western edge of the Zamora
Rio ntia
San Juan
San Juan
San Juan
Bosco
Bosco
San Luis
•• San Luis go batholith north of Gualaquiza (Fig. 2). Their age, based on the
Bosco
Bosco
Bosco 9660000 mN
fact they intrude Napo Formation rocks, is younger than Late
San Miguel
•• San Miguel Cretaceous, making them the easternmost intrusions of this
Kutucus 152± 5 Ma; K-Ar HBL
Kutucus age in Ecuador, and the only post-Jurassic intrusions known
Panantza
Panantza ••
157 ± 4 Ma; K-Ar BI
153.5 ± 1.5 Ma; Ar-Ar •• in the sub-Andean region. Their linear, north-northeast dis-
ora

153.3 ± 0.5 Ma
Zam
Rio

Re-Os
HBL in Jefp
•• tribution along the edge of the pluton suggests that the west-
Warintza
Warintza Rio
Yan
guz
a

•• ern edge is faulted, though the fault itself is covered by the

San
San Carlos
Carlos 157.0 ± 0.6 Ma; Re-Os
151.9 ± 1.5 Ma; Ar-Ar MSV
Hollin and Napo rocks. Despite the fact they form most of the

oossssss
San
San Marcos
Marcos topographic highs on the west flank of the Cordillera Orien-

oo
ggo
Rio

gg
nng
160.6 ± 1.6 Ma; Ar-Ar
Ap

•• on

aann
dio
s
9640000 mN

aa
oa
tal, they have never been described. Poor exposure has

Co oo
oo
HBL in Jzgd

io
io
io
Rio
C
C
C
ioC
R.

caused some workers to confuse felsic sills as volcanic flows

K al

Sutsu ••

R
R
R
R
agla

Sutsu
s

angos
154.9 ± 0.5 Ma ECUADOR Rio Co
under the Hollin sandstone (e.g., Coder, 2001), and diorite
Re-Os
stocks, which have very strong magnetic signatures, as phases
ora

Rio Yucateiz of the Zamora (Gendall et al., 2000; Billiton unpub. internal
Za m

Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza
Gualaquiza reports). Recent roads have improved exposure revealing
Dolorosa
Dolorosa Dating Method
•• many contacts of magmatic phases with the sedimentary
Ar-Ar rocks. Contact regions of the intrusions are mostly metal bar-
a
boiz
Bom
Rio

9620000 mN
R io

K-Ar
0 5 10 PERU Re-Os
ren, though minor calcsilicate and lesser skarn alteration is
kilometres U-Pb seen locally, with common pyrite but very minor chalcopyrite
mineralization. Quartz arenite of the Hollin Formation is ex-
ora
Zam
Rio

155.7 ± 0.5 Ma
tensively recrystallized close to the intrusive contacts. Related
Mirador
RioMirador Norte
Chuc Norte
humb
leza
LEGEND spherulitic rhyodacite porphyry at Chinapintza is observed to
163.8 ± 1.9 Ma •• Mirador
Mirador 155.8 ± 0.5 Ma
•• Deposits with
intrude vertically bedded Hollin strata, and Gaschnig (2009)
i
im

e
Qu

ym
wa
o

156.5 ± 0.5 Ma
Ri

Wa
Rio

U-Pb Jzgd
Chancho
Chancho Norte
Norte
•• •• 153.1 ± 1.3 Ma ••
reported resources
obtained an Oligocene U-Pb age of 30.6 ± 1.4 Ma from these
mo
ra
Prospects
Chancho ••
Za

U-Pb Jhbp
Rio

Chancho Rio
Ma
chi
naz
a

156.2 ± 1.0Ma Roads,9600000

paved,mN rocks. Stewart (2008) reported several enigmatic Late Creta-
Chancho Sur ••
Chancho Sur U-Pb Jefp Roads, dirt ceous Ar-Ar dates between 63 to 71 Ma from amphibole and
whole rock of basaltic dikes at Fruta del Norte.
FIG. 3. Location of the porphyry copper deposits and dates obtained. The
significant deposits are aligned along a 40-km-long corridor near the Rio Regional Mineralization
Zamora, with the Warintza Cu-Mo deposit an exception. Mineralization con-
tinues north of San Luis as weak, narrow porphyry mineralization. The north- Definition of the Zamora Cu-Au belt
ern deposits are Cu-Mo, whereas the Mirador deposits are Cu-Au. The Do- The north-south belt of porphyry deposits and prospects in
lorosa prospect is unique in that Cu mineralization is hosted within Hollin
Formation arenite with unclear ties to the Late Jurassic mineralization. the Rio Zamora region of southeast Ecuador has been given
the informal names “Corriente copper belt,” or “CCB”, by the
former holders of the project, Corriente Resources Incorpo-
stricted pre-Cretaceous basin south of Mirador, at the Fruta rated, and “Pangui belt” by Gendall et al. (2000), used most
del Norte epithermal Au deposit (Henderson, 2009; Fig. 2). recently by researchers (e.g., Chiaradia et al., 2009). For geo-
We consider these the only true Misahuallí Member rocks in logic terminology, we propose the name “Zamora Cu-Au belt”
the belt, following the original definition of Tschopp (1953). as a replacement to the informal Corriente copper belt and
Equivalent volcanic rocks are common in the upper Rio Napo Pangui belt, and expand it to include the important Au skarn
region, the type area for the formation (Tschopp, 1953; see district of Nambija, epithermal Au at Fruta del Norte, and Au
Fig. 1). Andesite and dacite at Fruta del Norte are overlain by sulfide veins and breccias in the Chinapintza district, all of
maroon volcaniclastic conglomerate with a strong continental which are related to Late Jurassic magmatism and are within
component of quartz-rich sandstone. This is informally called the Rio Zamora drainage. The Rio Zamora is the dominant
the Suarez formation (Henderson, 2009) but correlates well regional geographic feature with the most complete expo-
with the Chapiza Formation and is better included within sures of the Zamora batholith, which is spatially associated
that unit. with all known significant deposits in the region (Fig. 2).
Flat-lying, coarse-grained quartzite sandstones and in- Thus, establishing a more appropriate terminology is fitting.
terbedded shales of the Aptian-Albian Hollin Formation and The Zamora Cu-Au belt, therefore, encompasses porphyry
calcareous siltstone and limestone of the Albian Napo For- Cu-Mo-Au mineralization from the northernmost deposits at
mation unconformably overlie the Triassic-Late Jurassic rocks Panantza-San Carlos (and related prospects farther north for
and mark a marine transgression that lasted until the Tertiary 10 km), 40 km to the north of Mirador, south to the El Hito and
(Aspen and Litherland, 1992). These units were deposited in Santa Barbara porphyry Cu-Mo and Cu-Au deposits, 80 km
a continental shelf to back-arc estuarine environment (Vil- south of Mirador, establishing a 120-km-long Late Jurassic
lagomez et al., 1996) atop pre-Cretaceous units. This particu- metallogenic belt within Ecuador alone (Fig. 2). The belt con-
lar, conspicuous unconformity is useful for distinguishing tinues south into Peru in the Cordillera del Condor for at least
later subvolcanic units from Late Jurassic units. another 10 km southeast from El Hito and likely continues to

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 15
16 DROBE ET AL.

the southern extent of the Zamora batholith at approximately
4°42' S. The belt is roughly 30 km wide in the east-west direc-
tion, including the Warintza Cu-Mo deposit at the easternmost
limit, and the Nambija Au skarn district at the western limit.
Porphyry Cu deposits
The Cu-Au and Cu-Mo porphyry deposits within the north-
ern half of the 120-km-long Zamora Cu-Au belt share many
similarities in geology and mineralization. Most importantly,
all are typical calc-alkaline, granodiorite-hosted, Late Juras-
sic-aged deposits in which chalcopyrite is the principal copper
mineral at currently known depths, with chalcocite forming
locally important, but relatively thin, enrichment blankets be-
tween a leached cap of saprolite and the primary sulfide min-
eralization below. Rock exposure is poor and limited to creek
drainages that have cut down through the saprolite zone and
exposed both the enriched and primary mineralization. All
the deposits have drainages cutting through their centers and
are easily recognizable as Cu porphyry systems. Channel sam-
pling of these drainage outcrops has provided reliable esti-
mates of the hypogene grades of the mineralization below.
None of the deposits has significant iron-oxide lithocaps, and
only Panantza and parts of San Carlos show significant oxide
copper within the saprolite. The main difference between the
deposits is that at Mirador gold is of significant concentra-
tions, whereas at Panantza and San Carlos molybdenum is
significant; both deposit districts bear a similar tenor of Ag
(Table 1).
The Panantza and San Carlos porphyry Cu deposits, as well
as the nearby Kutucus Cu skarn, from the north end of the
Zamora Cu-Au belt were first described by Gendall et al.
(2000). As detailed by Gendall et al. (2000), the large geo-
chemical surface anomalies of these deposits were discovered
through detailed pan concentrate and silt sampling of
streams, with follow-up soil and rock sampling, by Gencor
and Billiton S.A. from 1994 to 1998. Also during this time, ad-
ditional areas of porphyry Cu mineralization were discovered
along the overall N-S strike of the belt at San Luis, San
Miguel, San Marcos, and Sutzu (Fig. 3). The Warintza deposit
(Ronning and Ristorcelli, 2006) is anomalous in that it is lo-
cated 13 km east of the main belt (Fig. 3).
The porphyry deposits occur in pairs that are separated 4 to
6 km in a northwest direction, usually along strike of the older
subvolcanic dikes, with the larger deposit of the pair to the
southeast. The northwest trend to every deposit can be at-
tributed to transtensional openings on northwest-oriented
jogs along a north-trending, regional (probably crustal-scale)
sinistral strike-slip fault. However, the geologic significance of
the pairings is not well understood. From north to south, the
pairs are Panantza-San Carlos, San Marcos-Sutzu, and Mi-
rador Norte-Mirador (Fig. 3.). North of Panantza, the miner-
alization continues as the narrow, more structurally controlled
zones of Trinidad, San Miguel, La Florida, and San Luis, be-
fore disappearing beneath apparent Misahuallí volcanic
rocks. West of Mirador, the Chancho system (Chancho Norte,
Chancho, and Chancho Sur) is similarly narrow and struc-
turally controlled, with the south end opening to a “horse tail-
ing” of diffuse mineralization before disappearing beneath
Hollin Formation cover rocks.
Each deposit is defined very well by soil geochemistry, with
Au + Mo highs centered on Zn lows; Cu anomalies are less
useful for targeting due to the high mobility of Cu in the trop-
ical soils. The spatial coincidence of the anomalies is very im-
portant: the most intense mineralization is where all three soil
anomalies coincide. Some prospects, such as Sutzu and San
Marcos, have broader, less defined, and offset anomalies and
the mineralization appears to be of lower grade, based on
stream channel sampling.
Panantza and San Carlos deposits were initially scout
drilled between 1998 and 1999, and Panantza was advanced

TABLE 1. Porphyry Copper Resources within the Zamora Cu-Au belt—Mirador and Panantza Districts

Project Category Metric tons (t) Cu (%) Cu (lbs) Au (oz) Ag (oz)

Measured and indicated resources

Mirador1 Measured and indicated 437,670,000 0.61 5,887,000,000 2,740,000 21,530,000
Mirador Norte1 Indicated 171,410,000 0.51 1,921,000,000 489,000 -
Total measured and indicated 609,080,000 0.58 7,808,000,000 3,229,000 21,530,000

Project Category Tonnes Cu% Cu (lbs)

Inferred resources
Mirador Inferred 235,400,000 0.52 2,708,000,000 1,250,000 9,900,000
Mirador Norte Inferred 45,820,000 0.51 513,000,000 101,000 -
Panantza2 Inferred 463,000,000 0.66 6,737,000,000
San Carlos2 Inferred 600,000,000 0.59 7,740,000,000
Subtotal Panantza-San Carlos 1,063,000,000 0.62 14,477,000,000
Total inferred 1,344,220,000 0.60 17,698,000,000 1,351,000 9,900,000

Note: - = not estimated

1 See the Technical Report “Update on the Copper, Gold and Silver Resources and Pit Optimizations: Mirador and Mirador Norte Deposits,” dated No-

vember 30, 2006, available on SEDAR

2 Panantza: see the Technical Report titled “Panantza Copper Project—Update on Inferred Resource Estimate,” dated July 10, 2007 available on

SEDAR; San Carlos— see the Technical Report titled “Corriente Copper Belt Project—Order of Magnitude Study (Preliminary Assessment) dated June
22, 2001, available on SEDAR; does not include copper oxide mineralized material that was included in the 2001 resource estimate and is recalculated
using a block model at a 0.4% Cu cutoff

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 16
 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR
considerably further in follow-up drill programs in 2000 and
2006, with drilling now totaling almost 17,000 m in 53 holes.
At the time of drilling the Panantza and San Carlos deposits
in 1998 to 1999, the Mirador deposit remained a stream-sed-
iment anomaly, as the border conflict in the mid-late 1990s
had prevented follow-up exploration in the area. Mirador and
the neighboring Chancho zones were initially followed-up by
rock sampling and drilled by Corriente Resources Incorpo-
rated (“Corriente”) in April 2000, as Corriente and Lowell
Mineral Exploration assumed management of the project.
Mirador Norte is the most recent discovery made, in March
2003, during additional mapping at the limits of the geo-
chemical data. The Mirador and Mirador Norte deposits dif-
fer significantly from those to the north in that gold is present
in economic quantities (over 0.2 g/t).
Skarn and epithermal Au
Geologic and radiometric dating evidence indicates skarn
mineralization in the Zamora Cu-Au belt formed both distally
and later than the main porphyry Cu-Au mineralization. No
economically significant skarn deposits adjacent to porphyry
deposits are known to occur, mainly because the porphyry de-
posits are hosted entirely within intrusive rocks. Skarns are
hosted by Triassic-Lower Jurassic Santiago Formation marine
sedimentary and volcanic rocks where they are intruded by
the Late Jurassic igneous rocks. Conversely, the significant
epithermal Au deposits in the belt are temporally related to
the porphyry Cu deposits, though none are spatially associ-
ated with them due to the level of erosion affected in the
Early Cretaceous.
The discontinuous skarns within the Nambija Au skarn dis-
trict (Prodeminca, 2000; Chiaradia et al., 2009), located 60
km southwest of Mirador (Fig. 2), have produced an esti-
mated 62 t Au (Gemuts et al., 1992), all by informal mining.
They are hosted by a north-south, elongate roof pendant of
the Piuntza unit of the Santiago Formation within the Zamora
batholith (Litherland et al., 1994). As rich and widespread as
the skarn mineralization is, there is only minor, insignificant
associated porphyry Cu mineralization (David prospect at the
Guaysimi skarn; Chiaradia et al., 2009). While subvolcanic in-
trusions lithologically similar to those at Mirador are present
and closely related to the skarn mineralization, the gold min-
eralization at Nambija has been precisely dated at 145 Ma
(Chiaradia et al., 2009), or about 10 m.y. younger than the
porphyry Cu deposits in the belt. The fact that Nambija is 20
km west of the main NNE trend of deposits with the
Cordillera del Condor may be evidence of younger activity
confined to a parallel structure; no other dating of mineral-
ization to the north or south exists.
The Kutucus Cu skarn prospect, 5 km north of San Carlos
(Fig. 3), is on the contact of Santiago Formation calc-silicate
altered units and Zamora granite. The dacite porphyry dikes
related to the mineralization have been K-Ar dated as coeval
with those at the San Carlos deposit (Gendall et al., 2000), but
no associated porphyry Cu mineralization has been found to
date, although the preliminary exploration was focused on the
skarn potential.
The continuation of the metallogenic zone to the south of
Mirador is dominated by the epithermal, intermediate sulfi-
dation Au deposit of Fruta del Norte, having total measured
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
17
and indicated resources of 5.7 Moz Au, 7.3 Moz Ag, and in-
ferred resources of 6.1 Moz Au, 7.9 Moz Ag (Henderson,
2009). Other important systems include the subepithermal,
Au-Ag sulfide vein deposits (Sillitoe, 2009) of the Chinapintza
district, having inferred resources of 0.8 Moz Au (Eason and
Oviedo, 2004), and the Jerusalem camp having measured and
indicated resource of 0.58 Moz Au, 3.38 Moz Ag, and inferred
resource of 0.71 Moz Au, 6.27 Moz Ag (Holly, 2006). Fruta
del Norte has a Late Jurassic minimum age of mineralization
of ca. 155.4 Ma, based on an interpreted overlying volcanic
unit, coeval with Mirador and the porphyry deposits to the
north (Stewart, 2008). The age of sulfide-hosted gold miner-
alization at Chinapintza is enigmatic, as there are both Late
Jurassic dates (K-Ar dates of 153−156 Ma, Litherland et al.,
1994), with a recent U-Pb date from mineralized dacite por-
phyry of 157.7 ± 1.4 Ma (McClelland, 2010), and an
Oligocene U-Pb date of 30.6 ± 1.4 Ma (Gaschnig, 2009) from
rhyodacite subvolcanic rock that is in part mineralized. Chi-
napintza bears much resemblance to the Late Jurassic por-
phyry Cu systems, as the auriferous sulfide veins trend mostly
NW and are hosted by the Zamora batholith, with mineral-
ization genetically associated with younger subvolcanic units.
Local Geology and Mineralization
The Mirador porphyry Cu-Au district comprises the Mi-
rador and Mirador Norte deposits, both with block model-
based resource estimates, and the Chancho prospect compris-
ing Chancho, Chancho Sur, and Chancho Norte zones (Figs.
3, 4). Mirador and Mirador Norte are connected along a NW-
trending structure that was tested near the mid-point with an
800-m drill hole, which intersected several narrow, weakly
mineralized structures. The Chancho system trends NNW
and appears to be more structurally controlled than Mirador.
Mirador
Resources: At the time of writing, the Mirador resource es-
timation (Sivertz et al., 2006a) was 438 Mt of measured and
indicated mineral resources grading 0.61% Cu, 0.19 g/t Au,
and 1.5 g/t Ag, at a 0.40% Cu cutoff grade. Additional in-
ferred mineral resources, also at a 0.40% Cu cutoff, are esti-
mated as 235 Mt grading 0.52% Cu, 0.17 g/t Au, and 1.3 g/t
Ag. The Mo grades are low and were not included in the es-
timate, but, at the same Cu cutoff, average about 0.006 ppm.
This estimate, and the geologic interpretation presented in
this study, is based on 36,284 m of core drilling in 143 dia-
mond drill holes.
Lithologies: Plutonic rock of the Zamora batholith is the
main host rock of the Mirador system (Fig. 5a). The pluton
comprises mainly medium-grained, equigranular Zamora gra-
nodiorite (unit “Jzgd”), with leucogranite phases common
along the west and southwest margins. There are also scat-
tered xenoliths of calc-silicate altered shale. A typical cross
section is presented in Figure 6a. Hornblende and biotite are
mostly replaced by brown to black secondary biotite, which is
the most obvious indicator of potassic alteration in the deposit
(Fig. 7a).
The oldest rocks that intrude equigranular granodiorite are
feldspar-hornblende porphyry dacite dikes, with crowded, eu-
hedral albite typical of subvolcanic units (Fig. 7b; unit “Jefp”).
They strike north and northwest and are subvertical. These
17
 18

Geology Legend

E
oorra
Geology Legend POST-MINERALIZATION
POST-MINERALIZATION

m
153.3
153.3 0.5
0.5
153.3 ±±± 0.5

m
Overburden (alluvium, talus, slides)

mii
Overburden (alluvium, talus, slides)

im
Tertiary rhodacite porphyry

ZZaa
Hollin Fm. quartzite Tertiary diorite, diabase

Quui
Q
782000 mE
783000 mE
784000 mE
785000 mE
786000
oo
SYN- TO POST-MINERALIZATION SYN- TO POST-MINERALIZATION

ii
PANANTZA
PANANTZA

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
R
Breccia (unaltered, polymictic)

R
Breccia (unaltered, polymictic)

NE
Late hornblende-feldspar-quartz porphyry 9,650,000 mN Late hornblende-feldspar-quartz porphyry

oo
155.7 ± 0.5 9607000 mN

RRii
PRE- TO SYN-MINERALIZATION PRE- TO SYN-MINERALIZATION
MIRADOR
MIRADOR Breccia (early) Early hornblende-feldspar porphyry
NORTE
NORTE Early hornblende-feldspar porphyry Zamora leucogranite, aplite

R Zamora granodiorite, quartz monzonite 9,649,000 mN Zamora granodiorite, quartz monzonite

SW
Riioo
Waw ayme
Wawayme Santiago Fm. sedimentary rocks Santiago Fm. sedimentary rocks

9606000 mN 0.4%
0.4% Cu
Cu limits
limits 0 0.5 1
aa

kilometres
Dating Method 9,648,000 mN
mmoorr

Dating Method
aa

Re-Os
Z
Z

U-Pb Ar-Ar
153.5
153.5 1.5
153.5 ±±± 1.5
1.5

18
Re-Os
Drill holes SAN
SAN CARLOS
CARLOS
Riioo

157.0
157.0
157.0 0.6
0.6
R

Drill holes 157.0 ±

157.0
157.0 ± 0.6
±±
±± 0.6
0.6
0.6
9605000 mN Streams
DROBE ET AL.

Streams

CHANCHO
CHANCHO

NW
0.4%
0.4% Cu
Cu limits
limits
NORTE
NORTE 151.9
151.9
151.9
151.9
151.9 ±
151.9 ±±
±± 1.5
1.5
1.5
± 1.5
1.5
1.5
783,000 mE
784,000 mE
785,000 mE
786,000 mE
788,000 mE

155.8 ± 0.5
B
156.5 ± 0.5 153.1 ± 1.3

163.8 ± 1.9 MIRADOR

MIRADOR
00 0.5
0.5 11 156.2 ± 1.0

SE
kilometres
kilometres

FIG. 4. Location of drill holes and age-date samples from (A) Mirador district, and (B) Panantza-San Carlos area; note that scales are slightly different between maps.
The >0.4% Cu contours for each deposit are from the Cu block model resource estimates.
 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR 19

mE

mE

mE

mE

mE

mE
784500 mE

784750 mE

785000 mE

785250 mE

785500 mE

785750 mE
784500

784750

785000

785250

785500

785750
NW
9604500 mN
9604500 mN

156.5 ± 0.5 155.8 ± 0.5 9604250

9604250 mN
mN

153.1 ± 1.3

Dating Method
Re-Os
9604000
9604000 mN
mN
U-Pb

156.2 ± 1.0 Drill holes

Streams

Primary ZonemN
9603750
9603750 mN
Avg. Intercepts

SE
>0.4% Cu
0 200 400 >50 ppm Mo

metres 9603500 mN
9603500 mN 9603500 mN
9603500 mN
A. MIRADOR
mE

mE

mE

mE

mE

mE
783000 mE

783250 mE

783500 mE

783750 mE

784000 mE

784250 mE
783000

783250

783500

783750

784000

784250
9607250
9607250 mN
mN
NE

9607000
9607000 mN
mN
155.7 ± 0.5

0 200 400
metres
9606750
9606750 mN
mN

9606500
9606500 mN
mN
SW

B. MIRADOR
NORTE
9606250
9606250 m
m

FIG. 5. Detailed geology for Mirador and Mirador Norte, showing outline of primary Cu zone where drill core sample
composites average >0.5% Cu; see Figure 4 for legend. The >50 ppm Mo contour is also shown. A. Mirador, Mo forms a
nearly complete halo around the Cu center. B. Mirador Norte, Cu and Mo show more overlap and intense zones of breccia
and postmineralization units are lacking.

dacites are classed as “early porphyry” dikes because they
precede the first pulse of Cu-Au mineralization and associ-
ated potassic alteration. This unit is distinguished from the
Zamora granite in highly altered zones in drill core and
leached surface exposures mainly by the vestiges of the large
hornblende phenocrysts.
A 400-m-wide, vertical diatreme of breccia (Fig. 7c; unit
“brmn”) comprising angular fragments of the early porphyry
dikes, Zamora granite, and quartz vein fragments from an
early quartz stockwork is loosely centered on the early dikes.
It is off-center of, but entirely within, the mineralized system.
The early porphyry dikes can be traced into the breccia as
trains of fragments and intact blocks; where fragments greatly
exceed the matrix the dikes are mapped through as intact.
The breccia is mostly fragment supported, and the matrix
consists of rock flour and fine rock and quartz vein (A-type)

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20 DROBE ET AL.

NW leached
SE
PROP POT PROP POT

M3
enriched
M36

M40
MM85

M74
12
M48
M15

M3
M65
M49
M77

M7

9
M45 M103
M88

5
M127 M80

1300mRL
M128

M93

1200mRL

1100mRL

1000mRL
0 100 200
metres

A. MIRADOR

SW POT
NE
MN40
POT PROP MN38

SER-PY MN36
MN56
01
MN
MN

MN58
02

MN59 MN64
900mRL

leached 800mRL
enriched

700mRL

600mRL

0 100 200
metres 500mRL

B. MIRADOR NORTE

FIG. 6. Cross sections for (A) Mirador and (B) Mirador Norte (see Fig. 4 for legend). Heavy bars along the drill stems
mark intercepts >0.4% Cu. Green contours from block model show >0.4% Cu and red contours show >0.6% Cu. Inner limit
of propylitic alteration zone (PROP), sericite-pyrite (SER-PY), and outer limit of potassic alteration (POT) are also shown.
Sections are 100 m thick.

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 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR 21

biotite replacing HBL

A 1 cm B 1 cm

AN

PY
CP
Jzgd
1 cm
C CP-PY
1 cm D
Au
CP
MG
Au PY
PY

CP PY
CP
CP CP
1 cm Au
PY
Au
E F 20 pm

AB
QZ
HBL
lith

QZ OR Jzgd
chlor.
1 cm HBL S
G H Jhbp

FIG. 7. Lithologic units at Mirador. A. Potassic-altered equigranular granodiorite of the Zamora batholith. B. Potassic-al-
tered early feldspar-hornblende porphyry, showing complete replacement of hornblende (HBL) by secondary brown biotite.
C. Early mineralized breccia, with fragments of Zamora granodiorite (Jzgd) in a matrix of rock flower cemented by anhydrite
(AN) and chalcopyrite + pyrite (CP-PY). D. Evenly disseminated chalcopyrite (yellow) and pyrite (silver) in Mirador gran-
odiorite with diffuse, early vein stockwork. E. Disseminated and fine-fracture chalcopyrite (yellow) and pyrite (silver) in Mi-
rador Norte early porphyry dacite. F. Photomicrographs of polished sections of sulfide concentrate from Mirador metallur-
gic testwork, showing Au grains in various associations with pyrite (PY), chalcopyrite (CP), and minor magnetite (MG). G.
Postmineral rhyodacite dikes: left is rhyodacite porphyry with phenocrysts of albite (AB), hornblende (HBL), quartz (QZ),
and orthoclase (OR), right is tuffaceous equivalent, with argillic matrix, increase in quartz, lesser and chloritized hornblende,
and sparse lithic fragments; this is from the dike dated in this report. H. Outcrop of postmineral breccia saprolite, showing
fragments of angular shale (S), subangular granodiorite (Jzgd), and late dike (Jhbp).

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22 DROBE ET AL.
fragments. The matrix also contains coarse fillings of chal-
copyrite-pyrite and anhydrite, which, together with the
quartz vein fragments, help distinguish the unit in weathered
surface exposures. Fragments are angular to subangular and
show an even potassic alteration with no alteration rims; they
range in average size from centimeters to more than a meter
that are clearly observable in outcrop.
Northeast-striking, NW- and SE-dipping hornblende-
feldspar-quartz porphyry dacite dikes (Fig. 7g; unit “Jhbp”)
cut the breccia and other mineralized units of the deposit;
they are clearly postmineralization and therefore selected for
dating the close of volcanic activity. The largest dike swarm is
along the southeast margin of the mineralization, and from
southwest to northeast has textures transitional from por-
phyritic to tuffaceous. Where the dike resembles a crystal
tuff, it is quartz rich with minor lithic fragments, and is dis-
tinguished from the dacite flow portion of the dike by the in-
tense argillic alteration of the matrix giving it lighter, buff col-
ors. These rocks are sparsely fractured relative to the
mineralized rocks, lack any quartz veining, and are fresh to
chlorite altered. Outcrops are blocky and resistant and
weather to a characteristic bright red clay due to the oxidation
of abundant magnetite. Large rhombs of orthoclase are com-
mon in the main dikes. Smaller dikes in the northwest portion
of the deposit are dark gray with albite phenocrysts dominat-
ing the texture. A large central dike has abundant coarse
hornblende phenocrysts, in addition to subhedral albite, or-
thoclase, and quartz phenocrysts.
Late phreatic breccia (Fig. 7h; unit “brpm”) occurs at the
margins of most late dacite dikes and as irregular diatremes
around the north and northwest margins of the mineralized
zone. The breccias are characterized by a polymictic, angular
to subrounded fragment assemblage of mineralized and un-
mineralized rock, the relative quantity of each fragment type
being dependent on whether the breccia intruded mainly
mineralized rocks or postmineral intrusions. Common frag-
ments of black shale and fresh Zamora granite, which are not
known to occur within several kilometers of the deposit, indi-
cate the fragments have traveled significant distances; the
large diatreme north of the deposit and outside of mineral-
ization is composed almost exclusively of shale fragments.
Black shale, similar to the Yuquianza Member of the Santiago
Formation (Gaibor et al., 2008), is not known from surface
outcrops anywhere on the property, suggesting a sharp
change in geology possibly across a regional high-angle re-
verse fault beneath the deposit at depths below the current
drilling. The matrix is mostly finely ground rock where the
breccia occupies a postmineral dike contact but contains sig-
nificant milled sulfide minerals in bodies that intrude miner-
alized Zamora granite. Copper grades within the late breccia
range from very low to slightly less than the deposit average,
depending on the amount of mineralized rock incorporated.
Outcrops of this breccia are massive and very sparsely frac-
tured. In drill core, the breccia is the least fractured lithology
in the deposit.
All the intrusive rocks are unconformably overlain by
quartzite sandstone and interbedded shale of the Hollin For-
mation, an Aptian-Albian-aged transgressive, continental
shelf sequence with an eastern provenance. This indicates the
mineralization and associated subvolcanic units were exposed
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
at surface by the middle Early Cretaceous (about 127 Ma).
Mineralization and alteration: Most of the Mirador miner-
alization is exposed as tan to brown saprolite, with residual sil-
ica and abundant iron oxides, in the numerous drill trail and
road exposures. The deep weathering has left well-defined
geochemical footprint of the deposit, with Au and Mo acting
as largely immobile elements with their anomalies coincident
with mineralization at depth. Cu is highly mobile in saprolite
and forms a patchy, displaced anomaly, tending to deposit on
propylitic-altered and postmineralization units due to their
carbonate content. There is a well-defined Zn depletion
anomaly coincident with the Au and Mo anomalies. Zones of
supergene Cu enrichment have formed beneath the saprolite
and have relatively flat upper boundaries and more uneven
lower boundaries with the hypogene mineralization. Primary
and supergene mineralization are only exposed where the
drainages have cut down through the overlying saprolite, and
so the leached zone is thickest under ridge crests and nonex-
istent in the valleys with perennial streams (see Fig. 6a).
Channel sampling of potassic-altered rock exposures along
the two main drainages returned slightly above-average hypo-
gene grades due to weak supergene enrichment.
The transition from leached zone to supergene or directly
to primary can be sharp, on a centimeter scale, or “mixed”
(mottled) over several meters near fracture zones where un-
even clay alteration persists to greater depths. Secondary
chalcocite coating the primary sulfides forms the supergene,
enriched mineralization. This zone is intensely argillic al-
tered, with the alteration (and chalcocite mineralization) di-
minishing gradually with depth. Argillic alteration extends to
greater depths within the breccia, likely as a result of deeper
penetration of meteoric waters along the easily dissolved
breccia matrix. While the supergene zone forms less than
10% of the total resource, its high Cu grade, low hardness,
and shallow depth make it important to the economics of the
deposit.
Primary Cu-Au mineralization at Mirador is mostly as dis-
seminations and fine fracture fillings of chalcopyrite and
pyrite in potassic-altered Zamora granodiorite and early por-
phyry dacite, and as coarse blebs of these same sulfides to-
gether with purple anhydrite filling interstices in the matrix of
the early breccia diatreme (Fig. 7c-e). There is no statistical
difference in Cu or Au grades inside and outside the breccia,
despite the difference in mineralization style. Total sulfide
concentrations are almost constant across the deposit at about
4%, with chalcopyrite greater than pyrite within the central
potassic zone. Bornite is only present in weak, sporadic
amounts deep in the southeast quadrant. Potassic alteration,
in the form of secondary biotitization of mafic minerals and
anhydrite fillings in the breccia matrix, is dominant, with only
local quartz-sericite overprinting, usually along late pyritic
structures. Abundant magnetite occurs along the northwest
edge of the deposit but is disassociated with Cu-Au mineral-
ization. A deep (>300 m), narrow (ca. 100 m) zone of massive,
milky quartz flooding occurs near the southwest edge of the
early breccia diatreme and has lower copper grades, presum-
ably due to its impermeability. The deepest drill holes at Mi-
rador intersected homogeneous hypogene Cu grades (0.6%
Cu) to 1,000 m below surface, indicating a vertical geometry
of the mineralization.
22
 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR
Gold occurs as fine inclusions divided equally between
chalcopyrite and pyrite, with minor native gold (Fig. 7f).
Molybdenite is concentrated in an outer halo of quartz-
molybdenite veins outboard of, but partly overlapping with,
the main copper mineralization (Fig. 5a).
Paragenesis: The paragenesis of Mirador is illustrated in
Figure 8. The mineralization and alteration initiated as an
east-west−oriented stockwork of barren, milky, A-type quartz
veins following emplacement of the early porphyry dacite
dikes in a fault and/or fracture zone (Fig. 8a, b). Initial Cu +
Au + Ag + Mo mineralization and corresponding potassic al-
teration closely followed the early quartz stockwork, as pre-
dominantly disseminated and fine fracture controlled chal-
copyrite-pyrite within granite and early porphyry dacite host
rocks. Mineralization intensity was variable within the early
porphyry dikes, which seem to have been differentially frac-
tured and open to hydrothermal fluids. Some dikes of this
unit did not fracture well and were not as permeable to cop-
per fluids as the older granodiorite.
The early phreatic breccia diatreme appears to have
formed after the initial disseminated mineralization, based on
the disseminated chalcopyrite within the fragments (Fig. 8c).
Copper-gold mineralization continued postemplacement of
the breccia and deposited coarse chalcopyrite, pyrite, anhy-
drite, and rare bornite in open spaces between breccia frag-
ments, mixed with fine comminuted rock matrix, and added
disseminated and fine fracture-fill chalcopyrite in areas pe-
ripheral to the breccia (Fig. 8d). Mo was concentrated in a
halo outboard of the Cu-Au mineralization.
Toward the waning of mineralization, NE-striking, NW-
dipping hornblende-feldspar-quartz porphyry dikes intruded
all mineralized units within the deposit, followed closely by
phreatic “pebble” dikes along reactivated dike margins as well
as isolated diatremes (Fig. 8e). The consistent association of
the dacite dikes with postmineral breccia dikes suggests the
two units are at least in part coeval. The larger, late breccia di-
atremes on the northwest margin differ in that they are dom-
inated by shale fragments, and while they may be the same
age as dacitic breccias, they seem to be rooted in rocks not ex-
posed at surface.
Sparse, thin (<10 cm), subvertical veins of massive pyrite,
chalcopyrite ± galena ± sphalerite that are relatively gold rich
(i.e. grades >10 g/t Au) cut the late hornblende-feldspar dikes
(Fig 8e). They are insignificant in volume relative to the por-
phyry mineralization but are evidence of a minor, very late
mineralization event. Notably, they are identical in sulfide as-
semblage as the Au-bearing sulfide veins mined in the Chi-
napintza district.
Mineralized units within the upper approximately 300 m of
the deposit at Mirador are highly fractured, with most drill
core broken in pieces less than 10 cm long. The fracturing is
the result of the volume expansion associated with hydration
of hypogene anhydrite to gypsum by meteoric water (Fig. 8f).
The gypsum veinlets subsequently dissolve leaving loose frac-
tures. The drill core is relatively competent below the level
where anhydrite and gypsum are affected by weathering and
leaching. Argillic alteration penetrates to depth within the
newly created fracture system, and decreasing from very
strong within the supergene zone, to weak at the gypsum-an-
hydrite front about 300 m below.
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23
Mirador Norte
Mirador Norte is located 4 km of Mirador, along strike of
the soil geochemical anomaly (Fig. 4a). It is relatively low-
lying and very poorly exposed, albeit gossanous saprolite of
the phyllic alteration halo is exposed in road cuts just east of
the Mirador camp. It was discovered during follow-up of a
single anomalous molybdenum silt sample. Mineralization
over 1% Cu is exposed in a single small drainage that was pre-
viously overlooked. The current resource estimate for Mi-
rador Norte at a 0.4% Cu cut-off is 171 Mt at 0.51% Cu and
0.09 g/t Au indicated, with additional inferred resources of 46
Mt of 0.51% Cu and 0.07 g/t Au (Sivertz et al., 2006b).
The geology of the Mirador Norte deposit is simpler than
that of Mirador, lacking a breccia diatreme and any postmineral
units. The host rocks are the same equigranular granodiorite
intruded by NW-striking, hornblende-feldspar porphyry dacite
dikes. The mineralization, dominant alteration, and metal ra-
tios are similar in composition to Mirador but are more struc-
turally controlled, without the coincident circular zoning of
metals and alteration. Copper grades are similar in both gran-
odiorite and porphyry dikes, although at the south margin of
the deposit the copper grades in porphyry show some variation
relative to the granite: copper grades both increase and de-
crease across dike contacts, along strike, or up- and downdip.
It appears that the dike contacts controlled fluid flow more at
the margins than at the center of the deposit, where fractur-
ing was perhaps more pervasive and less prone to control by
lithology. Similar changes in mineralization intensity along
strike within dikes are observed at the Panantza deposit.
Mirador Norte mineralization consists mainly of dissemi-
nated and stockwork hypogene chalcopyrite. As at Mirador,
there is a superficial leached zone up to 40 m thick overlying
the secondary enrichment blanket that averages 14 m thick.
The enrichment zone is immature, with chalcocite coatings
on chalcopyrite and pyrite. The enriched zone grades into pri-
mary, disseminated chalcopyrite mineralization. Higher grade
areas are associated with structurally controlled, fine-grained,
dark-gray silica flooding that can contain more than 5% chal-
copyrite. Alteration is mostly potassic in the form of black to
brown secondary biotite and is almost completely overprinted
by propylitic (chlorite + epidote) alteration, which, unlike the
fringing chloritic alteration at Mirador, is spatially coincident
with it. Local coarse anhydrite is preserved at deeper levels
below the gypsum front. The potassic alteration assemblage
transitions to intense quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration along
the west side of the deposit, while along the northeast side
propylitic alteration extends to the north past the potassic al-
teration. Early and barren quartz veining is only significant in
the northwest third of the deposit.
Chancho
The Chancho prospect consists of three narrow zones along
strike of each other over a distance of 6 km (Fig 3). The
northern two of these zones, Chancho and Chancho Norte,
were drilled by Corriente in 2000, with 20 holes totaling 2,006
m. In both zones the mineralization is narrow and structurally
complex, forming a series of small lenses of mineralization
with grades similar to Mirador, and no formal resources have
been calculated.
23
24 DROBE ET AL.

163.8 ± 1.9 Ma 155.8 ± 0.5 Ma

156.5 ± 0.5 Ma

156.2 ± 1.0 Ma

A. Intrusion of early feldspar-hornblende porphyry into B. QZ- stockwork following east-west fractures, followed
Zamora granodiorite along structural zone at ~158 Ma. closely by start of potassic alteration with disseminated
CP+PY+MO+Au+AN at ~156Ma.

C. Phreatic brecciation, with vapour inflating and D. Finish of main mineralization with coarse CP+PY+AN
brecciating mineralized rock, then collapsing back in breccia interstices, changing laterally to disseminated
leaving vugs between fragments and more fractures. and fracture controlled CP outside of the breccia.

GP dissolves
AN -> GP
153.1 ± 1.3 Ma
latest Au-rich
CP+PY
GL±SL veins

E. Intrusion of late porphyry dacite, breccia dikes and F. Last event is meteoric waters entering surface
diatremes. Late CP+PY±SL±GL+Au veinlets may be fractures, converting AN to GP, causing fracture front to
significantly younger than porphyry mineralization. propagate down. GP is dissolved leaving open fractures.

potassic alteration CP = chalcopyrite MO = molybdenite

Late breccias PY = pyrite
with disseminated CP GP = gypsum
SL = sphalerite AN = anhydrite
Late porphyry blebby CP GL = galena
Early porphyry fracture/vein CP U-Pb
dates from this study: FIG. 8. Mirador paragenesis in a series
Zamora granite fracture/vein MO+QZ Re-Os of schematic cross sections.

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 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR
The southern zone, Chancho Sur, is well exposed over sev-
eral hundred meters in road cuts along the El Condor military
access road and in several small drainages that cross this
route. The host rock is mostly Zamora granite, though the al-
teration extends into a large pendant of Santiago Formation
calc-silicate altered shale. Potassic alteration in the granite is
only weakly developed as patches within an intense, pyritic,
quartz-sericite alteration envelope. Weak disseminated chal-
copyrite is dominated by abundant disseminated pyrite in
outcrop in the creeks cutting the zone.
Primary mineralization at Chancho crops out in a 150-m-
wide exposure in the Rio Tundayme canyon, as well as small
tributaries to the south. It comprises disseminated chalcopy-
rite and pyrite in sheared, brecciated, and potassic-altered
Zamora granite and the “Chancho porphyry,” which is an
early hornblende-feldspar subvolcanic dike similar to units at
Mirador. Local argillic fault zones appear to postdate the min-
eralization and indicate that the structure was reactivated in
part. The mineralization on both sides of the structure grades
sharply over a few meters into an envelope of intense pyritic
quartz-sericite alteration and then weak propylitic alteration
in pink Zamora granite. Although surface channel sampling
returned 145 m of 0.92% Cu, the best hole (CH01), drilled
directly under the surface sampling, returned only 51 m of
0.96% Cu, which thinned to 1.05% Cu over 34 m in another
hole drilled 100 m to the south under the same zone; both in-
tercepts had <100 ppb Au.
The soil geochemical anomaly of the Chancho zone was
traced northward along its N-S strike for 2.5 km into Chancho
Norte, where the mineralized structure crops out in small
drainages. Here it is even narrower, with grades above 1% Cu
intercepted over only 18 m in drill hole CHN01. The chal-
copyrite mineralization occurs as narrow lenses within
sheared, potassic-altered Zamora granite and is cut sharply in
places by late, northeast-trending, quartz-rich, hornblende-
feldspar dikes, similar to dikes at Mirador. The weakly propy-
litic Zamora granite from drill hole CHN01 was chosen for U-
Pb dating for this study.
Uranium-Lead (U-Pb) Geochronology
Sample selection
Zircons from intrusive units that bracket the mineralization
in the Mirador and Mirador Norte deposits were dated by U-
Pb, using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spec-
trometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the University of British Columbia
Pacific Center for Isotopic and Geochemical Research labo-
ratory. The units chosen are the main host for mineralization
in the Zamora granodiorite (unit “Jzgd”), mineralized horn-
blende-feldspar porphyry (unit “Jefp”), and postmineraliza-
tion, hornblende-feldspar-quartz porphyry (unit “Jhbp”). The
latter is associated with coeval to slightly younger, polymictic,
phreatic breccias. Samples details are shown in Table 2.
Methodology
LA-ICP-MS dating of zircons is a routine procedure at Pa-
cific Center for Isotopic and Geochemical Research labora-
tory. Zircons are separated from their host rocks using con-
ventional mineral separation methods. For igneous rocks,
approximately 25 of the coarsest, clearest, most inclusion-free
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
25
TABLE 2. Sample Descriptions for U-Pb Dating
Sample no. Location Description Unit
CHN01 Chancho Norte drill Zamora granodiorite; Jzgd
hole CHN01 at 77-m pink, weak propylitic
depth alteration
M16 Mirador drill hole Early hornblende- Jefp
M16 at 110-m depth feldspar porphyry;
strong Cu mineralization
and potassic alteration
M108 Mirador drill hole Postmineral, mauve Jhbp
M108 at 50-m depth quartz-feldspar-horn-
blende porphyry; youngest
of the postmineralization
dikes at Mirador
crystals are selected for analysis. The selected zircons are
mounted in an epoxy puck along with several crystals of in-
ternationally accepted standard zircon (Plesovice, PL) and
Pacific Center for Isotopic and Geochemical Research labo-
ratory internal standard (KL), and brought to a very high pol-
ish. High-quality portions of each crystal are selected for each
analysis. The surface of the mount is washed for 10 min with
dilute nitric acid and rinsed in ultraclean water. Cathodolu-
minescent imaging was not available; however a visual in-
spection under microscope allowed recognition of inclusions,
fluid inclusions, and cracks.
Analyses are performed with a New Wave 213-nm Nd-YAG
laser coupled to a Thermo Finnigan Elements2 high-resolu-
tion ICP-MS. Ablation takes place within a New Wave “Su-
percell” ablation chamber which is designed to achieve very
high efficiency entrainment of aerosols into the helium car-
rier gas. Typically a 30-μm spot is used with 35% laser power,
and line scans rather than spot analyses are run to avoid
within-run elemental fractionation. Each analysis consists of a
10-s background measurement (laser off) followed by 35 s of
data acquisition. Analyses of the standard zircons are inter-
spersed between the samples throughout the run sequence.
For igneous rocks lines are run on 16 to 20 of the crystals.
Data are reduced using the GLITTER software marketed
by the GEMOC group at Macquarie University (Van Achter-
bergh et al., 2001). The software automatically subtracts
background measurements, propagates all errors, and calcu-
lates isotopic ratios and ages. Close scrutiny of the plots of the
analyses in GLITTER pointed to cores in some of the crystals
and possible areas of lead loss in others. The analyses of PL
with a conservative assigned error of 1% are used to calculate
the in-run drift and fractionation correction that is applied to
the samples. KL is used as an independent monitor. Reported
ages are based on the weighted mean of the calculated
206Pb/238U ages for relatively young zircons (Phanerozoic).
Errors on the ages are reported at 95% confidence level. ISO-
PLOT software written by K.R. Ludwig at Berkeley Geo-
chronology Center is used for plotting and final interpretation
of the analytical results.
Results
The reported ages were derived from means calculated
using ISOPLOT of the 206Pb/238U ages for the 16 to 20 zircon
analyses for each sample, using averages weighted by analyti-
cal errors. Results are presented in Table 3; analyses in italics
25
26 DROBE ET AL.

TABLE 3. U/Pb Analytical Results

Analysis 207Pb/235U 207Pb/235U 206Pb/238U 206Pb/238U 207Pb/206Pb 207Pb/206Pb Preferred age

no.1 (Ma) (±1σ error) (Ma) (±1σ error) (Ma) (±1σ error) (Ma) (±1σ error)

CHNO1L1 166.5 3.69 161.8 1.54 225.1 53.99 161.8 1.5

CHNO1L2 168.9 4.16 158.7 1.59 262.8 59.68 158.7 1.6
CHNO1L3 163.8 9.06 165.8 2.78 219 133 165.8 2.8
CHNO1L4 169.8 4.3 164.8 1.72 204.6 62.04 164.8 1.7
CHNO1L9 153.9 19.99 168.3 5.42 19.1 305.34 168.3 5.4
CHNO1L10 172.3 9.2 173.7 2.78 169.2 128.51 173.7 2.8
CHNO1L11 164.8 10.63 169.9 2.81 150.2 155.05 169.9 2.8
CHNO1L12 150.2 7.04 163.9 2.3 0.1 111.84 163.9 2.3
CHNO1L13 162.7 7.27 156.6 2.34 309.5 105.33 156.6 2.3
CHNO1L14 177 6.47 167.6 2.28 358 85.18 167.6 2.3
CHNO1L15 155.9 7.57 160.3 2.62 171.3 116.36 160.3 2.6
CHNO1L16 163.7 5.46 167.3 1.99 92.6 82.03 167.3 2.0
CHNO1L17 162.9 7.74 162.8 2.46 146.7 114.82 162.8 2.5
CHNO1L18 159.4 10.87 166.1 3.03 25.9 166.59 166.1 3.0
CHNO1L19 166.2 24.23 165.5 6.74 24.1 338.27 165.5 6.7
CHNO1L20 155.8 12.41 166.1 4.12 11.9 192.85 166.1 4.1
M16L1 156.6 4.51 156.1 2.12 113.9 70.88 156.1 2.1
M16L2 165 4.89 155.9 2.15 291.1 70.9 155.9 2.2
M16L3 171.3 5.28 156.9 2.25 369.2 72.89 156.9 2.3
M16L4 155.5 6.63 157.8 2.46 123 104.42 157.8 2.5
M16L5 155.4 3.4 156.3 1.92 136.8 53.28 156.3 1.9
M16L6 150.8 3.38 153.8 1.88 67.8 55.79 153.8 1.9
M16L7 158.1 5.74 157.4 2.36 186 88.25 157.4 2.4
8M16L8 155.1 13.28 156.9 4.82 108.4 204.02 156.9 4.8
M16L9 155.5 4.55 156.6 2.22 145.6 71.48 156.6 2.2
M16L10 145.8 3.34 155.3 1.91 38 55.76 155.3 1.9
M16L11 137.1 7.6 158.4 2.71 0.1 36.12 158.4 2.7
M16L12 150.8 4.36 160 2.09 39.7 71.99 160.0 2.1
M16L13 157.5 3.68 156.1 1.94 141.8 57.08 156.1 1.9
M16L14 154.3 5.03 155.5 2.21 183.5 79.15 155.5 2.2
M16L15 162.8 5.03 156.1 2.16 265.3 74.07 156.1 2.2
M16L16 156.8 4.58 153.2 2.07 196.9 70.74 153.2 2.1
M16L17 168.3 11.45 154.8 3.35 348.4 158.26 154.8 3.4
M16L18 160.3 7.9 158.5 3.11 185.5 118.77 158.5 3.1
M16L19 167.6 7.96 154.8 2.61 318.3 112.37 154.8 2.6
M16L20 157.2 9.85 155.7 3.32 203.6 149.29 155.7 3.3
M108L1 160.8 5 148.8 2.07 279.7 73.54 148.8 2.1
M108L2 172.9 8.1 156.8 3.03 327.1 109.99 156.8 3.0
M108L3 158.6 4.3 149.5 1.99 265 64.1 149.5 2.0
M108L4 163.2 8.71 154.3 2.7 199.7 127.99 154.3 2.7
M108L5 158.8 4.33 152.7 2.03 219.8 65 152.7 2.0
M108L6 154.3 3.23 149.3 1.79 235.1 48.98 149.3 1.8
M108L7 155.1 3.41 154.2 1.87 147.4 52.49 154.2 1.9
M108L8 156.6 3.8 150.1 1.93 257.3 57.07 150.1 1.9
M108L9 159.4 11.37 153 3.93 247.6 167.42 153.0 3.9
M108L10 159.7 5.39 151.7 2.38 231.7 80.6 151.7 2.4
M108L11 154.3 3.72 155.3 1.94 124.3 58.08 155.3 1.9
M108L12 155.3 5.1 156.1 2.36 147.5 79.46 156.1 2.4
M108L13 166.6 8.98 156.5 3.38 314.6 126.19 156.5 3.4
M108L14 159.9 7.61 155.8 2.58 179.7 114.68 155.8 2.6
M108L15 150.4 6.1 156.7 2.5 60.7 100.19 156.7 2.5
M108L16 147.8 5.54 155.7 2.29 22.5 92.75 155.7 2.3
M108L17 154.3 3.79 154.5 1.94 103.3 59.68 154.5 1.9
M108L18 149.7 5.34 153.6 2.35 86.2 88.24 153.6 2.4
M108L19 155 5.52 155 2.28 154 86.26 155.0 2.3
M108L20 159.4 4.77 151.7 2.1 271.6 71.11 151.7 2.1

1 Samples were analyzed by laser ablation and ICP-MS (Thermo-Finnigan ELEMENT) at the University of British Columbia; italicized analyses were ex-

cluded from the age calculations

were rejected as outliers as described below. Concordia dia-
grams and weighted mean plots are provided in Figure 9. The
errors in both diagrams are plotted as 2σ. Preferred ages cho-
sen from each of the three samples are in Table 4.
CHN01 (Zamora granodiorite): Zircons in this rock are ex-
tremely small, between 100 and 200 μm in length. They are
clear and colorless, but some contain tiny fluid inclusions.
The range of ages obtained from the 16 reported analyses is
156.6 ± 2.3 to 173.7 ± 2.8 Ma; however two outlying analyses
can be excluded from the calculations. Analysis L10 is on a
zircon that has a dark zone that is visible under the center
portion of the laser track. The isotopic ratios and count rates

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 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR 27
data-pointerror ellipses are 2 data-point error symbols are 2
166

M108
0.026
Jhbp 162

160
0.025 158
Pb/ 238U

Ag e Ma
154
0.024
206

150 150

0.023
146
Mean = 153.1 ± 1.3 [0.82%] 95% conf.
Wtd by data-pt errs only, 0 of 20 rej.
MSWD = 1.4, probability = 0.10
error ellipses (error bars are 2 )
0.022 142
0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21

207 Pb/ 235U

data-pointerror ellipses are 2 data-pointerror symbols are 2
0.027
170
M16 168

Jefp
0.026
164
Pb/ 238U

160
0.025 160
Ag e Ma

156
206

0.024

150 152

0.023 Mean = 156.2 ± 1.0 [0.66%] 95% conf.

148 Wtd by data-pt errs only, 0 of 19 rej.
MSWD = 0.51, probability = 0.95
error ellipses (error bars are 2 )
0.022 144
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
207 Pb/ 235U
data-pointerror ellipses are 2 data-pointerror symbols are 2
0.030
CHN01 180

Jzgd 176
180
0.028
Pb/ 238U

172
Ag e Ma

168

0.026
164
206

160
160

0.024 156
Mean = 163.8 ± 1.9 [1.4%] 95% conf.
152
Wtd by data-pt errs only, 2 of 16 rej.
MSWD = 2.1, probability = 0.012
error ellipses (error bars are 2 )
0.022 148
0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
207 Pb/ 235U
FIG. 9. Concordia diagrams of zircon analyses from Zamora granodiorite (Jzgd), early porphyry dike (Jefp), and postmin-
eralization porphyry dike (Jhbp), with mean weighted 206Pb/238U ages and 2σ errors. The latter are sorted by youngest to old-
est before plotting.

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28 DROBE ET AL.
TABLE 4. Summary of U-Pb Geochronology at Mirador
Sample No. Unit Preferred age (Ma)
CHN01 Zamora batholith (Jzgd) 163.8 ± 1.9
M16 Mineralized porphyry (Jefp) 156.2 ± 1.0
M108 Postmineral porphyry (Jhbp) 153.1 ± 1.3
change over this zone, and the 206Pb/238U age integrated over
the entire analysis is older than the other analyses, with
younger (~160 Ma) zones at either end. The second outlier,
L13, is from an extremely small crystal that appears to have a
damaged zone or core. The 206Pb/238U age of 156.6 ± 2.3 Ma
is younger than the mean age; however, the 207Pb/206Pb age
suggests older zircon within the crystal. Excluding these two
analyses does not change the calculated weighted mean age
and error of 163.8 ± 1.9 Ma, but does change the MSWD
from 3.5 to 2.1. The MSWD value allows statistical evaluation
of the broad range of dates obtained in LA-ICP-MS zircon
dating. Although the scatter in the results for this sample is al-
most outside the limit of reliability, we consider the reported
age to be the best estimate of the age of the intrusion.
M16 (early dacite): Zircons in this rock are between 150
and 300 μm in length. They are colorless to pale pink, mostly
clear, but some contain tiny fluid inclusions, and more than
half are not complete crystals or not euhedral. The range of
ages obtained from the 20 analyses is 153.2 ± 2.1 to 160.0 ±
2.1 Ma. Despite the 7-m.y. spread of ages, the calculated
weighted mean of the 206Pb/238U ages is 156.2 ± 1.0 Ma
(MSWD = 0.52), which is consistent with the Re-Os ages for
the mineralization. Several of the analyses could have been
excluded based on visual inspection of the zircons, but there
was no analytical justification to do so.
M108 (late dacite): Zircons in this rock are between 150
and 500 μm in length. They are light brown to pink, lighter
crystals are clear, darker crystals are not transparent. Fluid in-
clusions are visible, and most are not euhedral nor complete
crystals. The range of ages obtained from the 20 analyses is
148.8 ± 2.1 to 156.8 ± 3 Ma. The calculated weighted mean
of the 206Pb/238U ages is 153.1 ± 1.3 Ma (MSWD = 1.4). Sev-
eral of the analyses could have been excluded based on visual
inspection of the zircons, but there was no analytical justifica-
tion to do so.
The results are consistent with observations of crosscutting
relationships of the three units, with the Zamora granodiorite
yielding an age of 163.8 ± 1.9 Ma (MSWD = 2.1), the early
porphyry dacite 156.2 ± 1.0 Ma (MSWD = 0.52), and the late
porphyry dacite 153.1 ± 1.3 Ma (MSWD = 1.4).
Rhenium-Osmium (Re-Os) Geochronology
Sample selection
Two molybdenite samples from Mirador drill cores and an-
other from Mirador Norte drill core, all representative of
main stage Cu-Au-Mo mineralization, were selected for Re-
Os dating. The Mirador samples are from argillic, mineral-
ized, early breccia (sample M105) and granodiorite (sample
M131) with vuggy quartz-molybdenite-pyrite-chalcopyrite
veining. The Mirador Norte sample is from strongly argillic
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
granodiorite with silicification and ill-defined stockwork
quartz-chalcopyrite-pyrite veining.
Re-Os is now a well-established and reliable method for
dating molybdenite (Stein et al., 1997, 2001). The method has
significant application to ore geology, as milligram quantities
permit the direct dating of ore deposits, provided the occur-
rence of molybdenite is paragenetically constrained. The
technique has been previously applied to other deposits in the
Zamora Cu-Au belt, including the Panantza, San Carlos,
Sutzu, and Nambija districts (Coder, 2001; Chiaradia et al.,
2009; Vallance et al., 2009). The analytical work for the
named deposits (published in Chiaradia et al., 2009), for the
Mirador and Mirador Norte (this work), and for Fruta del
Norte (see “Discussion”) was carried out under the AIRIE
program at Colorado State University.
Methodology
The AIRIE program provides geochronology using an oc-
currence-driven methodology (Stein et al., 2003; Stein, 2006).
This means paragenetically constrained occurrences of molyb-
denite are targeted for mineral separation. Details of method-
ology are similar to those reported in Zimmerman et al. (2008).
Briefly, Re-Os data for Mirador and Mirador Norte were ac-
quired by isotope dilution. Molybdenite separates were made
using a small hand-held drill. Powdered molybdenite was
weighed and transferred to a Carius tube for dissolution and si-
multaneous sample-spike equilibration in aqua regia. A mixed
Re-double Os spike is applied to correct for common Os (al-
most always negligible in molybdenite) and to correct for mass
fractionation (Markey et al., 2003). Re and Os are chemically
isolated and Os is purified through a series of distillations, using
HBr and Re purified using anion-exchange column chemistry.
Re data were acquired using the total evaporation method. Iso-
topic ratios were measured on a Triton instrument at AIRIE
using negative thermal ion mass spectrometry (NTIMS).
Results
The Re-Os data for three molybdenite samples from Mi-
rador and Mirador Norte are presented in Table 5. Sample
size was 2 to 9 mg with excellent agreement among the three
Re-Os ages. Although some labs advocate threshold values for
sample size (e.g., Selby and Creaser, 2004), the Re-Os data in
this study are clear proof that sample size is not relevant to
obtaining robust Re-Os ages; it is the occurrence that matters
(Stein, 2006). Reported Re concentrations are minimum val-
ues as the fine-grained, molybdenite-rich powders drilled
from the core samples were diluted up to 90% by silicate.
Therefore, actual Re concentrations in these molybdenites
are likely in the 1,000 ppm range and the quantity of molyb-
denite for the Re-Os analyses was at the 1-mg level.
Reported Re-Os data are fractionation and blankcorrected.
Blanks at the time of these analyses were Re = 2.55 ± 0.04, Os
= 0.443 ± 0.005, and 187Os/188Os = 0.931 ± 0.016 pg. Blank
corrections are insignificant to the calculated age for these
high Re molybdenites. The measured common Os in these
molybdenites ranges from 0.3 to 1.2 ppb. The reported radi-
ogenic 187Os is corrected for common Os with 187Os/188Os =
0.2. The common Os in these samples is insignificant relative
to radiogenic Os, and thus, the correction is extremely minor
and insignificant to the age calculation.
28
 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR 29

TABLE 5. Re-Os Data for Molybdenite from Cu-Au Deposits, Mirador and Mirador Norte

Sample no. Drill hole, depth (m) Deposit AIRIE Run no. Re (ppm) 187Os, (ppb) Age (Ma)

M105 M105, 121.16 Mirador MDT-953 165.2 (1) 269.75 (9) 155.8 ± 0.5
M131 M131, 140.1 Mirador MDT-962 144.43 (9) 236.94 (8) 156.5 ± 0.5
MN65 MN65, 105.2 Mirador Norte MDT-954 414.8 (2) 677.3 (2) 155.7 ± 0.5

Notes: Samples analyzed by Carius tube dissolution using double Os spike and ID-NTIMS (Triton); all uncertainties reported at 2σ and absolute for last
decimal place indicated in table; Re blank = 2.55 ± 0.04 pg, Os blank = 0.443 ± 0.005 pg, and 187Os/188Os blank composition = 0.931 ± 0.01; numbers in paren-
theses are the ± errors for the last digit of the element concentrations

Discussion published by Chiaradia et al. (2009) on Zamora granodiorite

from San Carlos. It is in closer agreement with the unpub-
U-Pb zircon dating lished SHRIMP U-Pb date of 164.7 ± 2.2 Ma from coarse
A summary of isotope dates from the Zamora Cu-Au belt Zamora granodiorite on the Peruvian side of the Chinapintza
porphyry Cu deposits in the following discussion are pre- vein district, 55 km south of Mirador (McClelland, 2010). As
sented in Figure 10. Equigranular granodiorite from the discussed by Chiaradia et al. (2009), the San Carlos horn-
Chancho Norte prospect, representative of typical equigran- blende showed some Ar loss in the low-temperature steps,
ular plutonic rock of the Zamora batholith, gives a U-Pb zir- which was attributed to degassing of minor chlorite. The
con age of 163.8 ± 1.9 Ma. This is the first reported U-Pb age slightly lower age relative to the U-Pb dates at Mirador and
for plutonic rock of the Zamora batholiths, and statistically Chinapintza suggests that the hornblende at San Carlos was
coeval with the 160.6 ± 1.6 Ma 40Ar/39Ar hornblende age ob- slightly thermally reset during intrusion by the later por-
tained by Coder (2001) from equigranular granodiorite, and phyritic dikes. Note that Zamora granodiorite K-Ar ages from

ZCGB Porphyry Geochron

Northern Deposits Mirador District

Chancho Norte

Mirador Norte
SanCarlos

SanCarlos

SanCarlos

SanCarlos

SanCarlos

SanCarlos

Panantza
Kutukus

Kutukus

Mirador

Mirador

Mirador

Mirador
Sutzu

146 Qtz-Ser Alt

(muscovite)
148 San Carlos

151.9
150 152.0 early dike late dike
(whole rock) (hbl)
152 late dike
154.0
Zamora 153.5 Panantza 153.3 153.1
154 155.8 155.7
Sutzu 154.9
Age (Ma)

156 156.2
San Carlos
158 157.0 157.0 early dike 156.5
157.8
160 160.6
162 Zamora
Zamora
164 (hbl) 163.8
Zamora
166 granodiorite

168
170
K-Ar: Gendall et al. (2000) Ar-Ar: Coder (2001) Re-Os Mo: Coder (2001) U-Pb Zircon Re-Os Molybdenite
this study this study

Fig 10. Age relationships for porphyry Cu deposits in the Zamora Cu-Au belt. Re-Os ages of mineralization from all the
deposits falls between 153 and 158 Ma, with Mirador overlapping that of San Carlos and Sutzu. Porphyry dikes are coeval
with mineralization, with early dikes intruded at the onset of mineralization. The 160.6 Ma 40Ar-39Ar hornblende date and
two younger K-Ar dates from Zamora granodiorite at San Carlos and nearby Kutucus skarn are likely disturbed by late mag-
matism. Evidence for this can be seen in the relatively young K-Ar age for an early dike at San Carlos.

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30 DROBE ET AL.
the Kutucus skarn prospect, just east of San Carlos, yield even
younger ages, between 152 to 157 Ma (Gendall, 2000), and
likely also reflect disturbed Ar systematics.
Early, mineralized hornblende porphyry at Mirador yielded
an age of 156.2 ± 1.0 Ma, in temporal and geologic agreement
with the 156 Ma Re-Os ages for Mirador and Mirador Norte
mineralization presented in this study (Fig. 10; Table 5). That
is, veins cutting an intrusion must be younger than the intru-
sion. This date is contemporaneous with a 157.7 ± 1.4 Ma
SHRIMP U-Pb age determination of similar mineralized
dacite porphyry from the Peruvian side of the Chinapintza
Au-Ag vein district (McClelland, 2010). The early dikes at
Mirador are younger than early dacitic intrusions dated at
160.1 ± 0.2 Ma at the Fruta del Norte epithermal Au deposit,
20 km to the south (U-Pb zircon, Stewart, 2008; Fig. 2). They
are contemporaneous with mineralization at San Carlos, 40
km to the north (Coder, 2001; Chiaradia et al., 2009), The
central dacite dike at San Carlos (Fig. 4), which is similar to
early porphyry at Mirador in that it is thoroughly mineralized,
albeit with reduced copper grades relative to the granodiorite
it intrudes, yielded an Ar-Ar hornblende age (153.5 Ma) be-
tween the Re-Os age of mineralization (ca. 157 Ma) and
quartz-sericite alteration (151.9 Ma). Mineralized, early por-
phyry dikes at Panantza and Sutzu have not been dated, but
Re-Os dating of mineralization hosted by the dikes indicates
they must be older than 153.3 ± 0.5 and 154.9 ± 0.5 Ma, re-
spectively (Fig 3).
Late, postmineral dacite dikes and related phreatic brec-
cias at Mirador mark the end of volcanic activity there and
are dated at 153.1 ± 1.3 Ma. Thus, the ages of the earliest
and latest subvolcanic intrusions span 5.4 to 0.8 Ma. More
dikes would have to be dated before we can say whether
there was continuous or episodic volcanism over this period.
The late dikes can be considered coeval with late dacite por-
phyry at San Carlos (ca. 153.5 Ma), and porphyry Cu-Mo
mineralization at Panantza (ca. 153.3 Ma). They are younger
than ca. 155.4 Ma andesite overlying mineralization at Fruta
del Norte (based on two Ar-Ar hornblende dates; Stewart,
2008).
These dates indicate that the equigranular Zamora granite
is 4.2 to 11 Ma older than the earliest dacite dikes and por-
phyry mineralization. This is more than the 0.6 to 5.8 Ma
range in Ar-Ar ages between Zamora granodiorite and miner-
alization at San Carlos but is close to the 3.4 to 10.6 Ma U-Pb
age gap for the Chinapintza granodiorite and dacite porphyry.
The ca. 8 Ma gap is consistent with the observation that the
shallowly emplaced subvolcanic units are superimposed on
deeply emplaced plutonic rock, implying significant uplift be-
tween igneous events. While the larger, genetic relationship
between batholith and younger, shallow intrusive activity is
not well understood, we note that younger subvolcanic intru-
sions exploit long-lived structural zones occupied by older,
larger batholiths that have barren margins. Subvolcanic com-
plexes that mark the final magmatic stages of these batholiths
are associated with porphyry Cu ± Au ± Mo, skarn Au ± Cu,
and epithermal Au-Ag mineralization worldwide (Sillitoe,
1997; Tosdal and Richards, 2001; Richards, 2003). Whether
there is a real association of waning igneous activity and min-
eralization, or just a preservation of the final systems as uplift
of the batholith wanes, remains to be proven.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Re-Os dating
Re-Os ages for three molybdenite samples from Mirador
and Mirador Norte overlap within their 2σ uncertainties
(Table 5). The reported errors on the ages include the error
in the 187Re decay constant. A weighted average of the three
molybdenite ages shows that the mineralization occurred at
156.0 ± 1.0 Ma (MSWD = 2.5). This mineralization age is
consistent with, and appropriately bracketed by, the U-Pb
ages for the mineralized early porphyry dike (156.2 ± 1.0 Ma),
and the postmineralization dikes (153.1 ± 1.3 Ma).
The agreement of all three Re-Os ages indicates that both
Cu-Au deposits developed contemporaneously, despite Mi-
rador having a more complicated geologic history of postmin-
eral volcanic activity. These new ages agree well with Re-Os
molybdenite ages for porphyry-style Cu mineralization at the
north end of the Zamora Cu-Au belt, at San Carlos, Panantza,
and Sutzu (Fig. 10), as reported by Coder (2001) and Chiara-
dia et al. (2009). Mineralization at Mirador occurred between
the Panantza (153.3 ± 0.5 Ma) and San Carlos (157.8 ± 0.6
Ma) events. The Re-Os ages of mineralization closely bracket
the age range of subvolcanic units in these three deposits.
Stewart (2008) reported Re-Os data provided by the AIRIE
program. Three Late Jurassic Re-Os isochron ages from mar-
casite from the main zone at Fruta del Norte were obtained:
161 ± 3 Ma with duplicate of 156 ± 4 Ma for marcasite in the
conglomerate matrix, and 159 ± 2 Ma for vein marcasite. Vein
marcasite has LLHR (low-level Re, highly radiogenic Os)
qualities and therefore, the selection of the initial 187Os/188Os
has little effect on the calculated age (Stein et al., 2000).
While the marcasite ages are less precise, they do suggest that
vein mineralization at Fruta del Norte is coincident with ear-
liest intrusions there, at ca. 160 Ma.
Stewart (2008; AIRIE program) also reported a Middle
Jurassic age (169 ± 1 Ma) from a “possibly singular occurrence”
of molybdenite mineralization of uncertain affinity, located
600 m south of the Fruta del Norte epithermal mineraliza-
tion, and hosted by “Misahuallí” andesite. The sample is asso-
ciated with low-grade copper mineralization and propylitic al-
teration, but the Re content (0.33 ppm) is several orders of
magnitude lower than Re concentrations typically associated
with porphyry Cu mineralization (Stein et al., 2001; Zimmer-
man et al., 2008). As this age of mineralization predates the
ages of the Zamora pluton presented in this study, we con-
sider the Middle Jurassic age to reflect minor mineralization
associated with a pendant of probable Piuntza unit volcanic
rocks within the pluton beneath Fruta del Norte. Although
the age has no association with the main metallogenic event,
it does reasonably extend the age of the batholith to 169 Ma.
Re-Os ages at Mirador and Mirador Norte indicate they are
contemporaneous and not sequential pulses of magmatism,
within the precision of the dating method. We conclude their
relationship is primarily structural. This porphyry pair is sim-
ilar to the deposit pair San Carlos-Panantza to the north in the
Zamora Cu-Au belt, where 3- to 4-km separation occurs along
a northwest-southeast trend. The San Carlos-Panantza pair,
however, has nearly 4 m.y. difference in its mineralization ages.
Regional implications
The Zamora batholith has been extensively dated by previ-
ous workers using mostly K-Ar and Rb-Sr methods, which
30
 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR
gave a wide range of ages from 246 to 145 Ma (Hall and Calle,
1982; Litherland et al., 1994) and encompassed the ages re-
ported in this paper. We note that the bulk of the historic K-
Ar and all the Rb-Sr ages reported from the Zamora batholith
by Litherland et al. (1994) are older than U-Pb ages of plu-
tonic rock at Mirador and Chinapintza presented in this
study, as well as the K-Ar and Ar-Ar ages of plutonic rock at
San Carlos, Kutucus, and Nambija (Chiaradia et al., 2009).
The maximum Early Triassic age of 246 ± 17 Ma is an Rb-Sr
date from a suite of pink K-feldspar hornblende granite and
microdiorite from the Rio Pitúca area, at the south end of the
Nambija Au skarn (Fig. 2; Litherland et al., 1994). Other Rb-
Sr dates from the area include 187 ± 2 Ma from hornblende-
biotite granodiorite near La Paz (15 km NW of Yantzatza, Fig.
2), and 198 ± 34 Ma from hornblende-biotite granodiorite
near Paquisha, east of Nambija. Litherland et al. (1994) pro-
vided a histogram plot of 29 K-Ar dates from the batholith
showing a bimodal distribution of ages, with peaks at 150 to
160 and 170 to 180 Ma; they concluded “the bulk” of the
batholith was intruded between 190 to 170 Ma. All rocks de-
scribed as “porphyritic” fall under the 150 to 160 Ma peak
and suggest the bimodal distribution of ages supports the di-
vision of the batholith into Middle Jurassic plutonic and Late
Jurassic, late-stage subvolcanic intrusions.
The Late Triassic K-Ar hornblende date of 230 ± 14 Ma re-
ported by Litherland et al. (1994) from andesite south of La
Paz, near Yantzatza, and the K-feldspar porphyry hornblende-
biotite granite at Rio Pitúca, with an Rb-Sr date of 246 ± 17
Ma date, are likely remnants of poorly preserved, mid-Trias-
sic volcanism unrelated to, and greatly predating, the Jurassic
volcanic arc which generated the bulk of the Zamora
batholith. These pre-Norian dates correlate with the Hercyn-
ian orogeny and these rocks are perhaps better considered as
not part of early igneous history of the batholith, but rather as
wall rocks or pendants within the batholith. With this in mind,
the older (i.e., >170 Ma) series of K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages most
likely reflect some inheritance from these older elements in
the batholith. Additional evidence of Triassic material incor-
porated into the batholith comes from a single SHRIMP-RG
microprobe analysis of a core of an oscillatory zoned zircon
from mineralized dacite at Chinapintza (only 25 km east of
the Rio Pitúca sample), which yielded a 241.3 ± 3.7 Ma age
(McClelland, 2009). More mapping, dating, and geochemical
classification of the older batholith components is necessary,
therefore, before the batholith can be considered to have ini-
tiated in the Early Jurassic. There is more evidence in the
sedimentary record that the belt was a marine basin at that
time.
Plutonic rocks of latest Triassic-Early Jurassic ages are
known from the La Bonita batholith in southwestern Colom-
bia, which did host a volcanic arc at the time (Sillitoe et al.,
1984). This magmatism appears to have propagated south-
ward during the Early Jurassic (Jaillard et al., 1990) from cen-
tral Colombia through Ecuador into northern Peru, and by
the Late Jurassic there are widespread subvolcanic rocks and
associated porphyry Cu mineralization. This latter magma-
tism appears to have been slightly younger in the south but
dates show much overlap. Porphyry Cu mineralization at the
Dolores and Mocoa deposits in the La Bonita batholith in
Colombia is dated at 166 to 172 Ma (sericite and whole-rock
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31
K-Ar dates, Sillitoe et al., 1982). To the south, the Abitagua
batholith contains no known porphyry mineralization, but
Litherland et al. (1994) reported a 162 ± 1 Ma age derived
from a 16-point Rb-Sr isochron from three composite sam-
ples of hornblende-biotite granodiorite and felsic vein mater-
ial (mineralization?). Although these samples are not de-
scribed in detail, they could be at least in part from
subvolcanic rocks, as Baldock (1982) described subvolcanic
and “altered” volcanic units within the batholith. The 162 Ma
of the Abitagua fits between that and the younger Re-Os
dates of mineralization at Panantza-San Carlos (ca. 158−153
Ma) and Mirador (ca. 156 Ma, this study).
Figure 11 places these new dates within a Mesozoic strati-
graphic section for southeast Ecuador. Latest Triassic to
Lower Jurassic Santiago Formation volcanic and marine sed-
imentary rocks are not well preserved in the belt, their upper
and lower contacts being destroyed by the Middle Jurassic
magmatic arc, but they had reached sufficient thickness to
allow for plutonism by ca. 164 Ma. The Zamora Cu-Au belt
then went through a cycle of uplift, erosion, and burial be-
tween 164 Ma and Late Jurassic magmatism at ca. 156 to 160
Ma, which helps bracket the age of the Chapiza Formation.
Thereafter the area underwent another cycle of uplift and
erosion, which lasted until about the Aptian, or ca. 125 Ma,
when deposition of the Hollin Formation was initiated. The
Cretaceous transgression continued until the Andean
orogeny. The greatest limitations in refining the history are
the lack of dates and geochemistry from the Triassic-Early
Jurassic sedimentary and volcanic rocks, respectively, and the
lack of fossils to date the base of the Hollin Formation.
Figure 12 further illustrates four stages of development of
the Zamora Cu-Au belt, beginning with intrusion of the
Zamora batholith into Santiago Formation and Piuntza unit
marine volcano-sedimentary rocks, possibly along a deep-
seated high-angle fault (Gendall et al., 2000), ending by about
164 Ma. Thereafter followed ca. 8 m.y. of uplift and erosion,
bringing equigranular plutonic rock to the surface, ending in
the onlap of shallow Late Jurassic mixed continental-derived
arenite and arc-derived arkose and conglomerate of the
Chapiza Formation (Sarayaquillo Formation in Peru) that
marked the onset of a regional Late Jurassic-Early Creta-
ceous transgression flooding the entire western South Amer-
ican margin (Jaillard et al., 1990). Then followed a protracted
episode of igneous activity from 156 to 153 Ma that resulted
in subvolcanic porphyry stocks and dikes, porphyry Cu-Au-
Mo mineralization, epithermal Au deposits, and local Au-Cu
skarns where the dikes intruded Santiago Formation wall
rocks (as at Kutucus).
The dacite dikes appear to record a change in tectonic
stress regime, coincident with the regional Cu-Au mineraliza-
tion event. Mineralized early dacite dikes uniformly have
northwest strikes, parallel to the geochemical trends connect-
ing the closely spaced porphyry Cu deposits (Panantza-San
Carlos and Mirador-Mirador Norte). The late or postmineral-
ization dikes uniformly strike northeast. If the NW strike rep-
resents dilation on structures related to N-S sinistral stresses
along N-S strike-slip faults, the NE strikes could represent a
reversal to dextral stress along N-NE-striking faults, consis-
tent with changes in the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithon-
ian) regional tectonics as interpreted by Jaillard et al. (1990).
31
32 DROBE ET AL.

99.6 Ma
Napo Fm. limestone
Albian

Hollin Fm.
fining upward transgression, return
112 conglomerate,
Cretaceous Aptian quartzite,
shale
to marine setting
125
conglomerate
Early
Barremian unconformity
130 Hiatus erosion
Hauterivian 132 Ma (K-Ar)

ZCGB uplift and erosion

Dominated
136 youngest age

Arc
Valanginian Misahuallí for Misahuallí

Chapiza Fm.
140
volcanics
Berriasian Nambija Gold Skarn
145.5 Ma 145 Ma

Continental
Tithonian late dikes
151

Shelf
Late

Kimmeridgian 153 Ma Mirador Porphyry Cu

156 redbeds 156 Ma 156 Ma
Oxfordian early dikes
161 FDN Epithermal Gold
Callovian 164 Ma 160 Ma
165 rest in part
Bathonian on Zamora Zamora continental setting
Middle
Jurassic

168 Batholith
Bajocian 169 Ma
172 Mo mineralization
Aalenian within batholith, FDN
176 Hiatus?
Toarcian unclear contact
183
relationship
Pliensbachian ~190 Ma earliest emplacement age
Early

190
Sinemurian
197 marine setting
Santiago Fm.

Hettangian marine shales,

201.6 Ma limestone
Rhaetian 204
Triassic

Norian Piuntza calc-alkaline (?), intermediate

Late

unit volcanic rocks

base not defined
228
Carnian
235

FIG. 11. Stratigraphic section for Mesozoic rocks of southeast Ecuador, placing the dates presented in this study in con-
text; time scale ages from Walker and Geissman (2009). U-Pb ages of intrusions are orange diamonds; Re-Os ages for min-
eralization are green (porphyry Cu) and yellow (gold skarn and epithermal) circles. Questionable older Rb-Sr and K-Ar dates
for the Zamora batholith give it a wide range of ages, from 246 to 164 Ma. The earliest plausible age is 190 Ma, based on
Sinemurian fossil evidence from the Santiago Formation, which the batholith intrudes. The regional U-Pb and Re-Os dates
indicate the main plutonic phase was probably between 164 to 169 Ma. The late Early Jurassic to late Middle Jurassic ap-
pears to mark a sedimentary hiatus between marine rocks of the Santiago Formationand the mixed continental and arc-de-
rived strata of the Chapiza Formation, but Litherland et al. (1994) interpreted the two successions as conformable, and this
relationship needs more study. Volcanism dominated the area until about 132 Ma, when the area was uplifted and eroded
prior to the Cretaceous transgression. This start of this event is also poorly constrained in the area.

The porphyry mineralization appears to be related to this re-
versal of movement; similar timing of porphyry mineraliza-
tion to stress reversal has been noted elsewhere in the Andes
and tied to changes between transpressional and transten-
sional regimes (Lindsay et al., 1995; Richards et al., 2001).
Following the 156 to 153 Ma activity, coeval volcanic rocks
and related epithermal gold deposits above the subvolcanic
porphyries are eroded away as continued uplift occurs prior
to, and possibly as a result of, a late pulse of magmatism at
145 Ma, recorded at Nambija in a parallel structure 20 km
west of the Mirador-Fruta del Norte-San Carlos-Panantza
trend. This uplift and erosion helps to explain the lack of
epithermal deposits associated with the numerous porphyry
Cu deposits. The only known Late Jurassic epithermal gold
deposit that survived the uplift is Fruta del Norte, which was
deposited in a low-standing, north-south graben south of
Fruta del Norte (Stewart and Leary, 2007) along with calc-
alkaline volcanic rocks of the Misahuallí Member of the
Chapiza Formation. The Nambija Au skarns formed deeper
than epithermal gold deposits and were preserved (Vallance
et al., 2009).
The porphyry Cu, skarn Au, and Fruta del Norte epithermal
Au deposit was buried and preserved by Early Cretaceous
back-arc sedimentation during deposition of the Hollin and

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 MIRADOR Cu-Au PORPHYRY DISTRICT, SE ECUADOR 33

West ca. 164 Ma East West ca. 153 Ma Mis ahualli

East
Volc anic arc
Piuntza Santiago
calc-silicate Fm. Chapiza redbeds
altered
volcanic calc-silicate
altered
~160 Ma
rocks FDN epithermal
marine rocks regional
Au porphyry ~155 Ma
Zamora Piuntza
Cu-Au-Mo Kutucus
153-158 Ma Cu-Au
redbeds Batholith calc-silicate
altered subvolcanic skarn
164 Ma early volcanic dikes & stocks
rocks
169 Ma
skarns ? Zamora 153 Ma
A B Batholith 156 Ma

East
Napo Present
East West
West ca. 100 Ma Chinapintza Fm.
Hollin Fm.
Napo Fm.
30 Ma Fm.
HollinMirador
continental shelf
Hollin Fm. distal provenance Nambija 155 Ma
c onformable porphyry
Nambija Au Kutucus
skarn
local Cu-Au
Au porphyry grabens FDN Cu-Au
local Cu-Au skarn
skarn grabens FDN Kutucus
145 Ma Cu-Au subvolcanic
skarn dikes & stocks
subvolcanic
dikes & stocks
Zamora
Batholith
C D
FIG. 12. Schematic historic depiction of events from Early Jurassic to Present; symbols for age dating methods as in Fig-
ure 1. A. Intrusion of the Zamora batholith into Santiago Formation marine sedimentary rocks and Piuntza unit volcanic
rocks finishes ca. 164 Ma; this initializes isostatic uplift. B. Pulse of continental arc magmatism beginning ca. 156 Ma, em-
placing the early subvolcanic intrusions and generating the porphyry copper deposits of the Zamora Cu-Au belt from 153 to
158 Ma, as well as epithermal gold at Fruta del Norte (FDN), and skarn at the margins at Kutucus. Following continued up-
lift, a last pulse at 145 Ma results in Au skarn at Nambija. C. Continued uplift and erosion until about the Aptian, at which
point the region is eroded down, or tectonically subsided, to sea level; associated extension creates local grabens that fill with
conglomerate and preserve minor amounts of the Jurassic volcanic pile; the porphyry deposits at their present level of ero-
sion are all exposed at this time and then covered by Early Cretaceous sediments derived from the Guyanan shield to the
east. D. Main Andean orogeny uplifts large blocks of the sub-Andean region with little tilting, except within minor sub-
blocks. There is felsic volcanism at 30 Ma along structures. The porphyry deposits are once again exposed to surface, though
the Fruta del Norte gold deposit remains mostly buried beneath basal Hollin units.

then Napo Formations during the continuing transgression
affecting the western South American margin (Jaillard et al.,
1990). The exact timing of the onset of flooding of the Zamora
Cu-Au belt by continental sedimentation of the Hollin Forma-
tion is unclear due to a local lack of fossils and the fact that the
onset of Early Cretaceous sedimentation is highly diachronous
across the region covering eastern Ecuador (Villagomez et al.,
1996), and south into Peru. North of the belt, volcanic rocks of
the Misahuallí Member of the Chapiza Formation have a K-
Ar age as young as 132 Ma (Hall and Calle, 1982; Litherland
et al., 1994) and this may be the last magmatism before trans-
gression there. In western Peru, transgressive sandstones are
as old as Early Valanginian (137 Ma; Villagomez et al., 1996).
In southeastern Ecuador, closest to the Zamora Cu-Au belt,
fossils indicate that the base of the Hollin is Late Aptian age
(112 Ma; Villagomez et al., 1996). The flat strata of the Hollin
Formation that overlie the porphyry deposits from Panantza to
Mirador indicate that the level of Early Cretaceous erosion
was relatively consistent across at least 60 km of the batholith,
and there has been only very slight (<5°) tilting of the systems.
Hollin basal conglomerate, with volcanic and Zamora granite
clasts, is preserved only locally, possibly within fault valleys co-
incident with pre-Cretaceous grabens, as at Fruta del Norte.
Late Cretaceous to Tertiary (Andean orogeny) magmatism
occurred mostly along the buried western margin of the
Zamora batholith, but also as small bodies within the
batholith. Both mafic diorite plugs and felsic sills and dikes
intruded the Hollin and overlying Napo Formations. At Chi-
napintza, the rhyodacite dikes and plugs are U-Pb dated at ca.
30 Ma (Gaschnig, 2009); at Fruta del Norte a mafic dike was
Ar-Ar dated at ca. 63 to 71 Ma (Stewart, 2008). Recent uplift
and sub-Andean block faulting, with only very local tilting
(but up to near-vertical rotation of beds), inverted the topog-
raphy so that the Cretaceous basins are now plateaus, and the
deposits are exposed on valley sides below the capping
quartzite formations (Fig. 12d).
Conclusions
Re-Os dating of porphyry Cu-Au mineralization and U-Pb
dating of calc-alkaline, subvolcanic porphyry units at Mirador
and Mirador Norte confirms that these deposits are con-
temporaneous with similar Late Jurassic porphyry Cu-Mo

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34 DROBE ET AL.
deposits and epithermal Au deposits in the Zamora Cu-Au
belt, as well as other porphyry Cu districts extending the
length of the Northern Andes from southern Ecuador into
central Colombia. Intrusion of the earliest (mineralized) por-
phyries at ca. 156 Ma into Zamora granodiorite host rock of
ca. 164 Ma age indicates a ca. 8 m.y. period of uplift and ero-
sion prior to the shallow magmatism. Sillitoe et al. (1982) re-
ported a similar age gap between the Late Jurassic-Early Cre-
taceous porphyry Cu deposits and hosting plutonic rocks in
Colombia. This activity was contemporaneous with onset of
porphyry copper mineralization within the resolution of the
dating methods and was focused along NW-trending struc-
tures. Igneous activity continued for another ca. 4 m.y. post-
mineralization along dominantly northeast structures. Re-Os
ages at Mirador and Mirador Norte indicate contemporane-
ous mineralization, within the precision of the dating method,
at ca. 156 Ma. At San Carlos-Panantza, located 40 km to the
north, the mineralization was in sequential pulses ca. 4 m.y.
apart between 157 and 153 Ma, respectively.
On a regional scale, over much of the length of the
Zamora batholith, overlapping ages for various subvolcanic
intrusions from Panantza southward to Chinapintza indicate
a period of probable protracted shallow magmatism from
156 to 153 Ma. After a brief hiatus, a last localized magmatic-
mineralization event took place at Nambija at ca. 145 Ma,
prior to uplift, erosion, and burial beneath Early Cretaceous
platform sediments. The range of U-Pb ages closely agrees
with the Re-Os ages for mineralization, indicating that horn-
blende-feldspar subvolcanic dikes are clearly associated with
an important regional metalliferous volcanic event that
spanned >100 km along the Cordillera del Condor. Mag-
matic centers are spaced roughly 15 to 20 km apart. Based on
evidence from San Carlos, Mirador, and Chinapintza,
equigranular plutonic rock of the Zamora batholith is signif-
icantly older (ca. 8 m.y.) than porphyritic, subvolcanic rocks
associated with copper mineralization at both Mirador and
San Carlos. This age gap is consistent with the juxtaposition
of equigranular and subvolcanic igneous textures, which in-
dicate that considerable uplift and erosion of the batholith
took place prior to the intrusion of the subvolcanic units. Un-
like other porphyry Cu belts worldwide, where mineraliza-
tion appears tied to final magmatic activity ending a long-
lived, subduction-related igneous complex, in the Zamora
Cu-Au belt the peak of metalliferous magmatic activity at ca.
156 Ma occurred some 10 m.y. prior to the final episode of
magmatism at ca. 145 Ma.
Some possible causes for the end of subduction and vol-
canic activity at the close of the Jurassic along this segment of
the Northern Andes include allochthonous terrane accretion
(Litherland et al., 1994) and changing subduction configura-
tions resulting from changes in plate motion (Jaillard et al.,
1990; Chiaradia et al., 2009). In the Zamora Cu-Au belt, in-
trusive and metalliferous activity along NW-trending struc-
tures was followed by unmineralized intrusions localized
along NE-trending structures at ca. 153 Ma. This implies a
change in plate motion and within-arc stress fields from sinis-
tral to dextral. Conversely, there is no evidence for Late Juras-
sic collisional terrane accretion, since the Mesozoic units are
mostly unstrained. Pratt et al. (2005) gave additional evidence
supporting an autochonous geologic model for the Jurassic
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and/or Cretaceous portion of the Cordillera Real and the sub-
Andean zone that encompasses the Zamora Cu-Au belt.
Much work remains to refine the early history of the
Zamora batholith by separating out the pre-Jurassic volcanic
units from the plutonic rocks. This would help clarify local ge-
otectonic conditions at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.
Through more detailed mapping and U-Pb dating, these units
also need to be distinguished from Misahuallí Member vol-
canic and subvolcanic units, which are the most economically
promising rocks in the belt.
Acknowledgments
We thank the many Mirador field personnel of EcuaCorri-
ente S.A., especially project geologists Juan Leon, Eduardo
Vaca, and Luis Quevedo. We thank Ken Shannon of Corri-
ente Resources Inc. for approving funding for this study and
for many helpful discussions. We also thank Massimo Chiara-
dia for a thorough review and many helpful comments.
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