CONSTRUCTION

MANAGEMENT
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The programming methods of the

construction processes
• Construction planning involves the choice of technology,
• the definition of the work tasks,
• the estimation of the required resources and duration for
each individual task,
• the identification of any interactions among the different
work tasks and the identification of any restriction
affecting the project activities.
• The programming problem is to determine an
appropriate set of activity start times, resource
allocation and completion . times that will result in
completion of a project in a timely and efficient
fashion
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

Construction Management-Daniel.W.Halpin
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 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

SCHEDULING METHODS
There are relatively few basic scheduling
systems in use today, although numerous
variants of each are in use. Generally,
scheduling methods can be classed in four
major categories.
• 1. Line-of-balance charts
• 2. Bar charts
• 3. Velocity charts (S-curves)
• 4. Network diagrams
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

Network diagrams

I; t=8

RT  3
13 13
F; t=4 H; t=7
3
9 9 RT  0 RT  0
B; t=4 E; t=6
2
RT  0 RT  0 20 20
0 0 5 5 24 24
A; t=5 C; t=7 G; t=5 J; t=4
0 1 4 5 6
RT  0 RT  3 RT  0 RT  0
15 15
D; t=12

RT  3
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The most common and widely used techniques available

for programming are:
line of balance - for repetitive work;
network analysis - for any type of work.
Both of the two are in fact the support for constructing the
barchart (time-chart) which in turn will be the support for
developing subsequent charts, relevant in managing the
project: i.e. resource histograms, cumulative curves (“S” curves).

The Continuity – construction processes without

interruptions during the whole period of their existence on
the field.
The rhythmicity – has in view especially the optimal use of
the production capacity of the field, during the whole period
of execution of a certain category of work (new
constructions, repairs, consolidations, modernizations, etc).
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
The uniformity – imposes the condition that the
production expressed physically or from the point of view
of the value, in terms of time, be the same during the
whole interval of execution of a certain category of work
(new constructions, repairs, consolidations, etc).
The proportionality – is a normal requirement that they
must have in view in order to obtain maximum efficiency.
Regarding the organization of the processes’ execution,
this criterion supposes that all specialized teams
(carpenters, steel benders, plumbers, etc) are assigned
the work tasks, in proportion to:
The synchronization – has in view the permanent
busyness of the work teams which are present at a
given moment on the field that executes a certain
category of works (new constructions, repairing,
consolidations, etc).
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Line of balance
The LOB technique was originated by the Goodyear Company
in the early 1940's and was developed by the U.S. Navy in
the early 1950's for the programming and control of both
repetitive and non-repetitive projects (Turban 1968, Johnston
1981, Lutz and Halpin 1992)
The basic concepts of LOB have been applied in the
construction industry as a planning and scheduling method
(Lumsden 1968, Khisty 1970)
Examples include velocity diagrams (Roech 1972),
construction planning technique (CPT) (Peer and Selinger
1973), vertical production method (VPM) (O'Brien 1975),
linear scheduling method (LSM) (Johnston 1981),
time space scheduling method (TSSM) (Stradal and
Cacha 1982), and repetitive project model (RPM) (Reda 1990).
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Line of balance is a programming technique for repetitive

work such as: house building, road works, pipe works,
sewers, sea walls, retaining walls, where logic is fairly
simple and location is the real key to the programme.
To sustain this technique, a number of assumptions must
be made, as follows:
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To sustain this technique, a number of assumptions
must be made, as follows:

Work is divided in separate packages of work, called

“construction cycles”.

The whole structure(s) is divided in “sections”, according

to its dimension, shape or other relevant considerations
(i.e. One kilometre of road may be a section of a roadwork;
a floor may be considered as a section of a high-rise building
etc) .

Each construction cycle will be provided with specialised

workers having the necessary resources and plant so that
each team performs its work on each section preferably
in a subsequent manner.
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To avoid overmanning at times, on a section, a single

construction cycle will be carried out.

It is advisable that the rate of progress of a cycle to

remain the same throughout the whole sections. This
requirement sometimes can be hardly fulfilled because
the irregular shape of the structure, which will imply
variable quantities of work to each section.

This in turn, will lead to variable rates of progress for a

cycle in its movement on the project sections (assuming
the team size being constant).
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The basis of the line of balance technique is to find the rate of

progress and the corresponding resources (labour, plant,
materials etc) for each construction cycle of the project and
then, to arrange them in a logic and efficient manner in order
to complete the project.

The diagram which shows the inter-relationships

among the project cycles as they are carried out
on each of the sections is known as the
line of balance.
Before presenting the steps of preparing a proper line of
balance schedule, the three basic methods of arranging
(programming), some construction cycles (activities)
will be presented.
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Organizational methods
of the execution of the
construction processes

The subsequent method - having

two possible variant forms;
The parallel method;
The balance method - having three
possible variant forms.
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By organizational method of the execution of the construction

processes, we understand a way of arrangement and
development in time and space of the processes related to
the accomplishment of a product of the construction activity,

see table 1.1, by respecting the normal technological succession,

pointing out some objectives which were estimated before:

a certain total duration of execution (DP),

a certain profit (PP),
a certain productivity (WP), etc.
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The subsequent method:
content, advantages, disadvantages.

The subsequent method consists in the fact that, at a given

moment, on the field, they execute a single construction
process on a work sector.
According to the proposed goal, the subsequent method
is presented in 2 versions:

a) Version 1. – has in view that the total duration of

execution of the processes performed on a sector (Di)
be as short as possible.
For exemplification, we consider the execution, by
the subsequent method, of a concrete pipe duct,
for which we established the following processes:
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1. duct excavation (t1);

………………………………..
2 . pipe assembling .
………………………………..
3. tightness check up (ti);
………………………………….
4. filling material (tm).

In case that the rate of progress is constant on the “n”

sectors (ti = const), the graphic pattern is the
following, fig.3.1.
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s
1 2..i ...n

tai
n
.
.
j ta2
Tightness check up
.
.
.
.
. ta1 Pipe assembling
1

Filling material Excavation execution

t
t1 t2...ti…tm t1 t2..ti….tm t1 t2...ti…tm t1 ..t2.. ….tm

D1 DD1 D2 Di Dj Dn

D
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From the graphic representation it can be noticed that:

m
D1 = t1 + t2 + … + ti + tm =
m
t
i 1
Dj = t1 + t2 + … + ti + tm = t
mi 1
Dn = t1 + t2 + … + ti + tm = t
i 1
As:
D1 = D2F = … = Dj = . . Dn It results that:
m

D = n · Dj = n · t
i 1

In case that the rate of progress of each process differs from

sector to sector (ti1  ti2  …  tin), the corresponding
graphic pattern is the following, fig. 3.2.
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The graphic pattern of the subsequent method,
s version 1, when ti1≠ ti2 ≠ ..... ≠ tin
1 2 i m

1
D
t11 t12 t1i t1m t21 t22 t2i t2m
D1 D2 Dj Dn
D
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

From the graphic representation it can be noticed that:

m

D1 = t11 + t21 + … + ti1 + tm1 = t

i 1
i
1

= t
j
Dj = t1j + t2j +…+ tij + tmj i
i 1
m

Dn = t1n + t2n + … + tin + tmn =  t i

n

·
i 1
The total duration of execution (D) results by summing the
durations corresponding to the sectors, as it follows:
i
j

D = D1 + D2 + … + Dj + … + Dn
It results
n
that:
m
D =  t
j 1 i 1
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b) Version 2 – has in view the providing of the work continuity,

for each specialized team, when passing from a sector to
another. In case that the rate of progress of each process is
constant on the “n” sectors (ti = const.), the graphic pattern is
the following.
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S
1 2 i m

n. τm1,2 τm2,i τmi,m

.
.
J τJ1,2 τJ2,i τJi,m

.
.
τ21,2 τ22,i τ2i,m
.
.
1 τ11,2 τ12,i τ1i,m

t1 t1 t1 t1 t2 t2 t2 t2 ti ti ti ti tm tm tm tm t
T1 T2 Ti Tm
D
The graphic pattern of the subsequent method, version2, when
ti = constant on all the sectors.
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From the graphic representation it can be noticed that:

T1 = t1 + t1 + …+ t1 = n . T1
………………………….
Ti = ti + ti + …+ ti = n · ti
………………………………
Tm = tm + tm + …+ tm = n · tm
The total duration of execution (D) results by summing
the total durations corresponding to the “m” processes:
i

D = T 1 + T 2 + … + T m = n (t1 + t2 + … + tm)
It results mthat:
D= n  t In case that the rate of progress of each process
i 1 Differs from sector to sector
(ti1  ti2  … tij  …  tin),
the corresponding graphic pattern is the following.
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S

1 2 J m

n
. τn1,2 τ n2,i τ ni,m
.
.
J
. τJ1,2 τ J2,i τ Ji,m
.
.
2 τ21,2 τ 22,i τ 2i,m

1
τ11,2 τ 12,i τ 1i,m

t1J Tm t
t11 t12 t1n t21 t22 t2J t2n ti 1
ti 2 tiJ ti n
tm1 tm2 tmJ tmn
T1 T2 D Ti

The graphic pattern tof

? t the
? … ? tsubsequent method, 1
i
2
i
n
i

version 2, when ti1≠ ti2 ≠ ..... ≠ tin

 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

From the graphic representation it can be noticed that:

n

T1 = t11 + t12 + … + t1j + t1n =  t 1j

j 1
…………………………………… n
Ti = ti + ti + … + ti + ti =  t j
1 2 j n
j 1 i

…………………………………….n
Tm = tm1 + tm2 + … + tmj + tmn =m
j t
· j 1

The total duration of execution (D) results from summing the

total durations corresponding to those “m” processes:
j
i

D = T1 + T2 + … + Ti + … + Tm
It results
n m
that:
D =  t
j 1 i 1
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The application of the subsequent method has the following

advantages:
The presence of a low number of workers on the field, fact that
determines the reduction, to minimum, of the constructions
field organization with social-administrative character
(lodging, vestiary, refectory, etc).
The intensity of the resource consumption (assimilated with
the daily consumption) is low, fact that determines the
reduction, to minimum, of the means of transportation and
of the constructions of field organization for the materials’
storage.
It is easy to manage and to track.
In version 1, the total duration of execution (Di) of a sector,
is very short, the sector being finished at regular intervals,
fact that determines a rhythmic production.
In version 2, the continuity of work is assured, for each
specialized team at the passing from one sector to another.
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The subsequent method has disadvantages, too:

The total duration of the works’ execution (D) is very big.

In version 1, don’t provide one of the basic principles of

the execution’s organization – the continuity, fact that leads to
the totally disadvantageous situation, from the economical
point of view, in which every specialized team interrupts its
activity for certain periods (.. tai), this way the production costs
being increased with the expenses imposed by the existence
of the teams on the field.

In version 2, they don’t respect another basic principal of the

execution’s organization – the synchronization, fact that
determines a sector on which they executed a process, to
wait for a period of time (τJi,i+1), shorter or longer, till the
beginning of the following immediate process.
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The subsequent method can be applied, with good results,

in the following situations:
When they have in view the execution of several objectives,
during the same period of time, so that during the waiting
intervals (tai), the specialized teams are moved to these
objectives, in order to assure the continuity, the solution is
not applicable to those processes for the execution of which
they need to use equipment which can’t be moved;

When all the processes are performed with the help of one
work team which comprises poly-qualified workers, with skills
corresponding to various works, the solution is applicable to
those processes between which there is a certain technical
and technological compatibility, but which have the
disadvantage of not respecting the principle of the workers’
specialization, fact that leads to the decrement of the work’s
productivity;
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

When the dimensions, in plane, of the object are small,

the object is executed in an isolated place, and they can’t use
other methods of organization.

The selection of one of the two versions will be made according

to the actual conditions of execution which impose restrictions
of development in time and space of the processes.
The method in parallel: content, advantages,
disadvantages.

It is characterized by the fact that, a construction process

“i”, is executed simultaneously (in parallel) on all the
“n” sectors, by “n” work teams of the same specialization.
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When the rate of progress corresponding to each process is

constant on all the sectors (ti = const), the graphic pattern
of the method in parallel has the following form.
S

1 2 ...................... m

F 1n F 2n F mn
n

F 1J F 2J F mJ
.

. F 12 F 22 F m2

.
.
F 21 F m1
1 tF
1
11

......................
t
t2 ...................... tm

D
m

Parallel method grafic

Fig. 3.5 Modelul ti =const D= 
pentru metoda in tparallel
i 1
i
in cazul ti = const
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S

1 2 . . . . m

F 2n Dn
n F 1n
.
.
F 1J F 2J
. DJ
J
F 12 F 22
.
D2
.
.
F 11 F 21
1 D1

t
D

The graphic pattern for the method in parallel,

when ti1≠ ti2 ≠ ..... ≠ tin
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When the rate of progress corresponding to each process

differs from sector to sector, (t1i ≠ t2i ≠ …≠tni), the graphic
pattern corresponding to the method in parallel has the
following form.
m m m

D1 =  t ;..;Dj =  t ; …; Dn =  i
m

; D2 =  t
1 J n
i
2 i t
i J 1
i 1 i 1
i 1

The total duration of execution of the works (D), using the

method in parallel (D), is:

D = Max (D1 ,D2, …,DJ, … Dn)

The basic advantage of the method in parallel is given by

the very short total duration of execution (D).
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The utilization of this method supposes the following

disadvantages:
It needs a total zone of work; the execution of the processes
with the respective specialized teams, simultaneously on all
the “n” sectors is conditioned by this, without which it can’t
be applied.;

It needs a big number of workers, “n” teams of the same

specialization, fact that leads to the increment of the expenses
of organization on the field, in order to provide their
social-administrative conditions;

It needs a big volume of materials of the same type, of the

same range, with serious implications on the increment of the
expenses of organization of field for their management;
 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The coordination and the control of the activities on the field

impose a serious effort from the person in charge with the
work organized by the method in parallel.
They can easily draw the conclusion that the method in parallel
has sufficient disadvantages, so that it determines us to look
for another solution in order to organize the execution.

Though, the method in parallel can be used with good results

for works for which they can provide total zone of work
(generally works with linear character or plant works in
constructions for which they perform at least the resistance
structure), the field having the capacity to provide the necessary
resources (work force, work objects and work means).
They can provide this way, the obtaining of a total duration of
execution as short as possible.
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The balance method: content, the method’s principles.

The two methods, subsequent and respectively
the method in parallel are accomplished on antipodal
positions, as a way of conception of the disposal and
development in time and space of the processes,
with consequences as opposed as the positions.

This acknowledgement leads to the conclusion that

“the truth”, meaning a more rational method, is somewhere
in between.

This is the idea of departure of the method in chain, the

idea of combining the advantages and eliminating as far as
possible the disadvantages of the subsequent method and
of the method in parallel.
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The balance method , consists in the disposal and

development in time and space of the
processes, so that the specialized teams of workers pass
successively from a sector to another, each team executing
a process per sector, create a working front for the team
which executes the next process.
We propose the following example, in order to be able to
suggest this basic content of the balance method:
By simplifying to maximum the execution of a concrete
pipe duct, and proposing three processes, for which the
Rate of progress are equal with “t”.
-Duct excavation;
-Concrete pipe assembling;
-Filling material execution.
the disposal (the beginning of work), of each team and the
subsequent development in time and space, corresponding
to the balance method , of the processes, are presented in fig.
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Momentul de terminare al unui

proces pe un sector si trecerea pe
3 sectorul urmãtor,
sãpãturã

sãpãturã
2

Montare tuburi

sãpãturã 1
Montare tuburi
Umpluturã 1 2 3 t
Momentul de intrare in lucru a formatiei 3
Momentul de intrare in lucru a formatiei 2
Momentul de intrare in lucru a formatiei 1
Fig. 3.7. Modelul grafic general pentru metoda în lant
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From the graphic representation they notice the combination

of the successive method with the method in parallel:
If they have in view the execution of the processes on the
first sector, this corresponds to version 1 of the
subsequent method;
If they have in view the execution of the processes 1,2,3,
in the third day, they notice a clear method in parallel,
except that, instead of three teams of the same specialization,
there are involved three teams of different specializations.
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The adopted simplification regarding the equity of the work

rhythms could determine us to draw a false conclusion, that the
method in chain is very simple. Actually, the way of development
in time and space of the processes from fig 3.7
“would be too good to be true”. The difficulties of the application
of the method in chain are plural and they will be relieved in
the following chapters.
We will signal only the following aspects:

The distribution per sectors is not a simple demarcation on

the table or on the field, it is imposed by very complex
technological and organizational conditionings;

The delimitation of the sectors determines critically variations

of the work rhythm (because of the variation of volumes of works),
what makes that, the coordination in time and space of the
activity of the teams of workers be difficult.
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The application of the balance method, for the organization

of the execution of construction processes is based on the
following principles (hypotheses), expressed, in general, as:
1.The volume of works, afferent to the object that is going to
be executed by the balance method , taken over from
pre-measurements, or established by a quantitative evaluation
based on the details of execution, is structured on
cycles – simple or complex processes, sometimes very
complex, which are restarted identically from a sector to another.

2.The product of the construction activity, which is going to

be obtained by the application of the balance method,
is distributed on work sectors, so that their configuration and
dimensions are quite equal.
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3.For the execution of the cycles they will provide teams of

workers endowed with equipment and facilities specific to
their technology of execution, which pass successively from
sector to sector, with the same number of workers and the
same endowment with work means.

4.We consider that at the same time, on the same sector

a single process is executed, because of technological and
organizational reasons. We avoid this way, the
ultra-agglom with workers of different specializations,
with a big number of ranges of materials, with different types
of work means. Respecting this criterion there increases
the guarantee of providing an appropriate quality, of the labor
security and last but not least, of the work productivity.
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The very different complexity and nature of the cycles,

determine their different rate of progress, fact that makes
us able to identify the following types of chains:

The rhythmic complex chain;

The rhythmic complex chain with different rate of progress
from cycle to cycle;
The arrhythmic complex chain;

The linear complex chain, specific to the works with a linear

character (roads, railways, water supply networks, ducts,
reinforcing walls, etc), which are actually found under the
form of the first three types of chains mentioned above.
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The rhythmic complex (balance) chain

It is characterized by the fact that the rate of progress, constant
from sector to sector (ti = const), is the same for all the cycles,
meaning that:
t1 = t2 = … … = ti = … = tm = t
The graphic pattern, corresponding to this type of chain is the
following, fig. 3.8.
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Sectoare (S)

1 2 3 -------------- i m
Dn
n

-------------- a n-1,n

DJ a J,J+1
J
D1

D2 a 23

a 12
1

t t t t t t (t)
Timp
td tp
D

Fig. 3.8. Modelul grafic al lantului complex ritmic

 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The parameters of this type of chain are:

n – the number of sectors;
m – the number of cycles;
td – the chain’s time of development, represents the interval
during which all the specialized teams start to work.
From the figure 3.8 it results that:
td = m . t

tp – the time of handing over, represents the interval in the

limits of which they finalize successively the sectors on which
they executed the “m” cycles.
From the figure 3.8 it results that:
tp = (n - 1) . t
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D – the total duration of execution of the works, using as a

model the rhythmic complex chain. From the cyclogram
issued in figure 3.8, it results that:
D = td + tp = (m + n – 1) . t