CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Signals and Systems

Signals and systems can be modelled using mathematical functions and equations, respectively.
This course attempts to find the solutions to the equations when excited by the functions.

A physical system can be modelled by mathematical equation. For example, a continuous time
system can be modelled by ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients;

(1.1)
This model is actually a linear electric circuit as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Linear electric circuit

Another example is Newton’s second law,

(1.2)
where is the force applied to the mass M and is the resulting displacement of the mass.
Equation (1.2) is a model of a physical system, and and are models of physical signals.
Given the signal (function) , we solve the model (equation) for the signal (function) .

Signals
A physical signal can be modelled by mathematical functions. An example of a physical signal is
the voltage that is applied to the speaker in a radio. Another example is the temperature in a room
where the temperature is a function of time (single variable). A signal may also be a function of
several independent variables. For example, the temperature at a designated point in a particular
room may be a function of time and space (two variables).
In this course, we deal with signals with one independent variable, that is time, t.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Size of signals
The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or strength of that entity. In general,
a signal amplitude varies with time. Therefore, the size of the signal must consider the signal
amplitude and its duration.
A possible measure of a signal size is to maybe consider the area under a signal, because it
takes account of not only the amplitude, but also the duration. However, this will be a defective
measure because could be a large signal, yet its positive and negative areas could cancel each
other, indicating a small size.
This can be rectified by defining the signal size as the area under , which is always positive.
We call this measure the signal energy Ef, defined (for real signal) as;

(1.3)
This definition can be generalized to a complex valued signal as;

| |

(1.4)
The signal energy must be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of the signal size. A necessary
condition for the energy to be finite is that the signal amplitude  0 as |t|  ∞. Otherwise the
integral in equation (1.3) will not converge. In some case, when the amplitude of does not 
0 as |t|  ∞, then, the signal is infinite.
A meaningful measure of the signal size in such a case would be the time average of the energy, if
it exists. This measure is called the power of the signal. For a signal , we define its power Pf
as;
/
1
lim
→ /

(1.5)
We can generalize this definition for a complex signal as;

1
lim | |
→

(1.6)
Observe that the signal power Pf is the time average (mean) of the signal amplitude squared, that
is the mean-squared value of . Indeed, the square root of Pf is the familiar root mean square
value of .
The mean of an entity averaged over a large time interval approaching infinity exists if the entity
is either periodic or has a statistical regularity. If such a condition is not satisfied, the average may

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

not exist. For instance, a ramp signal, increases indefinitely as |t|  ∞, and neither the
energy nor the power exists for this signal.

Classification of signals
A signal that is defined for all values of time is a continuous time signal. Discrete time signals
however are defined at only certain instants of time.
A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous range is an analog signal. This
means that an analog signal amplitude can take on an infinite number of values.
A digital signal, on the other hand, is one whose amplitude can take on only a finite number of
values.
A signal is said to be periodic if for some positive constant T0;

,
(1.7)
The smallest value of T0 that satisfies the periodicity condition is the period of .
A signal with finite energy is an energy signal, and a signal with finite and nonzero power is a
power signal. All practical signals have finite energies and are therefore energy signal. A power
signal must necessarily have infinite duration; otherwise its power, which is its energy averaged
over an infinitely large interval, will not approach a (nonzero) limit.
Clearly, it is impossible to generate a true power signal in practice because such a signal has infinite
duration and infinite energy. Also, because of periodic repetition, periodic signals for which the
area under | | over one period is finite are power signals; however, not all power signals are
periodic.

Signal operations
Time shifting
Given a signal , a time-shifted version of this signal is denoted as .

(1.8)
where T0 is a constant.
If T0 is positive, the shifted signal is delayed in time (shifted to the right relative to f(t)). If T0 is
negative, is advanced in time (shifted to the left). Thus, 2 is delayed (righ-shifted)
by 2 seconds, and 2 is advanced (left-shifted) by 2 seconds.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Figure 1.2: Time-shifting

Time scaling
Given a signal , a time scaled version of this signal is;

(1.9)
where a is a real constant. Figure 1.3(a) shows a signal . Figure 1.3(b) shows the transformed
signal 2 . A comparison of the plots of and shows that for any particular
value of time t = t0, 2 and /2 . It is seen that is a time-
compressed (sped-up) version of .
Figure 1.3(c) shows the second transformed signal 0.5 . A comparison of the plots of
and shows that for any particular value of time t = t0, 0.5 and
2 . It is seen that is a time-stretched (slowed-down) version of .

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

f (t )

T1 0 T2 t
(a )

 (t )  f (2t ) 2

T1 T2 t
(b)
2 2

t
 (t )  f   2
2

2T1 0 2T2 t
(c)

Figure 1.3: Time scaling

Time reversal
In time reversal, we create a new, transformed signal f(t) by replacing t with –t in the original
signal, f(t).

(1.10)
where y(t) denotes the transformed signal. The result of the time-reversal transformation is that for
any particular value of time, t = t0, y(t0) = f(-t0), and y(-t0) = f(t0). An example of time reversal is
given in Figure 1.4 in which the original signal f(t) is reflected about the vertical axis.

f (t )
2  (t )  f (t )
2
2
2 0 5 t
1 5 0 t
(a ) 1 (b)

Figure 1.4: Time reversal

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

The three transformations in time just considered are of the general form;

In this equation, a and b are real constants. For clarity, we let  denote time in the original signal.
The transformed t-axis equation is found from;

For example,
2 3
The value 2 yields time reversal (the minus sign) and time scaling | | 2 . The value
3 yields a time shift. The transformed t-axis equation for this example is found from,
3
2 3
2 2

Amplitude transformations
In general, there are three transformations in amplitude;

where A and B are constants.

For example, consider 3 5. The value 3 yields amplitude reversal (minus
sign) and amplitude scaling | | 3 , and the value 5 shifts the amplitude of the signal.

TABLE 2.1: Transformations of signals

Name
Time reversal
Time scaling
Time shifting
Amplitude reversal
Amplitude scaling
Amplitude shifting

******************************************************************************
A general approach for plotting transformations of the independent variable is as follows:-
1. Shift
2. Scale &/ Reverse
3. Amplitude multiply
******************************************************************************

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Example 1.1:
Consider the signal in Figure 1.5. Plot the transformed signal, 1 .
Transformation involved: time-shifting, time-scaling, time-reversal.

Figure 1.5: Example 1.1

Example 1.2:
Plot the signals:-
a) 3 1 1
b) 2 1 1

Signal characteristics
Even and Odd signals
By definition, the function (signal) is even if:

(1.11)
An even function has symmetry with respect to the vertical axis; the signal for t < 0 is the mirror
image of the signal for t > 0. The function f(t) = cos t is even because cos t = cos (-t). Another
example of an even function is given in Figure 1.6.

xe(t)

Figure 1.6: Even signal

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

By definition, a function is odd if,

(1.12)
An odd function has symmetry with respect to the origin. The function f(t) = sin t is odd because
sin t = - sin (-t). Another example of an odd function is given in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Odd signal

Any signal can be expressed as the sum of an even part and an odd part; that is,

,
(1.13)
where is even and is odd. Replacing t with –t in this equation yields;

(1.14)
from equations (1.11) and (1.12).

Adding equations (1.13) and (1.14) and dividing by 2 yields;

1
2
(1.15)

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

This equation is used to solve for the even part of a function f(t). Subtracting equation (1.14) from
(1.13) and dividing by 2 yields;

1
2
(1.16)
which is used to find the odd part of a function.

Even and odd functions have the following properties:

1. The sum of two even functions is even.
2. The sum of two odd functions is odd.
3. The sum of an even function and an odd function is neither even nor odd.
4. The product of two even functions is even.
5. The product of two odd functions is even.
6. The product of an even function and an odd function is odd.

Example 1.3:
Consider the signal in Figure 1.8(a). Find and sketch the even and odd components of this
signal.
Solution:
The time-reversed signal is given in Figure 1.8(b). The two signals are added and scaled in
amplitude by 0.5 to yield the even signal (Figure 1.8(c)). is substracted from
and the result is amplitude scaled by 0.5 to yield the odd signal (Figure 1.8(d)). For
verification, adding and yields the signal .

Figure 1.8

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Periodic signals
By definition, a continuous time signal f(t) is periodic if;

, 0
(1.17)
for all t, where the constant T is the period. A signal that is not periodic is said to be aperiodic. In
equation (1.17), replacing t with ( t + T ) results in;

This equation is also equal to f(t) from equation (1.17). By repeating this substitution, we see that
a periodic function satisfies the equation;

where n is an integer. Hence, a periodic signal with period T > 0 is also periodic with period nT.
The minimum value of the period T > 0 that satisfies the definition
is called the fundamental period of the signal and is denoted as T0.
With T0 in seconds, the fundamental frequency in hertz (the number of periods per second) and the
fundamental frequency in rad/s are given by;

Hz, 2 rad/s, respectively

(1.18)
Examples of periodic signals are the sinusoids, movement of a clock pendulum and the sawtooth
wave.

Sum of continuous time periodic signals

The sum of continuous time periodic signals is periodic if and only if the ratios of the periods of
the individual signals are ratios of integers. If a sum of N periodic signals is periodic, the
fundamental period can be found as follows:-

1. Convert each period ratio, ,2 , to a ratio of integers, where T01 is the period
of the first signal considered and T0i is the period of one of the other N - 1 signals. If one or
more of these ratios is not rational, then the sum of signals is not periodic.
2. Eliminate common factors from the numerator and denominator of each ratio of integers.
3. The fundamental period of the sum of signals is , where k0 is the least common
multiple of the denominators for the individual ratios of integers.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Example 1.4:
Consider the signal , where:
cos 3.5
sin 2
7
2cos
6
Determine if is periodic.

Example 1.5:
Another signal 3 sin 5 is added to . Is it now a periodic signal?

Singularity functions
A singularity function is defined as one that is related to the impulse function and associated
functions.
The unit step function, denoted as (t) is usually employed to switch other signals on or off. It is
defined as:-

1, 0
0, 0
(1.19)
where the independent variable is denoted as . This independent variable is a linear function of
time. For example, if the unit step is expressed as:-
1, 5
5
0, 5
This unit step function has a value of unity for t > 5 and a value of zero for t < 5. The general unit
step is written as u( t - t0 ), with
1,
0,
A plot of u( t - t0 ) is given in Figure 1.9 for a value of t0 > 0.
The unit step function has the property;

(1.20)
with k any positive integer. This property is based on the relations 0 0 and 1 1,
1,2, …. A second property is related to time scaling:

/ , 0
(1.21)

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Figure 1.9

The unit rectangular pulse is defined as:-

1, /2 /2
0,

(1.22)
It can be expressed as three different functions of unit step signals:

/2 /2
/2 /2
/2 /2
(1.23)
These functions are plotted in Figure 1.10.
The unit impulse function is one of the most important functions and is defined by:-

0; 0

(1.24)
An impulse is a tall, narrow rectangular pulse of unit area. The width of this rectangular pulse is a
very small value. Consequently, its height is a very large value. The unit impulse therefore can be
regarded as a rectangular pulse with a width that has become infinitesimally small, a height that
has become infinitely large and an overall area that has been maintained at unity.
Integral of the unit step function yields the unit ramp function:-

where , by definition, is the unit ramp function. The unit step, unit ramp and unit
impulse functions are illustrated in Figure 1.11.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Figure 1.10: Unit rectangular pulse

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Figure 1.11

Multiplication of a function by an impulse

Let us now consider what happens when we multiply the unit impulse by a function ∅ that
is known to be continuous at t = 0. Since the impulse exists only at t = 0, and the value of ∅ at
t = 0 is ∅ , we obtain;

∅ ∅

(1.25a)
Similarly, if ∅ is multiplied by an impulse (impulse located at t =T), then;

∅ ∅
(1.25b)
provided ∅ is continuous at t = T.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Sampling property of the unit impulse function

From equation (1.25a), it follows that;

∅ ∅

∅
(1.26a)
provided ∅ is continuous at t = 0. This means that the area under the product of a function with
an impulse is equal to the value of that function at the instant where the unit impulse is located.
This property is known as the sampling property of the unit impulse.
From equation (1.25b), it follows that:-

∅ ∅

(1.26b)
Equation (1.26b) is just another form of the sampling property. In this equation, the impulse
is located at t = T. Therefore, the area under ∅ is ∅ , the value of ∅ at the
instant where the impulse is located (at t = T). In these derivations, we have assumed that the
function is continuous at the instant where the impulse is located.

Mathematical functions
Example 1.6:
Consider a signal in mathematical form:-
3 1 1 5 2
The four terms of f(t) are evaluated as;

3, 0
3
0, 0

, 0
0, 0

1, 1
1 1
0, 1

5, 2
5 2
0, 2

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

The terms of f(t) are plotted in Figure 1.12(a) and f(t) is plotted in Figure 1.12(b).

Figure 1.12: Example 1.6

Example 1.7:
Consider the signal in Figure 1.13. The equation x(t) is given by;

3 2 2 6 1 1 3 1 1 3 3

Figure 1.13: Example 1.7

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Systems
A system is a process for which cause and effect relations exist. Systems are used to process signals
to modify or extract additional information from the signals. A system may consist of physical
components (hardware realization) or may consist of an algorithm that computes the output signal
from the input signal (software realization).
A system is characterized by its inputs, outputs (responses) and rule of operation (or laws or
mathematical modelling) adequate to describe its behaviour. For example, in electrical systems,
the laws of operation are the familiar voltage-current relationships for the resistors, capacitors,
inductors etc. An example of a physical system is an electric heater. The input signal is the ac
voltage, applied to the heater. The output signal would be the temperature. One representation of
this system is the block diagram shown in Figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14

The study of systems consists of three major areas:-

1. Mathematical modelling – using the laws of operation, derive mathematical equations
relating the outputs to the inputs.
2. Analysis problem – how to determine the system outputs for the given inputs and a given
mathematical model of the system.
3. Design or synthesis problem – how to construct a system which will produce a desired set
of outputs for the given inputs.

Block diagram
There are three important block diagram elements as shown in Figure 1.15.
(a) A block is a graphical representation of a system.
(b) A circle represents a summing junction.
(c) A circle that represents a product junction.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

x(t) y(t)=T[x(t)]
(a)

x1(t)

y(t)=x1(t)+x2(t)+x3(t)
x2(t)
+ (b)
x3(t)

y(t)=x1(t) X x2(t)
x1(t)
X (c)
x2(t)

Figure 1.15: Block diagram elements

Interconnecting systems
There are two basic connections for systems as illustrated in Figure 1.16. The first is the parallel
connection (Figure 1.16(a)). Let the output of System 1 be y1(t) and that of System 2 be y2(t). the
output signal of the total system is then given by;

(1.27)
The notation for the total system is .

The second basic connection is called the series, or cascade connection. The output signal of the
first system is , and the total system output signal is;

(1.28)
The system equations (1.27) and (1.28) cannot be simplified further until the mathematical models
for the two systems are known.

Another important system connection is called a feedback connection. The output of System 1 is
the input to System 2, while the output of System 2 is fedback and added to the external input to
produce the actual input to System 1. Feedback systems arise in a wide variety of applications. For
example in a digitally controlled aircraft. The difference between actual and desired speed is fed
back through the auto pilot in order to correct the discrepancy.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

and

(1.29)
The system output is expressed as a function of both the system input and the system output, as
always the case for feedback systems.

(a) Parallel connection

(b) Series connection

(c) Feedback connection

Figure 1.16: Basic connection of systems

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Example 1.8:
Consider the system in Figure 1.17. Each block represents a system. We can write the following
equations for the system.

and

Thus,

Figure 1.17: Example 1.8

Example 1.9:
Consider the system in Figure 1.18. Each block represents a system. We can write the following
equations for the system.

and

Hence, the output signal;

Figure 1.18: Example 1.9

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Continuous time systems

The following are the six properties of continuous-time systems:-
1. Memory
2. Invertibility
3. Causality
4. Stability
5. Time invariance
6. Linearity

Memory
A system with memory is also called a dynamic system. An example of a system with memory is
an integrating amplifier, described by;

The output voltage y(t) depends on all past values of the input voltage x(t). A capacitor also has
memory if its current is defined to be the input and its voltage the output:
1

The voltage across the capacitor at time t0 depends on the current i(t) for all time before t0. Thus,
the system has memory.
A memoryless system is also called a static system. An example of a memoryless system is the
ideal amplifier. With x(t) as its input and y(t) as its output, the model of an ideal amplifier with
(constant) gain K is given by;

for all t. Another example is a squaring circuit, such that;

A system 5 would be memoryless, whereas a second system 5 has

memory, because depends on the value of x ( t0 + 5 ), which is five units of time ahead of
t0.

Invertibility
A system is said to be invertible if distinct inputs result in distinct outputs.
For an invertible system, the system input can be determined uniquely from its output. As an
example, consider the squaring circuit, described by,

Suppose that the output of this circuit is constant at 4V. The input could be either +2V or -2V.
Hence, this system is not invertible. An example of an invertible system is an ideal amplifier of
gain K:
1

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

Causality
A system is causal if the output at any time t0 is dependent on the input only for t  t0. A causal
system is also called a nonanticipatory system. All physical systems are causal.
A system described by;
2
(1.30)
with t in seconds, is causal, since the present output is equal to the input of 2s ago. For example,
we can realize this system by recording the signal x(t) on magnetic tape. The playback head is then
placed 2s downstream on the tape from the recoding head. A system described by equation (1.28)
is called an ideal time delay. The form of the signal is not altered; the signal is simply delayed.
A system described by
2
is not causal, since, for example, the output at t = 0 is equal to the input at t = 2s. This system is an
ideal time advance, which is not physically realizable.
Another example of a causal system is illustrated in Figure 1.19. In this system, a time delay of
30s is followed by a time advance of 25s. Hence, the total system is causal and can be realized
physically. However, the time-advance part of the system is not causal, but can be realized if
preceded by a time delay of at least 25s.

Stability
A system is stable if the output remains bounded for any bounded input (bounded-input-bounded-
output, BIBO). By definition, a signal x(t) is bounded if there exists a number M such that

| |
(1.31)
Hence, a system is bounded-input bounded-output stable if, for a number R,

| |
(1.32)
for all x(t) such that equation (1.31) is satisfied. Bounded x(t) and y(t) are illustrated in Figure
1.20. To determine BIBO stability for a given system, given any value M in equation (1.29), a
value R (in general, a function of M) must be found such that equation (1.32) is satisfied.

Figure 1.19

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

An ideal amplifier where y(t) = 10 x(t), is stable because in equations (1.31) and (1.32),
| | 10
In this system, if x(t) is bounded, then y(t) can never be more than 10 times the value of x(t). Thus,
this system is BIBO stable.
A squaring circuit y(t) = x2(t) is stable because y(t) is bounded for any bounded input. In equations
(1.31) and (1.32),
| |

x(t)

(a)
t

-M

y(t)

(b)
t

-R

Figure 1.20

Time invariance
A system is said to be time invariant if a time shift in the input signal results only in the same time
shift in the output signal.
For a time-invariant system for which the input x(t) produces the output y(t), y(t) = T [ x(t) ], x ( t
- t0 ) produces y ( t - t0 ). That is,

(1.33)
for all t0, where T [ x ( t - t0 )] indicates the transformation that describes the system input-output
relationship.
A time-invariant system does not change with time; if it is used today, it will behave the same way
as it would next week or next year. A time-invariant system is also called a fixed system.

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Consider the system in Figure 1.21. The signal y ( t - t0 ) is obtained by delaying y(t) by t0 seconds.
We define yd(t) in Figure 1.21 as the system output for the delayed input x ( t - t0 ) such that,

The system in Figure 1.21 is time invariant, provided that

(1.34)
A system that is not time invariant is time varying.

Figure 1.21

Consider next the system,

In equations (1.31) and (1.32),

and the system is time invariant.

Linearity
A system is linear if it meets the following two criteria:
1. Additivity:

If → and → , then →
(1.35)
2. Homogeneity:

If → , then →
(1.36)
where a is constant. The criteria must apply for all x1(t) and x2(t) and for all a.

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 Introduction to Signals and Systems

These two criteria can be combined to yield the principle of superposition. A system satisfies the
principle of superposition if, with the inputs and outputs as just defined,

→
(1.37)
where a1 and a2 are constants. A system is linear if and only if it satisfies the principle of
superposition.

A linear time-invariant system is a linear system that is also time invariant. The LTI system for
continuous-time system will be studied in the next chapter.

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