CHAPTER-ONE

What is environment?

The term the environment comes from the French word environs and means everything that
surrounds us. Environment is the sum of all surroundings of a living organism including natural
forces and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as of
danger and damage. Living things do not simply exist in their environment. They constantly
interact with it. Organisms change in response to conditions in their environment. The
environment consists of the interactions among plants, animals, soil, water, temperature, light,
and other living and non-living things.

Factors of Environment

The factors that are influences on the living organism in environment is called factors of
environment. Environmental factors are classified into two groups

a) Abiotic: Abiotic factors, which consist of the non-living components of an ecosystem. It

includes ambient temperature, amount of sunlight, pH of the water soil in which in an
organism lives, water quality, nutrients amount etc.

b) Biotic: Biotic factors contains living organism of an ecosystem that includes all the animals
and plants, which are obvious that would see but also the small insects in the soil,
parasites in the guts of the animals, microscopic fungi and algae, etc. additionally it
includes all the bacteria and other microbes that are not easily visible.

Environmental Challenges

Environmental challenges is a process that has negative effects on the sustainability of the
environmental quality necessary for the well being of the organisms living in it. The major
environmental challenges with respect to Bangladesh are

A. Soil erosion

Soil erosion occurs when soil is removed through the action of wind and water at a grater rate
then it is formed. Wind and water is not only responsible for soil erosion. Some of human activity
also makes soil erosion to the environment.

There are three main physical causes of erosion

 Sheet erosion: Sheet erosion is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers by the forces of
raindrops and overland flow. It can be a very effective erosive process because it can
cover large areas of sloping land and go unnoticed for quite some time.
Heavy rain that leads to a sheet of water removing a more or less uniform layer of fine
particles from the entire surface of an area is sheet erosion. It often includes the best soil
particles along with much of the organic matter. While it causes severe erosion, it is very
difficult to see, as the amount removed is often slight from any particular spot.
 S
h
eet Erosion Gulley Erosion
Wind Erosion

Gulley erosion: Gully erosion is a type of soil

erosion produced by running water. It is as a result
or rapid flow of accumulated runoff water. Gully erosion leads to formation of small
valleys or ravines.

Wind erosion: Soil erosion by wind may occur wherever dry, sandy or dusty surfaces,
inadequately protected by vegetation, are exposed to strong winds. Erosion involves the
picking up and blowing away of loose fine-grained material within the soil.

Dust storms are very disagreeable and also the land is robbed of its long-term
productivity (humus (vegetable matter) is lighter and likely to be removed first). Crop
damage, especially of young crops, can be serious. Either the roots are exposed as the
wind blows away the topsoil or else wind blown soil from elsewhere cover the seeding up
– either way the crop will be lost.

Human activities causing soil erosion:

As the human population has expanded, more and more land has been cleared for agriculture and
other pursuits that degrade the soil and make erosion more likely to occur. Some of the reasons of
soil erosion are-

 Agriculture: When agriculture fields replace natural vegetation, topsoil is exposed and can
dry out. The diversity and quantity of microorganisms that help to keep the soil fertile can
decrease, and nutrients may wash out. Soil can be blown away by the winds or washed
away by rains.

 Deforestation: Without plant cover, erosion can occur and sweep the land into rivers. The
agricultural plants that often replace the trees cannot hold onto the soil and many of these
plants, such as coffee, cotton, palm oil, soybean and wheat, can actually worsen soil
erosion. And as land loses its fertile soil, agricultural producers move on, clear more forest
and continue the cycle of soil loss.

 Overgrazing: The conversion of natural ecosystems to pasture land doesn’t damage the
land initially as much as crop production, but this change in usage can lead to high rates of
erosion and loss of topsoil and nutrients. Overgrazing can reduce ground cover, enabling
erosion and compaction of the land by wind and rain.. This reduces the ability for plants to
grow and water to penetrate, which harms soil microbes and results in serious erosion of
the land.
  Uses of agro chemicals or pesticides: Pesticides and other chemicals used on crop plants
have helped farmers to increase yields. Scientists have found that over use of some of
these chemicals changes soil composition and disrupt the balance of microorganisms in
the soil. This stimulates the growth of harmful bacteria at the expense of beneficial kinds.

6%

17% Agriculture
35%
Ddeforestaion
Uses of Presticides
8%
Overgazing
Others

34%

Some of the following measures can be implemented to prevent soil erosion:

 The use of contour windbreaks
 Make sure that there are always plants growing on the soil, and that the soil is rich in
humus
 Avoid overgrazing
 Allow indigenous plants to grow along riverbanks
 Conserve wetlands
 Cultivate land, using a crop rotation system
 Minimum or no tillage
 Encourage water infiltration and reduce water runoff.

B. Desertification

Desertification means the transformation of land once suitable for agriculture into desert.
Desertification can result from climate change or from human practices such as deforestation and
overgrazing.

Desertification is the process, which turns productive into non- productive desert as a result of
poor land-management. Desertification occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall
less than 600 mm) bordering on deserts.

What Causes Desertification?

There are many reasons are responsible to desertification. The main three causes for
desertification are –
 Climate Change
 Human Activity
 Animal Activity
 Global Warming

Climate Change

Less Rainfall

Deforestation
High Population
& Property
Desertification
Over cropping
Human Activity

Improper
Salinization
Irrigation

Animals Activity Overgrazing

Desertification for Climate Change

 Global Warming
o Carbon dioxide increases due to greenhouse effect
o Temperature increases
o Ice cap melt very rapidly
o Flooding in costal area
o Rainfall decreases
o Drought & Vegetable die

 Less Rainfall
o Land becomes dry
o Drought
o Vegetable die

Human factors of desertification

 High Population and Poverty

 Farming of Average Land: Farming of average land is causing desertification
worldwide. Farmers are clearing average land, and using it, which takes away the
richness in the soil. People should let the average land replenish itself before
farming.

 Destruction of Plants in Dry Regions: Destruction of plants in dry regions is causing

desertification to occur. People are cutting down tress to use them as a source of
fuel. Once all these trees are cut down there is nothing to protect the soil. Therefore,
it turns to dust and is blown away by the wind.

 Incorrect Irrigation in Arid Regions Causes a Build Up of Salt in the Soil: Incorrect
irrigation is commonly used in poorer areas. Farmers are using canal irrigation and
 other poor techniques because of the lack of water. This type of irrigation causes a
build up of salt in the soil.

 Deforestation: demand more land and timber for cropping & building, cutting down
to tree extensively. Trees are cut down for fuel supplies. Less vegetation means
more dry, bear soil and more wind erosion.

 Over cropping: Population in rising fast. To increase food supplies more crops are
grown and more cattle kept leading to over cultivation.

 Animal Activity
 Overgrazing: Overgrazing was not as large of a problem long ago because animals
would move in response to rainfall. People would move with the animals so it
prevented overgrazing in such areas. Now, humans have a steady food supply so
they do not have to move about. Therefore, people use fences to keep their animals
in one place, which causes overgrazing.

The Effects of Desertification

Human activities in the dry lands, together with climatic factors and drought conditions, influence
changes in the natural environment and its productivity. In return, these changes bear
consequences on human populations and the quality of life.

 Soil becomes less usable: The soil can be blown away by wind or washed away rain. Nutrients
in the soil can be removed by wind or water. Salt can build up in the soil, which makes it
harder for plant growth.

 Vegetation is Lacked or Damaged: Loosened soil may bury plants or leave their roots exposed.
Also, when overgrazing occurs, plant species may be lost.

 Causes Famine: Places that have war and poverty are most likely to have famine occur.
Drought and poor land management contribute to famine.

 Food Loss: The soil is not suited for growing food; therefore the amount of food being made
will decline. If the population is growing, this will cause economic problems and starvation.

 People near Affected Areas: Desertification can cause flooding, poor water quality, dust
storms, and pollution. All of these effects can hurt people living near an affected region.

 Water becomes scarce or is threatened: Land degradation in the dry lands can have direct
consequences on the water cycle. If there is low rainfall then drought ensues: groundwater
reserves do not refill, water sources become depleted, wells run dry, plants and animals die
and humans have to migrate to more hospitable regions.

On the other hand, during periods of high rainfall, the ensuing floods kill people and animals,
notably in regions where vegetation cover is reduced or totally destroyed. The torrential
rain flow causes a substantial loss of soil, which is then flushed out by the rains, and when
the land becomes dry again, a hard crust forms on the surface that renders it impermeable,
reducing water infiltration.

 Biodiversity decline: Land degradation due to drought, salinity or over-exploitation has

immediate consequences on the capacity of vegetation to maintain or reconstruct itself.
Animal species, dependent on this vegetation, have to migrate to other areas to find sufficient
 resources or they risk disappearing altogether. The importance of this loss derives from the
fact that animal and plant species from the dry lands are particularly well adapted to this
extreme environment. They act as indicators of the environmental condition of these areas
and their disappearance is a sign of significant habitat degradation. Moreover, these species
remain important resources for the population. Their disappearance increases food
insecurity and the impoverishment of the world’s most fragile populations.

C. Deforestation

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for
other uses. An estimated 18 million acres (7.3 million hectares) of forest roughly the size of
Panama are lost each year, according to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO).

Deforestation is considered to be one of the contributing factors to global climate change. Trees
absorb greenhouse gases and carbon emissions. They produce oxygen and perpetuate the water
cycle by releasing water vapor into the atmosphere. Without trees, forestlands can quickly
become barren land.

Causes of Deforestation
 Agricultural activities: As earlier mentioned in the overview, agricultural activities are one of
the major factors affecting deforestation. Due to overgrowing demand for food products, huge
amount of tress are fell down to grow crops and for cattle gazing. Growing populations need
expanding food supplies, so shifting cultivators for annual or permanent crops clears forests.
Rates of clearing are likely to be higher in countries where little or no progress has been made
in agricultural productivity or where land productivity falls rapidly after the natural forest
cover is removed

 Logging: Apart from this, wood based industries like paper, matchsticks, furniture etc. also
need a substantial amount of wood supply. Wood is used as fuel both directly and indirectly;
therefore trees are chopped for supplies. Firewood and charcoal are examples of wood being
used as fuel. Some of these industries thrive on illegal wood cutting and felling of trees.

 Urbanization: Further on order to gain access to

these forests, the construction of roads are
undertaken; here again trees are chopped to create
roads. Overpopulation too directly affects forest
covers, as with the expansion of cities more land is
needed to establish housing and settlements.
Therefore forestland is reclaimed.
 Desertification of land: Some of the other factors that lead to deforestation are also part
natural and part anthropogenic like Desertification of land. It occurs due to land abuse
making it unfit for growth of trees. Many industries in petrochemicals release their wastes
into rivers, which results in soil erosion and make it unfit to grow plants and trees.

 Mining: Oil and coal mining require considerable amount of forestland. Apart from this, roads
and highways have to be built to make way for trucks and other equipment. The waste that
comes out from mining pollutes the environment and affects the nearby species.

 Fires: Another example would be forest blazes; Hundreds of trees are lost each year due to
forest fires in various portions of the world. This happens due to extreme warm summers and
milder winters. Fires, whether causes by man or nature results in huge loss of forest cover.

Effects of Deforestation
 Climate Imbalance: Deforestation also affects the climate in more than one ways. Trees release
water vapor in the air, which is compromised on with the lack of trees. Trees also provide the
required shade that keeps the soil moist. This leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric
temperature further making conditions for the ecology difficult. Flora and fauna across the
world are accustomed to their habitat. This haphazard clearance of forests has forced several
of these animals to shift from their native environment. Due to this several species are finding
it difficult to survive or adapt to new habitats.

 Increase in Global Warming: Trees play a major role in controlling global warming. The trees
utilize the green house gases, restoring the balance in the atmosphere. With constant
deforestation the ratio of green house gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our
global warming woes.

 Soil Erosion: Also due to the shade of trees the soil remains moist. With the clearance of tree
cover, the soil is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry. Without tree roots to anchor the
soil and with increased exposure to sun, the soil can dry out, leading to problems like
increased flooding and inability to farm. The WWF states that scientists estimate that a third
of the world’s arable land has been lost to deforestation since 1960. Cash crops planted after
clear cutting or burning — like soy, coffee, and palm oil — can actually exacerbate soil erosion
because their roots cannot hold onto the soil the way trees’ can.

 Floods: When it rains, trees absorb and store large amount of water with the help of their
roots. When they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted and leads to floods in some
areas and droughts in other.
 Wildlife extinction: Due to massive felling down of trees, various species of animals are lost.
They lose their habitat and forced to move to new location. Some of them are even pushed to
extinction. Our world has lost so many species of plants and animals in last couple of decades.

 Water Cycle: Trees play an important part in the water cycle, grounding the water in their
roots and releasing it into the atmosphere. In the Amazon, more than half the water in the
ecosystem is held within the plants. Without the plants, the climate may become dryer.

 Life Quality: Soil erosion can also lead to silt entering the lakes, streams, and other water
sources. This can decrease local water quality, contributing to poor health in the local
population.

All of these factors can have adverse effects on local economies. Increased flooding, lack of quality
water, and inability to produce their own food causes many locals migrate to cities that lack
infrastructure for them. Or, they work on plantations, worsening the deforestation problem and
at times being subjected to inhumane working conditions.

Solutions to Deforestation
 The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees, by employing a series of rules
and laws to govern it. Deforestation in the current scenario may have reduced however it
would be too early to assume. The money-churner that forest resources can be, is tempting
enough for deforestation to continue.

 Clear cutting of forests must be banned. This will curb total depletion of the forest cover. It is
a practical solution and is very feasible.

 Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should be urged to plant trees in the
vicinity and replace the cut trees. Also the cutting must be replaced by planting young trees to
replace the older ones that were cut. Trees are being planted under several initiatives every
year, but they still don’t match the numbers of the ones we’ve already lost.

D. Climate change

Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over
periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in the average
weather conditions or a change in the distribution of weather events with respect to an average,
for example, greater or fewer extreme weather events. Climate change may be limited to a
specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth.

The Earth could warm another 2 to 11.5°F this century if we fail to reduce emissions from
burning fossil fuels and deforestation—devastating our livelihoods and the natural world we
cherish.

Causes of climate change

The earth's climate is dynamic and always changing through a natural cycle. What the world is
more worried about is that the changes that are occurring today have been speeded up because of
man's activities. Scientists all over the world who are finding evidence from tree rings, pollen
samples, ice cores, and sea sediments are studying these changes. The causes of climate change
can be divided into two categories - those that are due to natural causes and those that are
created by man.

 Natural causes

There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some of the more
prominent ones are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth's tilt, and comets
and meteorites. Let's look at them in a little detail.

o Continental drift

You may have noticed something peculiar about South America and Africa on a map of the
world - don't they seem to fit into each other like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle? About 200
million years ago they were joined together! Scientists believe that back then, the earth
was not as we see it today, but the continents were all part of one large landmass. Proof of
this comes from the similarity between plant and animal fossils and broad belts of rocks
found on the eastern coastline of South America and western coastline of Africa, which are
now widely separated by the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery of fossils of tropical plants (in
the form of coal deposits) in Antarctica has led to the conclusion that this frozen land at
some time in the past, must have been situated closer to the equator, where the climate
was tropical, with swamps and plenty of lush vegetation.

The continents that we are familiar with today were formed when the landmass began
gradually drifting apart, millions of years back. This drift also had an impact on the
climate because it changed the physical features of the landmass, their position and the
position of water bodies. The separation of the landmasses changed the flow of ocean
currents and winds, which affected the climate. This drift of the continents continues even
today; the Himalayan range is rising by about 1 mm (millimeter) every years because the
Indian land mass is moving towards the Asian land mass, slowly but steadily.

o Volcanoes

When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO 2), water vapor,
dust, and ash into the atmosphere. Although the volcanic activity may last only a few days,
yet the large volumes of gases and ash can influence climatic patterns for years. Millions of
tonnes of sulphur dioxide gas can reach the upper levels of the atmosphere (called the
stratosphere) from a major eruption. The gases and dust particles partially block the
incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling. Sulphur dioxide combines with water to form
tiny droplets of sulphuric acid. These droplets are so small that many of them can stay
aloft for several years. They are efficient reflectors of sunlight, and screen the ground
from some of the energy that it would ordinarily receive from the sun. Winds in the upper
levels of the atmosphere, called the stratosphere, carry the aerosols rapidly around the
globe in either an easterly or westerly direction. Movement of aerosols north and south is
always much slower. This should give you some idea of the ways by which cooling can be
brought about for a few years after a major volcanic eruption.

Mount Pinatoba, in the Philippine islands erupted in April 1991 emitting thousands of
tonnes of gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions of this magnitude can reduce the
amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface, lowering temperatures in the
lower levels of the atmosphere (called the troposphere), and changing atmospheric
circulation patterns. The extent to which this occurs is an ongoing debate.

Another striking example was in the year 1816, often referred to as "the year without a
summer." Significant weather-related disruptions occurred in New England and in
 Western Europe with killing summer frosts in the United States and Canada. These
strange phenomena were attributed to a major eruption of the Tambora volcano in
Indonesia, in 1815.

o The earth's tilt

The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to
the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. For one half of the year when it is summer, the
northern hemisphere tilts towards the sun. In the other half when it is winter, the earth is
tilted away from the sun. If there was no tilt we would not have experienced seasons.
Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect the severity of the seasons - more tilt means
warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters.

The Earth's orbit is somewhat elliptical, which means that the distance between the earth
and the Sun varies over the course of a year. We usually think of the earth's axis as being
fixed, after all, it always seems to point toward Polaris (also known as the Pole Star and
the North Star). Actually, it is not quite constant: the axis does move, at the rate of a little
more than a half-degree each century. So Polaris has not always been, and will not always
be, the star pointing to the North. When the pyramids were built, around 2500 BC, the
pole was near the star Thuban (Alpha Draconis). This gradual change in the direction of
the earth's axis, called precession is responsible for changes in the climate.

o Ocean currents

The oceans are a major component of the climate system. They cover about 71% of the
Earth and absorb about twice as much of the sun's radiation as the atmosphere or the
land surface. Ocean currents move vast amounts of heat across the planet - roughly the
same amount as the atmosphere does. But the oceans are surrounded by landmasses, so
heat transport through the water is through channels.

Winds push horizontally against the sea surface and drive ocean current patterns.
Ocean currents influence certain parts of the world more than others. The Humboldt
Current that flows along the coastline of Peru directly influences the coast of Peru and
other adjoining regions. The El Niño event in the Pacific Ocean can affect climatic
conditions all over the world.

Another region that is strongly influenced by ocean currents is the North Atlantic. If we
compare places at the same latitude in Europe and North America the effect is
immediately obvious. Take a closer look at this example - some parts of coastal Norway
have an average temperature of -2°C in January and 14°C in July; while places at the same
latitude on the Pacific coast of Alaska are far colder: -15°C in January and only 10°C in
July. The warm current along the Norewgian coast keeps much of the Greenland-
Norwegian Sea free of ice even in winter. The rest of the Arctic Ocean, even though it is
much further south, remains frozen.

Ocean currents have been known to change direction or slow down. Much of the heat that
escapes from the oceans is in the form of water vapor, the most abundant greenhouse gas
on Earth. Yet, water vapor also contributes to the formation of clouds, which shade the
surface and have a net cooling effect. Any or all of these phenomena can have an impact
on the climate, as is believed to have happened at the end of the last Ice Age, about 14,000
years ago.

 Human causes
 The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw the large-scale use of fossil fuels for
industrial activities. These industries created jobs and over the years, people moved from
rural areas to the cities. This trend is continuing even today. More and more land that was
covered with vegetation has been cleared to make way for houses. Natural resources are
being used extensively for construction, industries, transport, and consumption.
Consumerism (our increasing want for material things) has increased by leaps and bounds,
creating mountains of waste. Also, our population has increased to an incredible extent.

All this has contributed to a rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels such as
oil, coal and natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles, generate electricity
for industries, households, etc. The energy sector is responsible for about ¾ of the carbon
dioxide emissions, 1/5 of the methane emissions and a large quantity of nitrous oxide. It also
produces nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) which are not greenhouse gases
but do have an influence on the chemical cycles in the atmosphere that produce or destroy
greenhouse gases.

o Greenhouse gases and their sources

Carbon dioxide is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities
have all led to a rise in the emission of carbon dioxide.

Methane is another important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. About ¼ of all methane
emissions are said to come from domesticated animals such as dairy cows, goats, pigs,
buffaloes, camels, horses, and sheep. These animals produce methane during the cud-
chewing process. Methane is also released from rice or paddy fields that are flooded
during the sowing and maturing periods. When soil is covered with water it becomes
anaerobic or lacking in oxygen. Under such conditions, methane-producing bacteria and
other organisms decompose organic matter in the soil to form methane. Nearly 90% of
the paddy-growing area in the world is found in Asia, as rice is the staple food there. China
and India, between them, have 80-90% of the world's rice-growing areas.

Methane is also emitted from landfills and other waste dumps. If the waste is put into an
incinerator or burnt in the open, carbon dioxide is emitted. Methane is also emitted
during the process of oil drilling, coal mining and also from leaking gas pipelines (due to
accidents and poor maintenance of sites).
A large amount of nitrous oxide emission has been attributed to fertilizer application. This
in turn depends on the type of fertilizer that is used, how and when it is used and the
methods of tilling that are followed. Leguminous plants, such as beans and pulses that add
nitrogen to the soil, also make contributions.

Impacts of climate change on the world around us

Thousands of species risk extinction from disappearing habitat, changing ecosystems and
acidifying oceans. According to the IPCC, climate change will put some 20% to 30% of species
globally at increasingly high risk of extinction, possibly by 2100.

 Decline in polar bears: Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's feeding habitat. As sea ice
disappears, bear mortality rises. In 2008, the polar bear became the first animal to be added
to the Endangered Species Act list of threatened species because of global warming. The
U.S. Geological Survey has warned that two-thirds of the world's polar bear populations
could be lost by mid-century as sea ice continues to retreat.
 Acidifying oceans: the world’s oceans, where it forms carbonic acid, absorb about one-third
of the CO2 pollution from smokestacks and tailpipes. A 2010 study published in Nature
Geoscience warns that unchecked greenhouse gas emissions could cause oceans to acidify
at a rate unprecedented in at least the last 65 million years.

 Coral bleaches: Coral reefs are highly sensitive to small changes in water temperature. Heat
triggers corals to shed the algae that nourish them—a bleaching event that leaves coral
white. In 1998, the world's coral suffered its worst year on record, which left 16% bleached
or dead. (ISRS statement [PDF]) Continued warming could cause mass bleaching to become
an annual event within the next few decades, wiping out many reef ecosystems.

Coral bleaching from warming waters

 Shifting habitat: As the mercury rises, plants and animals are shifting their ranges toward
the poles and to higher altitudes, and migration patterns for animals as diverse as whales
and butterflies are being disrupted.

 Threats to Western forests: The U.S. Geological Survey reports that slight changes in the
climate may trigger abrupt ecosystem changes that may be irreversible. All told, the Rocky
Mountains in Canada and the U.S. have seen nearly 70,000 square miles of forest die – an
area the size of Washington State – since 2000 due to outbreaks of tree-killing insects.

 Thinning ice, rising seas: Rising seas are one of the most certain effects of global warming as
warming ocean waters expand and melting glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets add more water
to the oceans. The IPCC estimates that melting ice caps and glaciers—which are some of our
most visible indicators of climate change accounted for about 25% of sea level rise from
1993 to 2003.

 Arctic sea ice is shrinking: Satellite images show that the extent of Arctic summer sea ice has
decreased by almost 9% per decade since 1979. The Arctic summer could be ice-free by
mid-century, according to a study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

 Sea level rise: During the 20th century, sea level rose an average of 7 inches after 2,000
years of relatively little change. The 2007 IPCC report conservatively predicts that sea
levels could rise 10 to 23 inches by 2100 if current warming patterns continue. In the U.S.,
roughly 100 million people live in coastal areas within 3 feet of mean sea level. Low-lying
cities such as Boston, Miami and New York are vulnerable. The U.S. Geological Survey
warning that most mid-Atlantic coastal wetlands from New York to North Carolina will be
 lost with a sea level rise of 3 feet or more. North Carolina's barrier islands would be
significantly breached and flooding would destroy the Florida Everglades.

 Melting glaciers: A 2005 survey of 442 glaciers found that 90% of the world's glaciers are
shrinking as the planet warms. Glacier National Park now has only 25 glaciers, versus 150
in 1910. At the current rate of retreat, the glaciers in Glacier National Park could be gone in
a matter of decades, according to some scientists.

Photos from 1938, 1981, 1998 and 2009 show the disappearance of Grinnell Glacier. Credit:
1938 T.J. Hileman photo, Courtesy of GNP Archives; 1981 Carl Key photo, USGS; 1998 D. Fagre
photo, USGS; 2009 Lindsey Bengtson photo, USGS. Source: USGS

Impacts of climate change to people around the globe

Extreme weather will become more frequent—and more dangerous. The World
Meteorological Organization reported that 2000-2009 was the hottest decade on record, with
eight of the hottest 10 years having occurred since 2000. It's not just the heat that poses
threats. Scientists say global warming is speeding up the cycling of water between the ocean,
atmosphere and land, resulting in more intense rainfall and droughts at the same time across
the globe.

 A surge in wildfires: Hot, dry conditions create a tinderbox ideal for wildfires. This could
have a devastating impact on America's Southwest.

 Increased flooding: The 2007 IPCC report concludes that intense rain events have increased
in frequency during the last 50 years and that human-induced global warming has been a
factor.

 Increased drought: There have also been increased periods of drought, particularly in
famine-stricken areas of Africa and Asia. According to the National Center for Atmospheric
Research, the percentage of Earth's surface suffering drought has more than doubled since
the 1970s. In Africa alone, the IPCC projects that between 75 and 250 million people will be
exposed to increased water stress due to climate change.
  More intense hurricanes: As the oceans warm, scientists predict that hurricane
intensity could increase. The associated storm surge poses particular risk to low-lying
coastal cities like Miami, Charleston (SC) and Wilmington (NC).

Threats to human health

A warming planet threatens people worldwide, causing deaths, spreading insect-borne

diseases and exacerbating respiratory illnesses. Extreme weather will also put more people in
harm's way. The World Health Organization believes that even the modest increases in
average temperature that have occurred since the 1970s are responsible for at least 150,000
extra deaths a year a figure that will double by 2030, according to WHO's conservative
estimate.

 Devastating heat waves: Recent studies show extreme heat events that now occur once
every 20 years will occur about every other year in much of the country, if current trends
continue. In 1995, Chicago suffered a heat wave that killed more than 700 people.
Chicagoans could experience that kind of relentless heat up to three times a year by 2100.

 Spread of disease: Diseases such as malaria and dengue fever could become more difficult to
control in areas where it's currently too cold for them to spread year-round. The malaria
parasite itself is generally limited to certain areas by cooler winter temperatures since it is
not able to grow below 16°C. As temperatures rise, diseases can grow and disease vectors
(the carriers that transmit disease, such as mosquitoes) will mature more rapidly and have
longer active seasons.

 Worsening air quality: More hot days mean ripe conditions for ground-level ozone, or smog,
which forms when pollutants from tailpipes and smokestacks mix in sunny, stagnant
conditions. Higher temperatures cause higher emissions of one type of pollutant, namely
hydrocarbons and other volatile organic compounds, as well as speeding up the chemical
reactions that form ozone smog. Smog triggers asthma attacks and worsens other breathing
problems. The number of Americans with asthma has more than doubled over the past two
decades to 20 million. Continued warming will only worsen the problem.

E. Urbanization
Urbanization is the process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated
in relatively small areas, forming cities. Internal rural to urban migration means that people move
from rural areas to urban areas. In this process the number of people living in cities increases
compared with the number of people living in rural areas. Natural increase of urbanization can
occur if the natural population growth in the cities is higher than in the rural areas. This scenario,
however, rarely occurs. A country is considered to urbanize when over 50 per cent of its
population live in the urban areas (Long 1998).
 Figure-01: A comparable study on urbanization

Under natural conditions, storm water is intercepted by vegetation and then absorbed into the
ground and filtered and eventually replenishes aquifers or flows into streams and rivers. Later,
part of it is returned to the atmosphere in the form of evapotranspiration. In urbanized areas,
however, impervious surfaces such as roods and roofs prevent precipitation from naturally
soaking into the ground. Instead, the water runs rapidly into storm drains, municipal sewers and
drainage ditches into streams, rivers and lakes and on its way it picks up pesticides, road salts,
heavy metals, oils, bacteria, and other harmful pollutants and transports them through municipal
sewers into streams, rivers and lakes. The sheer force and volume of polluted runoff causes: -

 Increased downstream flooding risks

 River bank and bed erosion
 Increased turbidity
 Aquatic Habitat destruction
 Changes in the stream flow regime
 Combined sewer overflows
 Infrastructure damage
 Contaminated streams, rivers, and coastal water

In order to mitigate the undesirable impacts of urbanization on watercourses and

associated infrastructure storm water management practices need to be implemented:
  To preserve the natural hydrologic balance in newly developing areas and re-
establish it, wherever possible, in already developed areas;
 To protect and enhance quality of storm water discharged to lakes and streams; and
 To reduce the volume and frequency of combined sewer overflows in older urban
areas

F. Biodiversity loss

The word biodiversity actually means biological diversity that refers the diversity or Varity of
plants and animals and other living things in a particular area or region. Biodiversity also means
the number, or abundance of different species living within a particular region. Scientists sometimes
refer to the biodiversity of an ecosystem, a natural area made up of a community of plants, animals, and
other living things in a particular physical and chemical environment.

Why is biodiversity important?

Everything that lives in an ecosystem is part of the web of life, including humans. Each species
of vegetation and each creature have a place on the earth and play a vital role in the circle of
life. Plant, animal, and insect species interact and depend upon one another for what each
offers, such as food, shelter, oxygen, and soil enrichment.

Causes of biodiversity losses

According to most sources, the major direct causes of human-induced biodiversity loss are the
fragmentation, degradation or loss of habitats, the over-exploitation of natural resources;
pollution of air and water (by several activities such as agriculture); the introduction of non-
native (alien, or exotic) species and climate change-induced biodiversity loss - these factors
being inextricably linked with some or all of the other direct causes and in turn are driven by
underlying causes.

What does biodiversity mean for human health?

People depend on biodiversity in their daily lives, in ways that are not always apparent or
appreciated. Human health ultimately depends upon ecosystem products and services (such
as availability of fresh water, food and fuel sources), which are requisite for good human
health and productive livelihoods. Biodiversity loss can have significant direct human health
impacts if ecosystem services are no longer adequate to meet social needs. Indirectly, changes
in ecosystem services affect livelihoods, income, local migration and, on occasion, may even
cause political conflict.

Additionally, biophysical diversity of microorganisms, flora and fauna provides extensive

knowledge which carry important benefits for biological, health, and pharmacological
sciences. Significant medical and pharmacological discoveries are made through greater
understanding of the earth's biodiversity. Loss in biodiversity may limit discovery of potential
treatments for many diseases and health problems.

Threats to biodiversity and health

There is growing concern about the health consequences of biodiversity loss and change.
Biodiversity changes affect ecosystem functioning and significant disruptions of ecosystems
can result in life sustaining ecosystem goods and services. Biodiversity loss also means that
we are losing, before discovery, many of nature's chemicals and genes, of the kind that have
already provided humankind with enormous health benefits. Specific pressures and linkages
between health and biodiversity include:

Nutritional impact of biodiversity

Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on world food
production, as it ensures the sustainable productivity of soils and provides the genetic
resources for all crops, livestock, and marine species harvested for food. Access to a
sufficiency of a nutritious variety of food is a fundamental determinant of health.

Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as
an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem and the genetic diversity within species.
Nutritional composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same
food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in the diet. Healthy local
diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of high
biodiversity levels.

Intensified and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant protection
(pesticides) or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping patterns affect biodiversity,
and thus impact global nutritional status and human health. Habitat simplification, species
loss and species succession often enhance communities vulnerabilities as a function of
environmental receptivity to ill health.

Importance of biodiversity for health research and traditional medicine

Traditional medicine continue to play an essential role in health care, especially in primary
health care. Traditional medicines are estimated to be used by 60% of the world’s population
and in some countries are extensively incorporated into the public health system. Medicinal
plant use is the most common medication tool in traditional medicine and complementary
medicine worldwide. Medicinal plants are supplied through collection from wild populations
and cultivation. Many communities rely on natural products collected from ecosystems for
medicinal and cultural purposes, in addition to food.

Although synthetic medicines are available for many purposes, the global need and demand
for natural products persists for use as medicinal products and biomedical research that
relies on plants, animals and microbes to understand human physiology and to understand
and treat human diseases.

Infectious diseases

Human activities are disturbing both the structure and functions of ecosystems and altering
native biodiversity. Such disturbances reduce the abundance of some organisms, cause
population growth in others, modify the interactions among organisms, and alter the
interactions between organisms and their physical and chemical environments. Patterns of
infectious diseases are sensitive to these disturbances. Major processes affecting infectious
disease reservoirs and transmission include, deforestation; land-use change; water
management e.g. through dam construction, irrigation, uncontrolled urbanization or urban
sprawl; resistance to pesticide chemicals used to control certain disease vectors; climate
variability and change; migration and international travel and trade; and the accidental or
intentional human introduction of pathogens.

Climate change, biodiversity and health

 Biodiversity provides numerous ecosystem services that are crucial to human well-being at
present and in the future. Climate is an integral part of ecosystem functioning and human
health is impacted directly and indirectly by results of climatic conditions upon terrestrial and
marine ecosystems. Marine biodiversity is affected by ocean acidification related to levels of
carbon in the atmosphere. Terrestrial biodiversity is influenced by climate variability, such as
extreme weather events (ie drought, flooding) that directly influence ecosystem health and
the productivity and availability of ecosystem goods and services for human use. Longer term
changes in climate affect the viability and health of ecosystems, influencing shifts in the
distribution of plants, pathogens, animals, and even human settlements.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures under taken, would result in the extinction
of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential to get the country
acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly. Some of these challenges
are as under:
 Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over
17 million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural
resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us
is to limit the population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to
development, yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For
this development of the women is essential.

 Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people
are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of
food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line.
Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the
resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the
challenge environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge. The population
growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an
earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.

 Agricultural Growth
The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural
growth with damaging the environment. High yielding verities have caused soil salinity
and damage to physical structure of soil.

 Need to Ground water

It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes,
industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface
water and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality
of our rivers and other water bodies as lakes are an important challenge. It so finding
our suitable strategies for consecration of water, provision of safe drinking water and
keeping water bodies clean which are difficult challenges is essential.

 Development And Forests

Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to
harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these
 would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the
dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political
and scientific debate. Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to
pressures of agriculture and other uses. These areas are to be brought back under
vegetative cover. The tribal communities inhabiting forests respects the trees and birds
and animal that gives them sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in
restoring and conserving forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest
department should be integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the
local communities. The strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved
in a well-planned way.

 Degradation of Land
At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess any potential for
production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffer from varying
degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 are completely unproductive.
The remaining 83 mha is classified as forestland, of which over half is denuded to
various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of livestock have to be supported on 13 mha,
or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land, most of which is overgrazed.
Thus, our of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees.
Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha. This
degradation is to be avoided.
*** mha- million hector

 Reorientation of Institutions
The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes and infrastructures, to suit
conditions and needs today. The change has to be brought in keeping in view India’s
traditions for resources use managements and education etc. Change should be brought
in education, in attitudes, in administrative procedures and in institutions. Because it
affects way people view technology resources and development.
 Reduction of Genetic Diversity
Proper measures to conserve genetic diversity need to be taken. At present most wild
genetic stocks have been disappearing from nature. Wilding including the Asiatic Lion
are facing problem of loss of genetic diversity. The protected areas network like
sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves are isolating populations. So, they are
decreasing changes of one group breeding with another. Remedial steps are to be taken
to check decreasing genetic diversity.

 9. Evil Consequences of Urbanization

Nearly 27 percent Indians live in urban areas. Urbanization and industrialization has
given birth to a great number of environmental problem that need urgent attention.
Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of India’s 3,245 towns and cities,
only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment facilities. Hence, coping with rapid
urbanization is a major challenge.

 10. Air and water Population

Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and population technologies and
makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes. A great number of
cities and industrial areas that have been identified as the worst in terms of air and
water pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The
reason is their implementation needs great resources, technical expertise, and political
and social will. Again the people are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is
indispensable to implement these rules.