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11 TH Physics
11 TH Physics
11 TH Physics
Class 11 PHYSICS
Revision Notes
CHAPTER 1
PHYSICAL WORLD
There are four fundamental forces which govern both macroscopic and microscopic
phenomena. There are
(i) Gravitational force
(ii) Nuclear force
(iii) Electromagnetic force
(iv) Weak force
All those quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of which the
laws of physics can be expressed are called physical quantities.
(a) Fundamental quantities
(b) Derived quantities.
The units of the fundamental quantities called fundamental units , and the units of derived
quantities called derived units.
System of units:-
(a) MKS
(b) CGS
(c) FPS
(d) SI
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental
quantities are raised to represent that physical quantity.
(ii) All zero between two non-zero digits are significant figure.
(iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are
not significant. But such zeros are significant if they come from a measurement.
(iv) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are significant.
(vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are not
significant. Single zero conventionally placed to the left of the decimal point is not
significant.
(vii) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units.
SUMMARY
1. Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation indifferent
phenomena. The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely differentcontexts
and conditions.
3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise tonew
physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact on society.
6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries ofspace
and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of
fundamental forces in nature.
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardized reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,kelvin,
mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental
or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units, both
fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and the
derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by means of SI
units with special names (such as joule, Newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m for
metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for expressing
properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired units are
obtained.
10. Direct and indirect methods can be used for the measurement of physical quantities. In
measured quantities, while expressing the result, the accuracy and precision of measuring
instruments along with errors in measurements should be taken into account.
11. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic operations
with them, and ë rounding off ë the uncertain digits must be followed.
12. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe the
nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensional
consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical quantities, etc. A
dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an exact (correct) equation, but a
dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation must be wrong.
1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the object
can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in a straight line,
position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as negative.
2. Path length is defined as the total length of the path traversed by an object.
5. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time interval in which the
displacement occurs: . It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is m/s.
On an x-t graph, the average velocity over a time interval is the slope of the line connecting
the initial and final positions corresponding to that interval.
6. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding time
interval. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is same (m/s) as that of velocity.
The average speed of an object may be greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
7. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as
the time interval Δt becomes infinitesimally small: . It is also a
8. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs:
9. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time
interval Δt goes to zero:
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time graph at
that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t graph is a straight
line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis. For
motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola while the v-t graph is a straight
line inclined to the time axis.
10. The area under the velocity-time curve between times and is equal to the
displacement of the object during that interval of time.
11. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a setof
When a body moves in a circular path with Increasing angular velocity, it has two
linear accelerations.
The minimum height through which a motor cyclist has to descend to a vertical loop
of radius r is h=
Circular Motion
When the person climbs down the rope with acceleration a, tension in the rope is T= m(g-a)
Suppose two masses and are suspended vertically from a rigid support with
the help of strings as shown in Fig. When mass is pulled down with a force F, then
and
When the same system of two masses attached to a string passes over a frictionless
During motion on level curved road, the necessary centripetal force is provided by
the force of friction between the tyres and the road. The maximum velocity with
which a vehicle can go round a level curve without Skidding is
To increase speed on turn, curved roads are usually baked outer edge of the
curved road is raised suitably above the inner edge. If 0 (theta) is the angle of banking
,then .
When a cyclist takes a turn he bends a little inwards from his vertical position, while
turning. Angle of bending from vertical position is given by
Motion along a vertical circle is a non uniform circular motion. Tension in the string
at any position is where is the angle of string with vertical
line for looping with optimum speed:- (when tension at highest point is zero)
Impulse =
Any system is said to be in equilibrium if net force applied on the system is zero . In
1. Static friction. It comes into effect when object is at rest but external force is applied.
2. Dynamic friction .it comes into effect when object is in motion.
3. Rolling friction-it comes into effect when object is rolling.
Limiting friction is the maximum value of static friction, whereas dynamic/ Kinetic
friction is somewhat less than the force of limiting friction.
Coefficient of friction
Angle of friction is the angle which resultant of F and R makes with the direction
of R. The relation between
Angle of repose(a) is the minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the horizontal
,such that a body placed on the plane just begins to slide down.
Centripetal force is the force required to move a body uniformally in a circle.
MOTION IN A PLANE
SUMMARY
1. Scalar quantities have only magnitude. Examples are distance, speed, mass and
temperature.
2. Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement, velocity
and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector 'A' multiplied by a real number ' ' is also a vector, whose magnitude is ' ' times
the magnitude of the vector 'A' and whose direction is the same or opposite depending upon
whether ' ' is positive or negative.
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we don't
have to specify its direction.
.0 =0
0.A =0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of 'A' and 'negative B'
i.e A-B=A + (-B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors 'a' and 'b' lying in the
same plane i.e, A= a+ b where and are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector 'A' has magnitude '1' and is along the vector A:
The unit vectors , , are vectors of unit magnitude and points in the direction of the x-, y-,
and z-axes respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
Where are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle with
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A and
B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then: R=A+B
12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r= x +y and the displacement
from position r to position r is given by
As tends to zero:
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to the curve
representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′ in time , then its average acceleration
is given by:
position vector at time then at any other time t, it will be at a point given by
and its velocity is given by
In component form
16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is
projected with initial velocity making an angle with x-axis and if we assume its initial
position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position and velocity of
the projectile at time t are given by:
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position it
passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is:
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is . The
direction of is always onwards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed , is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity v by v
= R. The acceleration is . If T is the time period of revolution of the object in
circular motion and ν is its frequency, we have
1. Aristotleís view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong. A
force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction.
3. Momentum (p ) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v) :p = mv
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus
where F is the net external force on the body and a its acceleration. We set the constant of
proportionality k = 1 in SI units. Then
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F = 0 implies a = 0)
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and also to a body or a system of particles, provided Fis the
total external force on the system and a is the acceleration of the system asa whole.
(d) F at a point at a certain instant determines a at the same point at that instant. That is the
Second Law is a local law; a at an instant does not depend on the history of motion.
5. Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum. The notion of
impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a measurable change in
momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short, one can assume that there is
no appreciable change in the position of the body during the action of the impulsive force.
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction In simple terms, the law can
be stated thus :
Forces in nature always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a body A by body B is equal
and opposite to the force on the body B by A.
Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect relation between
action and reaction. Any of the two mutual forces can be called action and the other reaction.
Action and reaction act on different bodies and so they cannot be cancelled out. The internal
action and reaction forces between different parts of a body do, however, sum to zero.
The total momentum of an isolated system of particles is conserved. The law follows from the
second and third law of motion.
8. Friction
Frictional force opposes (impending or actual) relative motion between two surfaces in
contact. It is the component of the contact force along the common tangent to the surface in
contact. Static friction opposes impending relativemotion; kinetic frictionopposes actual
relative motion. They are independentof the area of contact and satisfy the following
Kg m or
Momentum P Vector
Ns
Static
f, Ns
friction
Kinetic
f, N
friction
SUMMARY
1. The work-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a body is the
workdone by the net force on the body.
3. For a conservative force in one dimension, we may define a potential energy function
V(x)such that
4. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanicalenergy
of a body remains constant if the only forces that act on the body are conservative.
5. The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m at a height x about the earth’s
surface is V(x) = m g x
7. The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is written as A. B and is a scalarquantity
given by : A.B = AB cos , where is the angle between A and B. It can bepositive, negative or
zero depending upon the value of . The scalar product of twovectors can be interpreted as
the product of magnitude of one vector and componentof the other vector along the first
vector. For unit vectors :
Work W J W=F.d.
Kinetic Energy K J
Spring Constant K
P=F.v
Power P W
1. Centre of mass
2. Moment of a Force
3. Equilibrium of a rigid body
4. Moment of inertia
1. Ideally, a rigid body is one for which the distances between different particles of the body
do not change, even though there are forces on them.
2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have only rotational motion. A rigid
body not fixed in some way can have either pure translation or a combination of translation
and rotation.
3. In rotation about a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid body moves in a circle which lies
in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. Every Point in the rotating
rigid body has the same angular velocity at any instant of time.
4. In pure translation, every particle of the body moves with the same velocity at any instant
of time.
5. Angular velocity is a vector. Its magnitude is and it is directed along the axis of
rotation. For rotation about a fixed axis, this vector has a fixed direction.
6. The vector or cross product of two vector a and b is a vector written as a × b. The
magnitude of this vector is ab sin and its direction is given by the right handed screw or the
right hand rule.
7. The linear velocity of a particle of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by v=
*r where r is the position vector of the particle with respect to an origin along the fixed axis.
The relation applies even to more general rotation of a rigid body with one point fixed. In
that case r is the position vector of the particle with respect to the fixed point taken as the
8. The centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as the point whose position vector is
9. Velocity of the centre of mass of a system of particles is given by V = P/M, where P is the
linear momentum of the system. The centre of mass moves as if all the mass of the system is
concentrated at this point and all the external forces act at it. If the total external force on the
system is zero, then the total linear momentum of the system is constant.
The force Fi acting on the particle includes the external as well as internal forces.
Assuming Newton’s third law and that forces between any two particles act along the line
joining the particles, we can show = 0 and
(1) it is in translational equilibrium, i.e., the total external force on it is zero and
12. The centre of gravity of an extended body is that point where the total
gravitationaltorque on the body is zero.
13. The moment of intertia of a rigid body about an axis is defined by the formula
where is the perpendicular distance of the ith point of the body from the axis.
The kinetic energy of rotation is .
14. The theorem of parallel axes: = allows us to determine the moment of intertia
of a rigid body about an axis as the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel
axis through its centre of mass and the product of mass and square of the perpendicular
15. Rotation about a fixed axis is directly analogous to linear motion in respect of kinematics
and dynamics.
16. For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis (say, z-axis) of rotation, , where I is
the moment of inertia about z-axis. In general, the angular momentum L for such a body is
not along the axis of rotation. Only if the body is symmetric about the axis of rotation, L is
along the axis of rotation. In that case, . The angular acceleration of a rigid
body rotating about a fixed axis is given by Iα = τ. If the external torque τ acting on the body
is zero, the component of angular momentum about the fixed axis (say, z-axis of
such a rotating body is constant.
17. For rolling motion without slipping , where is the velocity of translation
(i.e. of the centre of mass), R is the radius and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy
of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic energies of translation and rotation:
.
(a) Kepler's first law (law of orbit): Every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
with the sun is situated at one focus of the ellipse.
(b) Kepler's second law (law of area): The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time , i.e., the areal velocity of the planet around
the sun is constant.
(c) Kepler's third law (law of period): The square of the time period of revolution of a planet
around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit of
the planet around the sun.
Gravitation is the name given to the force of attraction acting between any two
bodies of the universe.
Gravity: It is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards its centre on a body
lying on or near the surface of earth. Gravity is the measure of weight of the body.
The weight of a body of mass m=mass X acceleration due to gravity=mg. The unit of
weight of a body will be the same as those of force.
Gravitational intensity (I) is related to gravitational potential (V) at a point by the relation,
X mass of body =
Elasticity: Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regain its original
configuration after the removal of the deforming force.
Elastic Limit : Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force upto which, if deforming
force is removed, the body regains its original form completely and beyond which if
deforming force is increased the body loses its property of elasticity and get permanently
deformed.
Perfectly Elastic Bodies: Those bodies which regain its original configuration immediately
and completely after the removal of deforming force are called perfectly elastic bodies. e.g.,
quartz and phosphor bronze etc.
Perfectly Plastic Bodies: Those bodies which does not regain its original configuration at all
on the removal of deforming force are called perfectly plastic bodies, e.g., putty, paraffin,
wax etc.
Stress : The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body is called stress.
Stress =
(i) Normal Stress If deforming force is applied normal to the area, then the stress is called
normal stress.
(ii) Tangential Stress If deforming force is applied tangentially, then the stress is called
tangential stress.
Strain =
(iii) Shearing strain = Angular displacement of the plane perpendicular to the fixed surface.
Hooke’s Law
or Stress = E * Strain
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain within the elastic limit.
K =
K = = Δp V / Δ V
It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain, within the elastic limit.
Compressibility
Its SI unit is N-1m2 and CGS unit is dyne-1 cm2 . Steel is more elastic than rubber. Solids are
more elastic and gases are least elastic. For liquids. modulus of rigidity is zero. Young’s
modulus (Y) and modulus of rigidity (η) are possessed by solid materials only.
Limit of Elasticity
The maximum value of deforming force for which elasticity is present in the body is called its
Breaking Stress
The minimum value of stress required to break a wire, is called breaking stress. Breaking
stress is fixed for a material but breaking force varies with area of cross-section of the wire.
Safety factor =
The time delay in restoring the original configuration after removal of deforming force is
called elastic relaxation time.
The temporary delay in regaining the original configuration by the elastic body after the
removal of deforming force, is called elastic after effect.
Elastic Fatigue
The property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic under
the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called elastic fatigue.
Ductile Materials
The materials which show large plastic range beyond elastic limit are called ductile
materials, e.g., copper, silver, iron, aluminum, etc. Ductile materials are used for making
springs and sheets. Brittle Materials The materials which show very small plastic range
beyond elastic limit are called brittle materials, e.g., glass, cast iron, etc.
Elastomers
The materials for which strain produced is much larger than the stress applied, with in the
limit of elasticity are called elastomers, e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, the large
vessel carrying blood from heart. etc. Elastomers have no plastic range.
U = * Stress * Strain
Thermal Stress When temperature of a rod fixed at its both ends is changed, then the
produced stress is called thermal stress.
When temperature of a gas enclosed in a vessel is changed, then the thermal stress produced
is equal to change in pressure (Δp)of the gas.
Thermal stress = Δ p = Ky Δ θ
K = Yro
Poisson’s Ratio
lies between – 1 and 0.5. Its practical value lies between 0 and 0.5
(i) Y = 3K (1 – 2σ)
(ii) Y = 2 η ( 1 + σ)
(iii) σ =
Coefficient of elasticity depends upon the material, its temperature and purity but not on
stress or strain.
For the same material, the three coefficients of elasticity γ, η and K have different
magnitudes.
Cantilever
A beam clamped at one end and loaded at free end is called a cantilever. Depression at the
free end of a cantilever is given by
δ =
Depression at middle δ =
Torsion of a Cylinder
Fluids : Fluids are those substances which can flow when an external force is applied on it.
Liquids and gases are fluids.
Fluids do not have finite shape but takes the shape of the containing vessel,
The total normal force exerted by liquid at rest on a given surface is called thrust of liquid.
The SI unit of thrust is newton.
Pressure Exerted by the Liquid : The normal force exerted by a liquid per unit area of the
surface in contact is called pressure of liquid orhydrostatic pressure.
Pressure exerted by a liquid column p = hρg
Where, h = height of liquid column, ρ = density of liquid and g = acceleration due to gravity
Mean pressure on the walls of a vessel containing liquid upto height h is (hρg / 2).
Pascal’s Law
Atmospheric pressure
100000 N/m2 .
Buoyancy : When a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid an upward force acts on it,
which is called buoyant force or simply buoyancy.
The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the liquid displaced] by the immersed part
of the body and this point is called the centre buoyancy.
Archimedes’ Principle : When a body is partially or fully immersed in a liquid, it loses some
of its weight. and it is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the
body.
If T is the observed weight of a body of density σ when it is fully immersed in a liquid of
density p, then real weight of the body w =
Laws of Floatation : A body will float in a liquid, if the weight of the body is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body.
If W is the weight of the body and w is the buoyant force, then
The floating body will be in stable equilibrium if meta-centre (centre of buoyancy) lies
vertically above the centre of gravity of the body.
The floating body will be in unstable equilibrium if meta-centre (centre of buoyancy) lies
vertically below the centre of gravity of the body.
When two liquids of same mass m but of different densities p1 and p2 are mixed together
then density of mixture is
where = initial density of the liquid, K = bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid and Δp =
change in pressure
The branch dealing with measurement of temperature is called thremometry and the devices
used to measure temperature are called thermometers.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy called thermal energy which flows from a higher temperature body
to a lower temperature body when they are placed in contact.
Heat or thermal energy of a body is the sum of kinetic energies of all its constituent particles,
on account of translational, vibrational and rotational motion.
Temperature
Temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body. A device which is
used to measure the temperature, is called a thermometer.
Highest possible temperature achieved in laboratory is about 108 while lowest possible
temperature attained is 10-8 K.
1. Celsius Scale In this scale of temperature, the melting point ice is taken as 0°C and the
boiling point of water as and space between these two points is divided into 100
equal parts
2. Fahrenheit Scale In this scale of temperature, the melt point of ice is taken as 32°F and the
boiling point of water as 211 and the space between these two points is divided into 180
equal parts.
3. Kelvin Scale In this scale of temperature, the melting pouxl ice is taken as 273 K and the
boiling point of water as 373 K the space between these two points is divided into 100 equal
pss
Thermometric Property
The property of an object which changes with temperature, is call thermometric property.
Different thermometric properties thermometers have been given below
whereand pt, are pressure of a gas at constant volume.A constant volume gas thermometer
can measure tempera from
where, α = temperature coefficient of resistance and R0 and Rt, are electrical resistances at
0°C and t°C.
When two junctions of a thermocouple are kept at different temperatures, then a thermo-
emf is produced between the junctions, which changes with temperature difference between
the junctions. Thermo-emf
Thermal Equilibrium
When there is no transfer of heat between two bodies in contact, the the bodies are called in
thermal equilibrium.
If two bodies A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with thirtli body C, then bodies A
and B will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Specific Heat
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass the substance through 1°C
is called its specific heat.
It is denoted by c or s.
Its SI unit is joule/kilogram . Its dimensions is
The specific heat of water is , which high compared
with most other substances.
Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is greater than specific heat constant volume
Water Equivalent
It is the quantity of water whose thermal capacity is same as the heat capacity of the body. It
is denoted by W.
W = ms = heat capacity of the body.
Latent Heat
The heat energy absorbed or released at constant temperature per unit mass for change of
state is called latent heat.
Heat energy absorbed or released during change of state is given by Q = mL
where m = mass of the substance and L = latent heat.
Its unit is cal/g or J/kg and its dimension is
For water at its normal boiling point or condensation temperature (100°C), the latent heat of
vaporisation is
L = 540 cal/g
= 40.8 kJ/ mol
= 2260 kJ/kg
For water at its normal freezing temperature or melting point (0°C), the latent heat of fusion
is
L = 80 cal/ g = 60 kJ/mol
= 336 kJ/kg
It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather than by boiling was 100°C gets converted to
water at 100°C, then it gives out 536 heat. So, it is clear that steam at 100°C has more heat
than wat 100°C (i.e., boiling of water).
After snow falls, the temperature of the atmosphere becomes very This is because the snow
There is more shivering effect of ice cream on teeth as compare that of water (obtained from
ice). This is because when ice cream down, it absorbs large amount of heat from teeth.
Melting
Evaporation
Conversion of liquid into vapour at all temperatures (even below boiling point) is called
evaporation.
Boilding
The temperature at which a liquid boils, is called boiling point The boiling point of water
increases with increase in pre sure decreases with decrease in pressure.
Sublimation
Hoar Frost
Calorimetry
This is the branch of heat transfer that deals with the measorette heat. The heat is usually
measured in calories or kilo calories.
Principle of Calorimetry
When a hot body is mixed with a cold body, then heat lost by ha is equal to the heat gained
Thermal Expansion
Increase in size on heating is called thermal expansion. There are three types of thermal
expansion.
1. Expansion of solids
2. Expansion of liquids
3. Expansion of gases
Expansion of Solids
where, ll and l2 are initial and final lengths, Δt = change in temperature and α = coefficient of
linear expansion.
Coefficient of linear expansion
where V1 and V2 are initial and final volumes and γ is a coefficient of cubical expansion.
2. Expansion of Liquids
(ii) Real Expansion of Liquids When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on heating
is also taken into account, then observed expansion is called real expansion of liquids.
3. Expansion of Gases
1. Volume Coefficient (γv) At constant pressure, the change in volume per unit
volume per degree celsius is called volume coefficient. where V0, V1, and
1. When rails are laid down on the ground, space is left between the end of two rails.
2. The transmission cables are not tightly fixed to the poles.
3. The iron rim to be put on a cart wheel is always of slightly smaller diameter than that of
wheel.
4. A glass stopper jammed in the neck of a glass bottle can be taken out by warming the neck
of the bottles.
Important Points
Due to increment in its time period a pendulum clock becomes slow in summer and
will lose time. Loss of time in a time period
Loss of time in any given time interval t can be given by ΔT =(1/2)α Δθt
At some higher temperature a scale will expand and scale reading will be lesser than
true values, so that
However, at lower temperature scale reading will be more or true value will be less.
1. Thermal equilibrium
2. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
3. Heat, internal energy and work
4. First law of thermodynamics, Isothermal and adiabatic processes
5. Second law of thermodynamics, reversible and irreversible processes
6. Heat engines and Refrigerators
Internal Energy of a Gas is the sum of kinetic energy and the potential energy of the
molecules of the gas.
Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature volume of given mass of gas is inversely proportional
to its pressure. or PV = cons tan t
Charle’s Law: At constant pressure volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature.
*For 1° rise in temp.
Ideal gas: A gas which obeys gas law strictly is an ideal or perfect gas. The molecules of such
a gas are of point size and there is no force of attraction between them.
The law of equipartition of energy holds good for all degrees of freedom whether
translational , rotational or vibrational.
A monoatomic gas molecule has only translational kinetic energy
So a monoatomic gas molecule has only three (translational) degrees of freedom.
In addition to translational kinetic energy, a diatomic molecule has two rotational
Kinetic energies
Here the line joining the two atoms has been taken as x-axis about which there is no rotation.
So, the degree of freedom of a diatomic molecule is 5, it does not vibrate.
At very high temperature, vibration is also activated due to which two extra degree of
freedom emerge from vibrational energy. Hence at very high temperature degree of freedom
of diatomic molecule is seven.
(Each translational and rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one mole of absorption
of energy and has energy (1/2 )
Periodic Motion: A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a regular
interval of time.
Oscillatory Motion: A motion in which a body moves back and forth repeatedly
about a fixed point.
Periodic function: A function that repeats its value at regular intervals of its
argument is called periodic function. The following sine and cosine functions are
periodic with period T.
Note :- All Harmonic functions are periodic but all periodic functions are not harmonic.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A particle is said to execute SHM if it moves to and
fro about a mean position under the action of a restoring force which is directly
proportional to its displacement from mean position and is always directed towards
mean position.
Angular Frequency:
Phase:
Displacement in SHM :
Where, = Displacement,
A = Amplitude
ωt = Angular Frequency
ø0 = Initial Phase.
Acceleration
1. In string for mass per unit length ’m’ and tension ‘T’ is
According to Newton’s formula: When sound travels in gas then changes take in the
medium are isothermal in nature.
(ii) Density
Temp-
Phase is the argument of the sine or cosine function representing the wave.
(4) Distance between two successive nodes or antinodes are and that between nodes and
nearest antinodes is
A = Antinodes
Mode of vibration of strings:-
1.