3.

Examples

Contents

• Model for telephone traffic

• Packet level model for data traffic
• Flow level model for elastic data traffic
• Flow level model for streaming data traffic
3. Examples

lect03.ppt S-38.145 - Introduction to Teletraffic Theory – Spring 2005 1 2

3. Examples 3. Examples

Classical model for telephone traffic (1) Classical model for telephone traffic (2)

• Loss models have traditionally been used to describe (circuit- • Erlang modelled this as a pure loss system (m = 0)
switched) telephone networks – customer = call
– Pioneering work made by Danish mathematician A.K. Erlang (1878-1929) • λ = call arrival rate (calls per time unit)
• Consider a link between two telephone exchanges – service time = (call) holding time
– traffic consists of the ongoing telephone calls on the link • h = 1/µ = average holding time (time units)
– server = channel on the link
• n = nr of channels on the link

µ
1
λ µ
µ
µ
n

3 4
3. Examples 3. Examples

Traffic process Traffic intensity

channel-by-channel • The strength of the offered traffic is described by the traffic intensity a
occupation call holding time
6 • By definition, the traffic intensity a is the product of the arrival rate λ
channels

5
4 and the mean holding time h:
3
2
1 a = λh
time – The traffic intensity is a dimensionless quantity. Anyway, the unit of the
call arrival times traffic intensity a is called erlang (erl)
blocked call
nr of channels – By Little’s formula: traffic of one erlang means that one channel is occupied
occupied on average
nr of channels

6
5 • Example:
4
3 – On average, there are 1800 new calls in an hour, and the average holding
2 time is 3 minutes. Then the traffic intensity is
1
0
traffic volume time a = 1800 ∗ 3 / 60 = 90 erlang
5 6

3. Examples 3. Examples

Blocking Call rates

• In a loss system some calls are lost • In a loss system each call is either lost or carried. Thus, there are
– a call is lost if all n channels are occupied when the call arrives three types of call rates:
– the term blocking refers to this event – λoffered = arrival rate of all call attempts
• There are two different types of blocking quantities: – λcarried = arrival rate of carried calls
– Call blocking Bc = probability that an arriving call finds all n channels – λlost = arrival rate of lost calls
occupied = the fraction of calls that are lost
– Time blocking Bt = probability that all n channels are occupied at an λoffered λcarried
arbitrary time = the fraction of time that all n channels are occupied
λlost
• The two blocking quantities are not necessarily equal
– Example: your own mobile
λoffered = λcarried + λlost = λ
– But if calls arrive according to a Poisson process, then Bc = Bt
• Call blocking is a better measure for the quality of service experienced λcarried = λ (1 − Bc )
by the subscribers but, typically, time blocking is easier to calculate
λlost = λBc
7 8
3. Examples 3. Examples

Traffic streams Teletraffic analysis (1)

• The three call rates lead to the following three traffic concepts: • System capacity
– Traffic offered aoffered = λofferedh – n = number of channels on the link
λoffered λcarried
– Traffic carried acarried = λcarriedh • Traffic load
– Traffic lost alost = λlosth λlost – a = (offered) traffic intensity
• Quality of service (from the subscribers’ point of view)
aoffered = acarried + alost = a – Bc = call blocking = probability that an arriving call finds all n channels
acarried = a (1 − Bc ) occupied
• Assume an M/G/n/n loss system:
alost = aBc – calls arrive according to a Poisson process (with rate λ)
• Traffic offered and traffic lost are hypothetical quantities, but – call holding times are independently and identically distributed according to
traffic carried is measurable, since (by Little’s formula) it corresponds any distribution with mean h
to the average number of occupied channels on the link

9 10

3. Examples 3. Examples

Teletraffic analysis (2) Example

• Then the quantitive relation between the three factors (system, traffic, • Assume that there are n = 4 channels on a link and the offered traffic is
and quality of service) is given by Erlang’s formula: a = 2.0 erlang. Then the call blocking probability Bc is
an 24 16
4! 24 2
Bc = Erl(n, a ) := n! Bc = Erl( 4 , 2 ) =
22 23 24
=
1+ 2 + 4+8 + 16
=
21
≈ 9 .5 %
n i 1 + 2 + 2! + 3! + 4! 2 6 24
∑ ai!
i =0 • If the link capacity is raised to n = 6 channels, then Bc reduces to

n!= n ⋅ (n − 1) ⋅ K ⋅ 2 ⋅1, 0!= 1 26

Bc = Erl( 6 , 2 ) = 6! ≈ 1 .2 %
• Also called: 2 3 4 5 6
– Erlang’s B-formula 1 + 2 + 22! + 23! + 24! + 25! + 26!
– Erlang’s blocking formula
– Erlang’s loss formula
– Erlang’s first formula
11 12
3. Examples 3. Examples

Capacity vs. traffic Quality of service vs. traffic

• Given the quality of service requirement that Bc < 1%, the required • Given the capacity n = 20 channels, the required quality of service
capacity n depends on the traffic intensity a as follows: 1 − Bc depends on the traffic intensity a as follows:

n(a ) = min{i = 1,2,K | Erl(i, a ) < 0.01} 1 − Bc (a ) = 1 − Erl(20, a )

100 1

80 0.8

60 0.6
capacity n quality of service
40 1 − Bc 0.4

20 0.2

20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
13 14
traffic a traffic a

3. Examples 3. Examples

Quality of service vs. capacity Contents

• Given the traffic intensity a = 15.0 erlang, the required quality of service • Model for telephone traffic
1 − Bc depends on the capacity n as follows: • Packet level model for data traffic
• Flow level model for elastic data traffic
1 − Bc (n) = 1 − Erl(n,15.0) • Flow level model for streaming data traffic
1

0.8

0.6
quality of service
1 − Bc 0.4

0.2

10 20 30 40 50
15 16
capacity n
3. Examples 3. Examples

Packet level model for data traffic (1) Packet level model for data traffic (2)

• Queueing models are suitable for describing (packet-switched) data • This can be modelled as a pure queueing system with a single server
traffic at packet level (n = 1) and an infinite buffer (m = ∞)
– Pioneering work made by many people in 60’s and 70’s related to – customer = packet
ARPANET, in particular L. Kleinrock (http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/)
• λ = packet arrival rate (packets per time unit)
• Consider a link between two packet routers
• L = average packet length (data units)
– traffic consists of data packets transmitted along the link
– server = link, waiting places = buffer
• C = link speed (data units per time unit)
– service time = packet transmission time
R • 1/µ = L/C = average packet transmission time (time units)
R R
R µ
λ

17 18

3. Examples 3. Examples

Traffic process Traffic load

packet status (waiting/in transmission)

• The strength of the offered traffic is described by the traffic load ρ
waiting time
• By definition, the traffic load ρ is the ratio between the arrival rate λ
transmission time
and the service rate µ = C/L:
time λ λL
packet arrival times ρ= =
number of packets in the system
µ C
4
3 – The traffic load is a dimensionless quantity
2 – By Little’s formula, it tells the utilization factor of the server, which is the
1 probability that the server is busy
0
time
link occupation
1
0
time

19 20
3. Examples 3. Examples

Example Delay

• Consider a link between two packet routers. Assume that, • In a queueing system, some packets have to wait before getting served
– on average, 50,000 new packets arrive in a second, – An arriving packet is buffered, if the link is busy upon the arrival
– the mean packet length is 1500 bytes, and • Delay of a packet consists of
– the link speed is 1 Gbps. – the waiting time, which depends on the state of the system upon the
• Then the traffic load (as well as, the utilization) is arrival, and
– the transmission time, which depends on the length of the packet and the
ρ = 50,000 ∗1500 ∗ 8 / 1,000,000,000 = 0.60 = 60% capacity of the link
• Example:
– packet length = 1500 bytes
– link speed = 1 Gbps
– transmission time = 1500*8/1,000,000,000 = 0.000012 s = 12 µs

21 22

3. Examples 3. Examples

Teletraffic analysis (1) Teletraffic analysis (2)

• System capacity • Then the quantitive relation between the three factors (system, traffic,
– C = link speed in kbps and quality of service) is given by the following formula:
• Traffic load
– λ = packet arrival rate in pps (considered here as a variable)
Pz = Wait(C , λ ; L, z ) :=
– L = average packet length in kbits (assumed here to be constant 1 kbit)  λL exp(−( C − λ ) z ) = ρ exp(− µ (1 − ρ ) z ), if λL < C ( ρ < 1)
• Quality of service (from the users’ point of view) C L
– Pz = probability that a packet has to wait “too long”, i.e. longer than a given  1, if λL ≥ C ( ρ ≥ 1)
reference value z (assumed here to be constant z = 0.00001 s = 10 µs)
• Note:
• Assume an M/M/1 queueing system:
– The system is stable only in the former case (ρ < 1). Otherwise the number
– packets arrive according to a Poisson process (with rate λ)
of packets in the buffer grows without limits.
– packet lengths are independent and identically distributed according to the
exponential distribution with mean L

23 24
 3. Examples 3. Examples

Example Capacity vs. arrival rate

• Assume that packets arrive at rate λ = 600,000 pps = 0.6 packets/µs • Given the quality of service requirement that Pz < 1%, the required link
and the link speed is C = 1.0 Gbps = 1.0 kbit/µs. speed C depends on the arrival rate λ as follows:
• The system is stable since
C (λ ) = min{c > λL | Wait(c, λ ;1,10) < 0.01}
ρ = λCL = 0.6 < 1
2
• The probability Pz that an arriving packet has to wait too long (i.e. 1.75
longer than z = 10 µs) is 1.5

Pz = Wait(1.0,0.6;1,10) = 0.6 exp( −4.0) ≈ 1% 1.25

link speed C 1
(Gbps) 0.75
0.5
0.25

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

25 26
arrival rate λ (packets/µs)

3. Examples 3. Examples

Quality of service vs. arrival rate Quality of service vs. capacity

• Given the link speed C = 1.0 Gbps = 1.0 kbit/µs, the quality of service • Given the arrival rate λ = 600,000 pps = 0.6 packets/µs, the quality of
1 − Pz depends on the arrival rate λ as follows: service 1 − Pz depends on the link speed C as follows:

1 − Pz (λ ) = 1 − Wait(1.0, λ ;1,10) 1 − Pz ( R ) = 1 − Wait(C ,0.6;1,10)

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
quality of service quality of service
1 − Pz 0.4 1 − Pz 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

27 28
arrival rate λ (packets/µs) link speed C (Gbps)
3. Examples 3. Examples

Contents Flow level model for elastic data traffic (1)

• Model for telephone traffic • Sharing models are suitable for describing elastic data traffic at flow
• Packet level model for data traffic level
• Flow level model for elastic data traffic – Elasticity refers to the adaptive sending rate of TCP flows
– This kind of models have been proposed, e.g., by J. Roberts and his
• Flow level model for streaming data traffic researchers (http://perso.rd.francetelecom.fr/roberts/)
• Consider a link between two packet routers
– traffic consists of TCP flows loading the link

R
R R
R
29 30

3. Examples 3. Examples

Flow level model for elastic data traffic (2) Traffic process

transfer time
• The simplest model is a single server (n = 1) pure sharing system flow duration with full link rate
with a fixed total service rate of µ
extra delay
– customer = TCP flow = file to be transferred
• λ = flow arrival rate (flows per time unit)
time
• S = average flow size = average file size (data units) flow arrival times
– server = link number of flows in the system
• C = link speed (data units per time unit) 4
3
– service time = file transfer time with full link speed 2
• 1/µ = S/C = average file transfer time with full link speed (time units) 1
0
time
relative transmission rate for single flows
∞ µ
1
λ
1/2
1/41/3
0
31 time 32
3. Examples 3. Examples

Traffic load Example

• The strength of the offered traffic is described by the traffic load ρ • Consider a link between two packet routers. Assume that,
• By definition, the traffic load ρ is the ratio between the arrival rate λ – on average, 50 new flows arrive in a second,
– average flow size is 1,500,000 bytes, and
and the service rate µ = C/S:
– link speed is 1 Gbps.
λ λS • Then the traffic load (as well as, the utilization) is
ρ= =
µ C
ρ = 50 ∗1,500,000 ∗ 8 / 1,000,000,000 = 0.60 = 60%
– The traffic load is (again) a dimensionless quantity
– It tells the utilization factor of the server

33 34

3. Examples 3. Examples

Throughput Teletraffic analysis (1)

• In a sharing system the service capacity is shared among all active • System capacity
flows. It follows that all flows get delayed (unless there is only a single – C = link speed in Mbps
active flow) • Traffic load
• By definition, the ratio between the average flow size S and the average – λ = flow arrival rate in flows per second (considered here as a variable)
total delay D of a flow is called throughput θ, – S = average flow size in kbits (assumed here to be constant 1 Mbit)
θ =S/D • Quality of service (from the users’ point of view)
– θ = throughput
• Example: • Assume an M/G/1-PS sharing system:
– S = 1 Mbit
– flows arrive according to a Poisson process (with rate λ)
– D=5s – flow sizes are independent and identically distributed according to any
– θ = S/D = 0.2 Mbps distribution with mean S

35 36
 3. Examples 3. Examples

Teletraffic analysis (2) Example

• Then the quantitive relation between the three factors (system, traffic, • Assume that flows arrive at rate λ = 600 flows per second and the link
and quality of service) is given by the following formula: speed is C = 1000 Mbps = 1.0 Gbps.
• The system is stable since
C − λS = C (1 − ρ ), if λS < C ( ρ < 1)
θ = Xput(C , λ ; S ) :=  ρ = λCS = 1000
600 = 0.6 < 1
0, if λS ≥ C ( ρ ≥ 1)
• Throughput is
• Note:
– The system is stable only in the former case (ρ < 1). Otherwise the number θ = Xput(1000,600;1) = 1000 − 600 = 400 Mbps = 0.4 Gbps
of flows as well as the average delay grows without limits. In other words,
the throughput of a flow goes to zero.

37 38

3. Examples 3. Examples

Capacity vs. arrival rate Quality of service vs. arrival rate

• Given the quality of service requirement that θ ≥ 400 Mbps, the • Given the link speed C = 1000 Mbps, the quality of service θ depends
required link speed C depends on the arrival rate λ as follows: on the arrival rate λ as follows:

C (λ ) = min{c > λS | Xput(c, λ ;1) ≥ 400} = λS + 400 θ (λ ) = Xput(1000, λ ;1) = 1000 − λS , λ < 1000/S

1400 1000
1200
800
1000
800 600
link speed C throughput θ
(Mbps) 600 (Mbps) 400
400
200
200

200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000
39 40
arrival rate λ (flows per second) arrival rate λ (flows per second)
3. Examples 3. Examples

Quality of service vs. capacity Contents

• Given the arrival rate λ = 600 flows per second, the quality of service θ • Model for telephone traffic
depends on the link speed C as follows: • Packet level model for data traffic
• Flow level model for elastic data traffic
θ (C ) = Xput(C ,600;1) = C − 600 S , C > 600 S • Flow level model for streaming data traffic

400
350
300
250
throughput θ 200
(Mbps) 150
100
50

650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

41 42
link speed C (Mbps)

3. Examples 3. Examples

Flow level model for streaming CBR traffic (1) Flow level model for streaming CBR traffic (2)

• Infinite system is suitable for describing streaming CBR traffic at flow • Model: an infinite system (n = ∞)
level – customer = UDP flow = CBR bit stream
– The transmission rate and flow duration of a streaming flow are insensitive • λ = flow arrival rate (flows per time unit)
to the network state
– service time = flow duration
– This kind of models applied in 90’s to the teletraffic analysis of CBR traffic in
ATM networks • h = 1/µ = average flow duration (time units)
• Consider a link between two packet routers • Bufferless flow level model:
– traffic consists of UDP flows carrying CBR traffic (like VoIP) and loading the – when the total transmission rate of the flows exceeds the link capacity, bits
link are lost (uniformly from all flows)

R µ
1
λ µ
R R •
•
R • ∞
43 44
3. Examples 3. Examples

Traffic process Offered traffic

flow durations • Let r denote the bit rate of any flow

• The strength of offered traffic is described by average total bit rate R
– By Little’s formula, the average number of flows is

a = λh
time – This may be called traffic intensity (cf. telephone traffic)
flow arrival times – It follows that
lost traffic
total bit rate
(number of flows) R = ar = λhr

carried traffic time

45 46

3. Examples 3. Examples

Loss ratio Teletraffic analysis (1)

• Let N denote the number of flows in the system • System capacity

• When the total transmission rate Nr exceeds the link capacity C, bits – C = nr = link speed in kbps
are lost with rate • Traffic load
– R = ar = offered traffic in kbps
Nr − C – r = bit rate of a flow in kbps.
• The average loss rate is thus • Quality of service (from the users’ point of view)
+ – ploss = loss ratio
E[( Nr − C ) ] = E[max{Nr − C ,0}] • Assume an M/G/∞ infinite system:
• By definition, the loss ratio ploss gives the ratio between the traffic lost – flows arrive according to a Poisson process (with rate λ)
and the traffic offered: – flow durations are independent and identically distributed according to any
distribution with mean h
E[( Nr −C ) + ] 1
ploss = E[ Nr ]
= ar E[( Nr − C ) + ]
47 48
3. Examples 3. Examples

Teletraffic analysis (2) Capacity vs. traffic

• Then the quantitive relation between the three factors (system, traffic,
and the quality of service) is given by the following formula
∞ i
ploss = LR(n, a) := 1a ∑ (i − n) ai! e − a
i = n +1
• Given the quality of service requirement that ploss < 1%, the required
capacity n depends on the traffic intensity a as follows:
n(a ) = min{i = 1,2,K | LR(i, a ) < 0.01}
100

• Example: 80
– n = 20
60
– a = 14.36 capacity n
– ploss = 0.01 40

20

20 40 60 80 100
49 50
traffic a

3. Examples 3. Examples

Quality of service vs. traffic Quality of service vs. capacity

• Given the capacity n = 20, the required quality of service 1 − ploss • Given the traffic intensity a = 15.0 erlang, the required quality of service
depends on the traffic intensity a as follows: 1 − ploss depends on the capacity n as follows:

1 − ploss (a ) = 1 − LR(20, a ) 1 − ploss (n) = 1 − LR(n,15.0)

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
quality of service quality of service
1 − ploss 0.4 1 − ploss 0.4

0.2 0.2

20 40 60 80 100 10 20 30 40 50
51 52
traffic a capacity n