The Origins of American Medicine

www.archaeology.org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America July/August

May/June2009
2011

Ritual Wells of
Ancient
India
World War II
Battles, Tactics,
Home Front

Digging in
North
Korea
Yucatán
Cave Diving
vk.
com/
engl
ishl
ibr
ary
PLUS:
Ireland’s Sacred Landscape,
Peruvian Mummy Family,
Human Migration, First Winery
vk.com/englishlibrary
 MAY/JUNE 2011
VOLUME 64, NUMBER 3

CONTENTS
features
26 Archaeology of
World War II
New research reveals the
true extent and impact of the
world’s greatest conflict

36 India’s Underground
Water Temples
Stepwells are spiritual monuments
to water and stark reminders of its
increasing scarcity
BY SAMIR S. PATEL

40 The Sacred Landscape of

Ancient Ireland
Excavations and rare manuscripts
reveal much about early Ireland’s
cosmology and its people’s deep
connection to the land
BY RONALD HICKS

46 Diving Ice Age Mexico

Clues about the earliest
Americans emerge from the
Yucatán’s watery underworld
BY CHRISTINA ELSON

50 North Korea’s
Full Moon Tower
A joint project between the two
Koreas searches for shared history
BY HYUNG-EUN KIM

36 Though now dry, the medieval

stepwells of Gujarat, India,
including this one in Adalaj, once Cover: Carving of Kalkin, the last avatar
provided year-round access to of Vishnu, from Rani Ki Vav (the Queen’s
monsoon rains and a place for
Stepwell) in Patan, Gujarat, India
women to socialize and pray.

vk.com/englishlibrary 1
72 10

16

departments
4 Editor’s Letter
6 From the President
8 Letters
American soldiers and Iraqi monuments, Cold
War close calls, deadly lead shot, and more

vk.com/englishlibrary
 9 From the Trenches on the web
Out of Africa and into Arabia, rebuilt Spanish
cathedral, and Peru’s mummy bundles
www.archaeology.org
14 Reviews
Through a book and exhibition, new chances
■ More from this Issue
Videos, interviews, and
to revisit Pompeii and Herculaneum photographs from WWII, and a
gallery of Indian stepwells
16 World Roundup
World’s oldest winery, digging up secrets at 007’s ■ Interactive Digs
home office, pet foxes, the inspiration for Moby Dick, Read about the latest discoveries
rolling the dice at Mohenjo-Daro, and Zeus unclothed at the Minoan site of Zominthos
in central Crete
18 Conversation
Modern artist Duke Riley discusses using archaeology ■ Stay in Touch
to reimagine obscure episodes in American history Visit Facebook to become a
friend of ARCHAEOLOGY or follow us
57 Letter from Florida
A paramedic-turned-archaeologist dredges up
on Twitter @archaeologymag

evidence of the origins of medicine in the Americas ■ Archaeological News

from around the world—updated
72 Artifact
An artificial toe from ancient Egypt
by 1 p.m. ET every weekday.
And sign up for our e-Update
is the world’s first medical prosthetic so you don’t miss a thing

Introduce your family toTexas, circa 2011. To take this vacation or

plan your ownTexas adventure, just visit TravelTex.com/tripplanner.
Or for your free Texas StateTravel Guide, Accommodations
®

Guide and Texas Map, go online or call

1-800-8888-TEX (ext. 5836).

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© 2011 Office of the Governor, Economic Development and Tourism. TAMY11
EDITOR’S LETTER
Editor in Chief
Claudia Valentino

Connecting with the Past Executive Editor

Jarrett A. Lobell
Deputy Editor
Samir S. Patel
Senior Editors
Nikhil Swaminathan
Zach Zorich
Design Director Editorial Assistant

I
Ken Feisel Malin Grunberg Banyasz
am frequently cautioned about reading too much of a personal nature into the
artifacts and discoveries that are part of the daily conversation here at the magazine. Contributing Editors
Roger Atwood, Paul Bahn, Bob Brier,
Nonetheless, this particular issue of Archaeology has much to recommend it Andrew Curry, Blake Edgar, Brian Fagan,
David Freidel, Tom Gidwitz,
in terms of the story it tells of humankind’s reach, and what one might think of as our Stephen H. Lekson, Jerald T. Milanich,
Jennifer Pinkowski, Heather Pringle,
species’ volition, or will, and the various ways in which it plays out. Angela M. H. Schuster, Neil Asher Silberman
One story, “New Evidence for Man’s Earliest Migrations” (page 9), by senior editor
Correspondents
Zach Zorich, examines evidence, found at a site called Jebel Faya in the United Arab Athens: Yannis N. Stavrakakis
Bangkok: Karen Coates
Emirates, that may indicate that groups of Homo sapiens (that would be us) made their Islamabad: Massoud Ansari
way out of Africa, and across the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula as early as Israel: Mati Milstein
Naples: Marco Merola
125,000 years ago. And “Diving Ice Age Mexico” (page 46), by Christina Elson, takes Paris: Bernadette Arnaud
Rome: Roberto Bartoloni,
us forward to about 13,500 years ago to “Naharon Woman,” found by cave divers in a Giovanni Lattanzi
Washington, D.C.: Sandra Scham
cenote, or water-filled cavern, in the Yucatan. She may offer some clue as to when people
arrived in the Americas, and where they came from. Publisher
Peter Herdrich
From a somewhat later period, we have “The Origins of American Medicine” (page Associate Publisher
Kevin Quinlan
57), by archaeologist Rachel K. Wentz, who uses her background as a former paramedic Fulfillment Manager

to study the remains and healing practices of 168 individuals buried in a mortuary pond, Kevin Mullen
Vice President of Sales and Marketing
dating to as early as 9,000 years ago. Meegan Daly
Director of Integrated Sales
From the realm of more recent cultures, deputy editor Samir S. Patel traveled back to Gerry Moss
his family’s Indian state of Gugarat and filed “India’s Underground Water Temples,” (page Inside Sales Representative
Karina Casines
36), a wonderful look at an under-explored, rich aspect of medieval India’s ceremonial West Coast Account Manager
Cynthia Lapporte
and daily life. The photos are his, too. Oak Media Group
cynthia@oakmediagroup.com
“The Sacred Landscape of Ancient Ireland” (page 40), by Ronald Hicks, takes us to 323-493-2754
the Iron Age royal sites of pre-Christian Ireland, which can only be fully understood LATIN AMERICA REPRESENTATIVE
Adelina Carpenter
acarpent@prodigy.net.mx
through the lens of Old Irish manuscripts. 011-52-55-55-43-7677
And a rare archaeological experience comes to us via “North Korea’s Full Moon Tower” Circulation Consultant
Greg Wolfe, Circulation Specialists, Inc.
(page 50), by Seoul-based journalist Hyung-eun Kim. The architecturally-unique, tenth Newsstand Consultant
T.J. Montilli,
century site, called Manwoldae, located in modern-day Kaesong, is being dug by a joint Publishers Newstand Outsource, LLC
team of North and South Korean archaeologists—that being a story in itself. Office Manager
Malin Grunberg Banyasz
One of the central experiences of being human, which some might say is a misdirected For production questions,
contact production@archaeology.org
aspect of our will, is that of war. “Archaeology of World War II” (page 26), provides a
comprehensive look at the world’s most extensive conflict. Here we encounter the unex- Editorial Advisory Board
James P. Delgado, Ellen Herscher,
pected ways archaeology is reconstructing not only the physical artifacts of war, but also Ronald Hicks, Jean-Jacques Hublin,
Mark Lehner, Roderick J. McIntosh,
the human stories that are so much a part of it. Susan Pollock, Jeremy A. Sabloff,
Kenneth B. Tankersley

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 Archaeological Institute of America

SITE PRESERVATION

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world’s archaeological heritage for future generations
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FROM THE PRESIDENT Archaeological
Institute of America
Located at Boston University

Your Voice Matters

OFFICERS
President
Elizabeth Bartman

T his past winter, people all around the world watched events unfold in Egypt
that toppled a government, threatened human life, and endangered thousands
of years worth of cultural heritage of one of the planet’s seminal civilizations.
As we all recall, it was reported on the Internet, on television, and on the front pages
of major newspapers that the Egyptian Museum in Cairo had been broken into and
First Vice President
Andrew Moore
Vice President for Education and Outreach
Mat Saunders
Vice President for Professional Responsibilities
Sebastian Heath
artifacts had been looted. Vice President for Publications
John Younger
Initially, it was said that damage to the museum had been slight, that only a moder-
Vice President for Societies
ate number of items had been taken, and that work was being done to recover them. Thomas Morton
But then, in early March, Egyptian Treasurer

Minister of Antiquities Zahi Hawass Brian J. Heidtke

resigned from his post and stated Chief Executive Officer

Peter Herdrich
that sites throughout Egypt, including Chief Operating Officer
storehouses belonging to New York’s Kevin Quinlan
Metropolitan Museum of Art, had GOVERNING BOARD
indeed been looted. The true and final Susan Alcock
account of what happened will only be Michael Ambler
Carla Antonaccio
sorted out over time. Cathleen Asch
In response to these events, the Barbara Barletta
David Boochever
Archaeological Institute of America Laura Childs
(AIA) joined with the Association of Lawrence Coben
Julie Herzig Desnick
Art Museum Directors (AAMD) and Mitchell Eitel
Harrison Ford
released an unprecedented joint state- Greg Goggin
ment denouncing the looting of Egypt’s John Hale
Sebastian Heath
The Egyptian Museum in Cairo sites and museums and calling on Lillian Joyce
Egyptian officials to do everything pos- Jeffrey Lamia
Lynne Lancaster
sible to protect their cultural heritage. We asked members in both organizations to lend Robert Littman
their expertise in identifying and helping to reclaim missing artifacts. Lastly we called on Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis
Peter Magee
museums and archaeological communities worldwide to notify international authorities Shilpi Mehta
and customs officials if they had any information regarding stolen Egyptian artifacts. Naomi Norman, ex officio
Eleanor Powers
At the AIA we draw hope from the fact that people of goodwill have been watching— Paul Rissman
watching as Egyptian citizens linked arms in an attempt to safeguard the museum and Ann Santen
William Saturno
its treasures. Everyone the world over regarded the fate of the museum, its holdings, and Glenn Schwartz
the protection of Egypt’s cultural heritage as a highly personal matter. We take this as Chen Shen
Douglas Tilden
a clear and positive sign that broad public understanding of what these events mean is Claudia Valentino, ex officio
growing. Extending that understanding is, simply, our most important mission. We ask Shelley Wachsmann
Ashley White
that you, too, speak out in support of the protection of cultural heritage everywhere. It John J. Yarmick
concerns each and every one of us. Past President
C. Brian Rose

Trustees Emeriti
Norma Kershaw
Charles S. LaFollette

General Counsel
Mitchell Eitel, Esq,
Elizabeth Bartman Sullivan & Cromwell, LLP

President, Archaeological Institute of America

Archaeological Institute of America
656 Beacon Street • Boston, MA 02215-2006
www.archaeological.org

6
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 LETTERS
VOYAGES TO Two Sides of the Same Flag in my grandfather’s blacksmith shop,
ANTIQUITY I was delighted with Michael Taylor’s
article on the city of Ur (“The
left over from my great-grandfather’s
work splitting ties for the railroad
Cruises to Classical Civilizations Ziggurat Endures,” March/April). in the late 1800s. The design seems
What an experience to be able to see identical, right down to the slight
CRUISE-TOUR FARES INCLUDE: such a monument and describe such squaring off of the mallet side and
SHORE EXCURSIONS
GRATUITIES an encounter so cogently. Our troops the oval handle holes. They look like
EXPERT LECTURE PROGRAM endure such hardship there that we they could have been made from the
WINE WITH DINNER tend to forget Iraq saw the rise of same mold, albeit in iron, not copper.
NEW FOR 2011 some of the great civilizations of the Gene Watson
CRUISE-TOURS WITH INCLUDED world. I was tickled to see him on the San Rafael, CA
PRE- AND/OR POST-CRUISE
HOTEL STAYS
steps with a California state flag.
7-12 NIGHT CRUISE ONLY Michele Colman Get the Lead Out
SAILINGS FOR THOSE WITH Manhattan Beach, CA I thoroughly enjoyed “Pieces of
LIMITED TIME History” (March/April), but I find
FALL 2011 It is a wonder that “The Ziggurat one of the statements difficult to
ATHENS & THE Endures.” That it escaped the ravages believe. “When you blast lead out of
MARVELS OF SICILY of a U.S. war and occupation based something and it hits a hard target,
Departs: August 25 & October 10
2-night hotel stay in Athens and
on lies appears lost on both author like a castle, armor, horse, or person,
12-night cruise ATHENS to ROME Michael Taylor and Archaeology’s lead completely splatters so there is
from $3,950pp
editors. The photo of Taylor on not a lot of point in solid lead shot,”
MEDITERRANEAN ISLES the ancient monument holding a the article states. This is correct for
& CROATIAN COAST California state flag says it all. We a castle, but false for armor, a horse,
Departs: September 6 are here and everywhere to save the or a person. Those of us who reenact
2-night hotel stay in Rome and
12-night cruise ROME to VENICE lesser peoples from themselves—and the eighteenth century and hunt with
from $3,950pp secure their oil for ourselves. period weapons can attest to the
DALMATIA &
Bob Schwartz deadly nature of the pure lead round
ANCIENT GREECE Chicago, IL ball. So I must agree that round
Departs: September 20 lead shot has no “point,” but that is
10-night cruise VENICE to ATHENS
and 2-night hotel stay in Athens
Cold War Whodunit Solved a matter of geometry. It is still an
from $3,795pp It is frightening to learn that 65 effective projectile against man or
BOOK EARLY AND SAVE!
years ago, someone trying to cover horse, armored or not.
their butt helped spark the Cold Ed Paine
STATEROOM SAVINGS War and what we all thought would Paducah, KY
UP TO $1,500 be the end of the world as we know
varies by departure and category
FREE TO $199 AIR ADD-ONS
it (“Where was the HMS Volage?” Panel of the Big Lions,
from over 60 North American gateways March/April). How much more of Up Close and Personal
including transfers and porterage this type of thing happened? Keep The amazing thing about the pride of
Ask about special single savings digging up the truth. lions depicted at Chauvet (“Werner
Prices are per person, double occupancy, cat N. Free to $199 Air (and transfers)
applicable with cruise-tour purchase only and does not include government taxes, M. Lahann Herzog on the Birth of Art,” March/
fees and airline fuel surcharges. Stateroom Savings based on double occupancy
and vary by category and sailing. All offers are subject to availability, capacity
controlled and may be withdrawn at any time.
Carmichael, CA April) is that the artist must have
Ship’s Registry: Malta.
ORDER OUR been dangerously close to this
2011 BROCHURE Cool Tools chaotic scene to depict it so well. It
TODAY In “The New Upper Class” (March/ is done today only with the help of a
April), I was fascinated by the photo telephoto lens.
of tools. I found ones just like them George Preston
Scottsdale, AZ

V OYAGES TO A NTIQUITY ARCHAEOLOGY welcomes mail from

readers. Please address your comments
Call 1-877-398-1460
Visit www.voyagestoantiquity.com to ARCHAEOLOGY, 36-36 33rd Street,
Long Island City, NY 11106, fax 718-472-
3051, or e-mail letters@archaeology.org.
The editors reserve the right to edit
submitted material. Volume precludes
Call: 800-748-6262
Email: aia@studytours.org Website: aiatours.org our acknowledging individual letters.
Correction
We mistakenly transposed the
portraits on page 30 of the March/
April issue. The painting on the left
depicts Edward IV, and the one on
the right, Henry VI.

8
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
 LATE-BREAKING NEWS AND NOTES FROM THE WORLD OF ARCHAEOLOGY

New Evidence for

Mankind’s Earliest Migrations
A multinational team of researchers at
the site of Jebel Faya in the United
Arab Emirates has gathered evidence
that now suggests that groups of Homo
sapiens may have migrated from Africa across
the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula

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as early as 125,000 years ago. Until recently,

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researchers believed that our species may AYVcZ
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have made some attempts to travel out HOU`]a

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of Africa around 120,000 years ago, but

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had been pushed back by an inhospitable

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climate and competition with other hominin

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groups. The prevailing wisdom has been

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that Homo sapiens didn’t make a permanent

8eOZO^c`O[
move into the rest of the world until about
70,000 years ago, presumably when they had 7\RWO\=QSO\

achieved some cultural innovations that let

them out-compete other hominin species
including the now-extinct Homo erectus,
Homo heidelbergensis, and
Neanderthals. The
evidence from Jebel
Faya might move that
date earlier and add
another layer of complexity ity
to the story of modern
human migration.
While the findings are somewhat
tion
circumstantial, they place this migration
at roughly the same time that other
groups of Homo sapiens are believed to have
made their way across the Sinai peninsula at the northern
end of the Red Sea to settle sites in modern-day Israel.
Among the intriguing questions raised by this evidence is
what kinds of conditions finally came into play 125,000
years ago to facilitate a migration?
Homo sapiens was not the first group of hominins to
journey into the world beyond Africa. Groups of the
now-extinct species Homo erectus are known to have
lived in what are now Spain and the Republic of Georgia
around 1.8 million years ago. Homo sapiens likely evolved
some time around 200,000 years ago from the groups
Homo erectus first left Africa around 1.8 million
years ago (green arrow). Our species,
ye
Homo sapiens, made the journey about
H
1120,000 years ago (orange arrow). But
stone tools such as this one from Jebel
s
Faya may indicate a separate group of
F
humans migrated from eastern Africa
h
(red arrow) around the same time.
(re
of Homo erectus who had remained in Africa. A
qu
standing question is whether the spread of Homo
sapiens led directly—either because of competition, or
because of interbreeding, or both—to the demise of the
other hominin groups. Tracing the migratory patterns
of Homo sapiens is thought to be one way of discovering,
ultimately, what happened to the others.
J
ebel Faya is a collapsed rock shelter that contains
evidence of several distinct periods of occupation from
roughly 125,000 years ago to 34,000 years ago. The
site lies at the base of a mountain, near the mouth of a
valley and a now-dry lake basin. A key piece of evidence

www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary 9
 FROM THE TRENCHES
about a possible early Homo sapiens
occupation comes via the stone
tools from the shelter’s oldest layers,
which are dated to between 125,000
and 90,000 years ago. According
to Anthony Marks of Southern
Methodist University, these tools,
notably, were made using techniques
similar to those being practiced in
eastern Africa by Homo sapiens at
that time. They are also markedly
different from tools made by both
Homo sapiens and Neanderthals
living farther north in the Levant
and in Iran’s Zagros mountains.
Marks believes that this shows that
the earliest people to settle Jebel Faya
came from eastern Africa, without
There are many sights to see
along the ancient pilgrimage
route through northern Spain to
Santiago de Compostela.
Archaeologist Agustin Azkarate
of the University of the Basque
Country and his colleague Sergio
Escribano Ruiz say you can’t miss
the newly renovated Cathedral of
Santa Maria in the Basque city of
Vitoria-Gasteiz.
The site Excavations during
the restoration of the cathedral
revealed layers of history dating
back to the eighth century,
including countless pottery
fragments and almost 2,000
10
passing through the Sinai farther
north, and supports the idea of an
early southern migration.
Although fewer than a dozen
stone tools from the site’s earliest
occupants were found, they show
that the people there were making
tools using a bifacial flaking
technique, meaning that flakes
were struck from both the top and
bottom faces of a stone to make
a blade. “Earlier than 200,000
years ago, there is not a sign of any
[tools being made using] bifacial
reduction in the Levant or in the
Zagros anywhere,” says Marks. “On
the other hand, in East Africa and
Northeast Africa, bifacial reduction
graves. The original settlement of
Gasteiz was built around A.D. 800.
In the eleventh century, the first city
wall was erected and the first church
was later built against it. A couple
of hundred years later, part of the
wall was torn down so the cathedral
could be expanded. But subsequent
centuries weren’t so kind—the
cathedral was closed in 1993 because
of the risk of total collapse. After
more than a decade of excavation
and restoration, it has become a
beacon for Basque heritage. Guided
tours of the cathedral include
audiovisual exhibits on its history
and—in the old cathedral—visitors can
see portions of the original city wall.
vk.com/englishlibrary
is a constant part of the people’s
technical repertoire.” At Jebel Faya
they also made a stone tool called a
“foliate,” which is shaped like a leaf
and it, too, is similar to a type of tool
made in Northeast Africa, but not in
areas north of the site.
One challenge in determining
who occupied the site is that no
bones of any hominin species
from this time period have been
found there. However, according
to project director Hans-Peter
Uerpmann of the University of
Tübingen, and Marks, bones of
Homo sapiens have been found
with comparable stone tools in
(continued on page 66)
While you’re in the neighborhood
The old quarter of Vitoria-Gasteiz—
with its intact, centuries-old streets—
is full of great places to enjoy
traditional Basque cuisine and local
wine. Just north of the town is the
village of Ollerias, where artisans still
make pottery in a local eighteenth-
century style. And 20 minutes away
is the Salt Valley of Añana, where
high-quality salt has been produced
for 1,200 years from natural, briny
springs—now known for their
therapeutic qualities.
ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
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 FROM THE TRENCHES

At the ceremonial complex of

Huaca Pucllana in Lima, Peru
(left), archaeologists have
uncovered an undisturbed Wari
tomb with four mummy bundles,
thought to contain a woman and
three infants (above). In addition
to grave goods including a gourd
likely used for drinking, excavators
uncovered artifacts associated
with textile manufacturing, for
which the Wari were famous.
An example of their skill can be
seen in the vibrant red dye and
intricate pattern of the woman’s
headcovering (right).

Peru’s Mummy Bundles

M ore than a thousand years
ago, an adult and three
small children were buried
high atop Huaca Pucllana, a ceremo-
nial complex in the center of what is
now the modern city of Lima, Peru.
Their bodies had been carefully
wrapped in several layers of textiles and
leaves, and each of these bundles was
tied up with braided rope made of
foliage from the lantana plant. They
were then sealed into a sturdy tomb
with a wooden ceiling covered in straw
and clay bricks, where they remained
for centuries, undisturbed by chang-
ing ancient rulers, Spanish conquista-
dores, and powerful earthquakes that
often destroyed much of the city.
For almost 30 years, archaeologist
Isabel Flores Espinosa has been
working at Huaca Pucllana.
Dedicated to the god of the sea, the
complex, built by the Lima culture
between a.d. 450 and 700, includes
the seven-tiered, 82-foot-high Great
Pyramid, public squares, sidewalks,
and access ramps, all made of

12
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
 BORA ÖZKÖK / Cultural Folk Tours’ 33rd year
unfired clay bricks. In the early
eighth century, the Wari civilization
conquered the Lima and occupied the
southern highlands, including this
area of the central Peruvian coast,
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Our focus is on culture, history, music,
Pucllana, they used it as a cemetery
folklore and archaeology.
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Over the last three decades,
Espinosa and her teams have found
dozens of tombs at the complex,
many filled with luxuries including A most unique, luxurious
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finely woven textiles, and silver and
gold artifacts, leading her to believe
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Huaca Pucllana, according to
Espinosa, only this tomb was found
completely undisturbed. Although the
bundles themselves have not yet been
completely analyzed, the discovery of
artifacts associated with textile man- Memories
ufacture—bags made of woven wool
and cotton filled with spindles and
needles—leads Espinosa to believe
are made
that the larger bundle contains a
female who may have been connected
in Texas!
in some way to the textile arts. The
Wari were particularly skilled weav-
ers and depicted elaborate scenes and
figures on textiles, which were usually
made of cotton warps and camelid
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and vicuña hair. unexpected adventures, no matter where you roam. So come see us!
Currently Espinosa is working
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a textile specialist, and a botanical
expert. They are X-raying and prepar- ®

ing the bundles for unwrapping, after

which Espinosa hopes to establish
the sex of the adult and infant burials,
their possible familial relationship,
and their cause of death.
—Jarrett A. Lobell © 2011 Office of the Governor, Economic Development and Tourism. TAMY11

www.archaeology.org
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14
REVIEWS
BOOKS AND EXHIBITIONS
Vesuvius Strikes Again
I n late August a.d. 79, Mount
Vesuvius erupted with deadly
force. Ash, stone, and scorching
hot dust rained down on the
southern Italian cities of Pompeii and
ancient city planning, and Hercula-
neum’s vibrant fresco paintings and
mosaics, but also succeed in populat-
ing those spaces. Wherever possible,
Wallace-Hadrill tells the individual
Herculaneum, completely entombing stories of slaves, citizens, and the
the cities and their residents, and elite, using the enormous wealth of
providing archaeologists with an archaeological evidence Herculaneum
unparalleled window into everyday provides—residents’ names, their
life in the first century a.d. Despite houses, their furniture and food, and
a steady stream of publications and even their skeletons. While its visual
documentaries about these sites,
Andrew Wallace-Hadrill’s book
Herculaneum Past and Future (Frances
Lincoln Limited, $60) and Pompeii the
Exhibit: Life and Death in the Shadow
of Vesuvius at Discovery Times
Square in New York City (through
September 5), prove there is still
room for more.
After 10 years as director of the
Herculaneum Conservation Project,
there is no archaeologist better suited
to raise this city from its relative
obscurity than Wallace-Hadrill. His
book is filled with hundreds of new
and archival photographs, panoramic
views, and an invaluable foldout map
of the site. The book is arranged in
highly readable chapters that focus
not only on the history of excavations,
Among the spectacular artifacts at
a new exhibit telling the story of
Pompeii are brightly colored wall
frescoes (top) from the House of
the Golden Bracelet. There is also a
rarely-displayed plaster cast of a pig
that died in the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in A.D. 79 (above).
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
 exhibit’s biggest attractions are the 20
plaster casts of Vesuvius’ victims, some
of which were made in the 19th century,
although three were created especially
for the exhibit. The casts, made from
voids left in the hardened ash, preserve
a person or animal at the moment of
their death, and remind the visitor that
the same volcano that preserved the
city also killed thousands. For those
new to the archaeology of Pompeii
and Herculaneum, both the exhibit
and the book provide an exciting
opportunity to connect with people
who lived almost 2,000 years ago.
—Jarrett A. Lobell

JOURney into the heart of History

Since 1983, Far Horizons has been
designing unique itineraries led A MAYA WEEK
by renowned scholars for small IN YUCATAN
groups of sophisticated travelers July 10 - 17, 2011
who desire a deeper knowledge SCOTLAND
appeal may lead readers to believe of both past With Dr. James Bruhn
Herculaneum Past and Future is merely and living August 7 - 22, 2011
a coffee-table book, the research cultures.
EASTERN TURKEY’S
Wallace-Hadrill presents is compre- LOST KINGDOMS
hensive and of the highest quality. The With Dr. Angus Stewart
author has filled a gap in the public’s September 3 - 18, 2011
knowledge of Herculaneum—an even
TURKISH TREASURES
better-preserved city than its neigh- As guests at
bor, Pompeii, only four miles away. Ephesus, Hattusa, Troy
People are also the focus of Pompeii September 10 - 24, 2011
the Exhibit: Life and Death in the Shad-
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
ow of Vesuvius. Unlike most exhibits PUB CRAWL
on Pompeii, there is a refreshing lack A Journey through
of sensationalism about the terrify- Scotland and England
ing experience of the eruption. Visi- With Dr. James Bruhn
September 17 - 29, 2011
tors are made to feel as if they have
entered an ancient Roman home. The EGYPT & AMARNA
exposition space’s walls are covered With Professor Bob Brier
in stunning frescoes and mosaics— FEATURED November 5 - 19, 2011
JOURNEYS
most of which come from the House CAMBODIA & LAOS
of the Golden Bracelet, one of Pom- PERU With Dr. Damian Evans
peii’s finest properties. This offers an With Dr. William Sapp January 5 - 21, 2012
August 13 - 28, 2011
extremely rare chance to see artifacts
…and much more!
of this quality outside of Italy. Inside THE PATH OF Belize • Mongolia • Cyprus & Malta
a large room representing a market- THE CRUSADES: Oman • Iran • China • Ethiopia
place, cases are filled with artifacts Overland Istanbul to Jerusalem Mexico • Silk Road • Costa Rica
With History Channel’s Syria • Sudan • India • Bolivia
(some real and some excellent repli- John France
cas) of everyday life, including kitchen October 15 - 29, 2011
utensils, lamps, and even food pre-
served by the eruption. The full range THE MAYA
Copán to Chichicastenango
of ancient Pompeian life, including With Professor Matthew Looper
religion, politics, and even erotica November 1 - 13, 2011
(which is decorously presented in a
space resembling a bedroom in one of
Pompeii’s brothels), is on display.
What will surely be one of the 1-800-552-4575 • www.farhorizons.com
www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary 15
 WORLD ROUNDUP
ALASKA: A MARYLAND: In the country’s last NORWAY:
home con- surviving 18th-century greenhouse, In what
taining the on an Eastern Shore estate where seemed to
cremated statesman Frederick Douglass lived be a rou-
remains of a as a child (“A Community’s Roots,” tine dig of
three-year-old November/December 2006), archae- a burial
child is pro- ologists have unearthed African spir- mound,
viding a look itual caches. A pestle secreted excavators
at the people between furnace bricks (based on a were sur-
who first West African Yoruba practice) and prised to
crossed the Bering Strait to populate charms such as coins and arrow- discover hidden Bronze Age petro-
the Americas. The child, dubbed heads buried near a door are tangi- glyphs, including outlines of feet
Xaasaa Cheege Ts’eniin, or “Upward ble evidence of the role skilled with cross-hatching, beneath cre-
Sun River Mouth Child” in African-American slaves took in the mated human remains. The mound
Athabascan, died around 11,500 construction and operation of the above was probably deliberately
years ago—the oldest human greenhouse, where experiments built atop the rare rock drawings as
remains found so far north. The site were conducted in the cultivation of part of a funeral ritual. Such carvings
also shows that these Paleoindians exotic plants. are often associated with fertility
subsisted on salmon during the sum- and growth—possibly making the
mer and, like those back in Siberia, mound a place where life and death
had semisubterranean houses. come together.

ENGLAND: In the shadow of the

HAWAII: In the Papaha –naumokua –kea
Marine National Monument, maritime
archaeologists have found the first
wreck of a
Nantucket
whaling ship
ever discov-
ered. The
remains
of Two
Brothers,
which sank
in 1823,
include harpoons and try-pots for
melting whale blubber. The ship was
captained by George Pollard, Jr.,
famous for having helped inspire
Moby Dick after his previous ship,
Essex, was rammed and sunk by a
whale (followed by cannibalism
among the survivors as they drifted
in the open ocean).
headquarters of MI6, the country’s
Secret Intelligence Service, London’s
oldest structure has emerged from
Thames muck. Six timber pilings
date to around 6,000 years ago, and
represent a surprisingly robust
structure for the Mesolithic. Early in
the excavation, armed policemen
arrived, wondering why people in
hip waders with measuring
equipment were prowling around
the doorstep of one of the world’s
most secure buildings. They were ITALY: On the outskirts of Rome,
not deemed a security risk. archaeologists stumbled across a
stash of large, finely carved statue
fragments, including five heads and
a life-size statue of a naked Zeus.
The hairstyles suggest they date to
around the third century A.D. The site
may have been the villa of an official
in the Severan Dynasty, a notorious
period in Roman history marked by
massacres, assassinations, and
rumors of incest and imperial
homosexual prostitution.

16
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011

ARMENIA: At the cave complex that
held the world’s oldest shoe (“World
Roundup,” September/October
2010), archaeologists have
discovered the oldest known wine-
making facility. First, they found a
sloped platform with elevated edges
containing the remains of crushed
grapes—a wine press. Below that
was a fermentation vat, along with
more dried grapes, seeds, and vines.
The winery is surrounded by human
burials, suggesting that the drink
made there was for ritual purposes.
Hey, oenophiles—biochemical
analysis shows it was a red.
PAKISTAN: One in 10 artifacts from
Mohenjo-Daro is related to play,
according to a new analysis of
decades of finds at
the 4,000-year-
ear-
old Indus city.
y.
Often over-
looked
archaeo-
logically or
dismissed
as super-
fluous, lei-
sure items
clearly
played a promi-
mi-
nent role in the
h lilives off
many ancient peoples. At Mohenjo-
Daro, dice and game pieces tend to
be found in clusters, suggesting
there were some sort of social halls
separate from dwellings. It is a rare
insight into the city’s mysterious
daily life.
www.archaeology.org
By Samir S. Patel Cultural Exploration for
the Discerning Reader
MONGOLIA: Can massive drops in
human population due to war or
disease lead to declines in
Shipwrecked
atmospheric carbon dioxide?
Tang Treasures
Researchers looked at four such and Monsoon
events, including the Black Death Winds
and the European conquest of the Edited by Regina
Americas, to determine the carbon Krahl & John Guy
impact of subsequent decreases in Part adventure
agriculture and increases in forest story, part maritime
archaeological
growth. The answer is a qualified expedition, and part
“no”—forests regrow slowly and may historical look into ninth-century Chinese
have been cut down elsewhere. The economy, culture, and trade, Shipwrecked is
both a fascinating journey back in time and a
modest exception was Genghis
catalog of one of the most important archaeo-
Khan’s rampage through Asia in the logical discoveries of the twentieth century: The
1200s, though it caused only a small remains and precious cargo of an Arab dhow
that sank twelve centuries ago in the Java Sea.
drop in carbon
250 color, b&w illustrations · 328 pages
dioxide that
ISBN: 978-1-58834-305-5 · 10×12”
has since Hardcover $65.00
been
negated
many 5,000 Years
times of Textiles
over. Jennifer Harris
“Covers time with a
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impact.”—Antiques
Magazine
“Two dozen experts
give top-of-the-line treat-
ment to the history of
techniques.”—Washington Post
327 color, 98 b&w photos · 320 pages
ISBN: 978-1-58834-307-9 · 8½×10¾”
Paperback $39.95
JORDAN: At around 16,500 years
old, the cemetery at Uyun
Living Our
al-Hammam is the oldest known in Cultures,
the Middle East. Recent excavations Sharing Our
have uncovered the remains of at Heritage
least 11 people. The remains of a red The First Peoples
fox were also found, separated of Alaska
between two human graves, and Aron Crowell
with the bones of other animals. More than 200
objects representing
Later burials sometimes included the masterful artistry and design traditions
dogs in the same way, so this fox of twenty Alaska Native peoples show how
may have been a pet or hunting each Alaska Native nation is unique--and
how all are connected.
companion.
440 color photos · 312 pages
ISBN: 978-1-58834-270-6 · 9×12”
Hardcover $50.00
Find us on
Facebook
smithsonianbooks.com
vk.com/englishlibrary 17
 CONVERSATION
An Artist of the Ignored World
Duke Riley tells the history of people and places on society’s margins
A rtist Duke Riley has made
a career out of reimagining
and reconstructing obscure
episodes in American history. Riley’s
past work includes organizing a mock
Roman naval battle, investigating
Great Depression–era serial murders
at a hobo camp in Cleveland, and
paddling a replica of a Revolutionary
War submarine toward the cruise
ship Queen Mary 2, getting close
enough to be arrested by the Coast
Guard. His most archaeological work
is Reclaiming the Lost Kingdom of
Laird, which reconstructs the history
of a 400-acre island in the Delaware
River. Riley’s research showed that
an Irish immigrant named Ralston
Laird moved to the island in 1851 to
start a farm. Laird was affectionately
nicknamed “King,” and Riley’s work
tells the family’s story as if they were
royalty using mosaics, paintings, and
a series of commemorative plates.
The project was included in Riley’s
recent exhibition at the Magnan Metz
Gallery in New York. Riley spoke
with senior editor Zach Zorich about
discovering the culture of waterfronts
and transient people.
What draws you to small islands
and abandoned beach areas as
subjects for your work?
There are several different reasons.
When I get invited someplace to
do a project it’s usually dealing with
things that get lost in history and
applying them to contemporary
sociopolitical issues. Usually when
you think about any city, the
reason that they appear where they
appear is the waterways. From
my experience on some of the
projects I’ve done, in New York
and elsewhere, there is something
about islands. We have so many
18
associations with
them in our culture
as far as being these
romanticized, exotified
places. Weird stuff just
really always seems to
happen on islands.
What was the impetus
for creating the Lost
Kingdom of Laird
project?
I got asked to do
a project down in
Philadelphia and I
ended up just looking
at maps, studying the
waterfront to see how
it had changed, and
reading about Petty’s
Island. That’s when
I stumbled across
Ralston Laird. And,
using the Internet
and other means, I
managed to track
down the family
members.
who came over here as a struggling
What makes Ralston Laird an immigrant and cut out a new life
important historical figure? for himself by setting up this farm
That’s a good question… and helping out a bunch of other
people on that island. So, in that
Or, is he important? sense he is important. It is very
The thing with these projects is that much a quintessential story of what
I’m heightening the importance of we as Americans claim to be all
somebody who was obviously not about. The other element is that
considered important. There was what we really are about is what
an entire community that existed destroyed that community.
on Petty’s Island and eventually
was displaced because what was You mean the oil?
important was building an oil Not necessarily the oil itself. There
storage facility. From what I’ve were people who basically had
learned about him, he seemed every right to be on the island, but
like an important person in that were forced off of it by some major
community and he really helped players, major corporations who
out a lot of people. He was this guy wanted it.
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
 From Jesus to
Constantine:
IM
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ED T E OF
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the university of north carolina
at chapel hill

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Jewish-Christian Relations
7. The Anti-Jewish Use of
the Old Testament
8. The Rise of Christian Anti-Judaism
9. The Early Christian Mission
10. The Christianization of the Roman Empire
11. The Early Persecutions of the State
12. The Causes of Christian Persecution
13. Christian Reactions to Persecution
14. The Early Christian Apologists
15. The Diversity of Early
Christian Communities
16. Christianities of the Second Century
17. The Role of Pseudepigrapha
18. The Victory of the Proto-Orthodox
19. The New Testament Canon
20. The Development of Church Offices
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 CONVERSATION
Do you view yourself
as a documentarian?
Not really. I pretty much just view
myself as an artist. When I first
started doing these projects I went
out exploring New York’s East
River in a boat and started seeing
a lot of people who were carving
out these different lives, in a lot
of ways similar to Ralston Laird.
I became interested in that and I
was watching it disappear as fast as
The Laird Kingdom Liberation Army raids Petty’s
Island, depicted in mosaic by Duke Riley.
20
Left, a mosaic image showing sev-
ered limbs from victims of` the
Torso Murders, which took place in
1930s Cleveland. Below, Duke Riley’s
painting on a 120-foot-diameter oil
storage tank commemorates Ralston
Laird, an Irish immigrant farmer who
was forced off his land.
I was experiencing it. There were parents’ lifetimes. That’s something I
people living this whole other sort wish people considered more.
of existence within the city that
was completely separate. The whole What role should an artist play
transient culture is being strangled in constructing history?
out of existence, but it is important People look at the role of the artist
for maintaining the healthy flow of as someone who lives within soci-
ideas and the tolerance that comes ety and steps outside of it to make
from that. I felt like I wanted to observations. In a lot of ways, that
document it, but I didn’t want to is very similar to the process of an
make a documentary. archaeologist. I am looking at some-
thing in the present and examining
What is missing from it the same way you would interpret
the way our society artifacts and try to understand how
constructs history? people were thinking in the past.
People don’t always
look at things that Your work takes on these serious
happen in the subjects in a way that isn’t serious.
immediate past as How do you use humor as an
important. They artistic tool?
have a hard time When you have an element of
acknowledging the humor it makes it easier for people
significance of things to engage the subject, especially
until they are old. So if you’re talking about something
a lot of things and that is serious. It allows people to
places get destroyed, feel more comfortable. But par-
and people have no tially it is just the nature of my
idea what they are personality. A lot of the work is
destroying. I think truthfully based on what I was
it’s hard for people to saying about people’s relationship
realize the significance to waterways and the way cities
of something that developed. But, a lot of it is as it is
existed within their just ‘cause I want to have fun, and I
own lifetime or their want to be on the water myself.
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
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**Price based on spot market silver price of $33.00.
 A D V E R T I S E M E N T
Looking Back in Time
Through the Landscape
of Ireland
by Seán Canniffe
Newgrange Passage Tomb, Co. Meath.
or all its modernity, Ireland’s landscape is a treasure
trove of reminders of the country’s ancient past. A trip
around the Irish countryside can be an almost mystical
experience, transporting one back through the mists of
time, almost as far back as when the first
hunter gatherers arrived from continental The Tara Broach.
Europe around 7,000 B.C.
Dolmens, passage tombs, crannogs (lake forts) and
megalithic stone circles bear witness to the neolithic
people that came to Ireland, primarily from the Iberian
peninsula, around 4,000 B.C. From then onwards,
through the Bronze and Iron Ages, through the arrival
of the Celts around 500 B.C., through pre-Christianity
and then early Christianity right up to the time of the
Viking influence between around 800 A.D. and 1100
A.D., the societies that made their home in Ireland all left a lasting
impression on the land.
The richness of this archaeological tapestry is enhanced by the fact
that it is so accessible. In most cases sites of interest are only a short
walk from the roadside. Ireland is a small country with very good
transportation links and so getting just about anywhere is easy.
And don’t forget that you are in Ireland. Take advantage of the
legendary Irish hospitality. Wherever you happen to be staying the
local people will be delighted to fill you in on the history, and the
prehistory, of their land. This is invaluable, as a casual conversation
can often reveal far more than a guide book.
Many of the prehistoric sites in Ireland are
world famous and are of huge importance to
our understanding of the past. Here are just a
few suggestions of things not to miss if you
are anywhere in the vicinity during your
vacation.
The Céide Fields are on the north coast of
County Mayo, in the west. Discovered in the
King John's Castle, Co. Limerick.
1930s by local teacher Patrick Caulfield, this
site is the most extensive Stone Age monument anywhere in the
world and contains the oldest known stone-walled field system.
Covering an expanse of thousands of acres, the complex of fields,
dwelling places and megalithic tombs lay both hidden and preserved
by a natural blanket bog until Caulfield discovered stones deep
down in the bog while cutting turf. He recognized a pattern to the
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The Giant’s Causeway, Co. Antrim.
Knowth, Boyne Valley, Co. Meath.
The Céide Fields, Co. Mayo.
stones that could only have been man-made
and so started the site’s excavation. The
Céide Fields are almost 6,000 years old.
In County Meath in the eastern region of
Ireland, lies the Boyne valley, home to some
of the best preserved megalithic sites in
Ireland, including the burial mounds of Knowth and Dowth which
are 5,000 years old. Perhaps the jewel in the crown is the ancient
passage tomb at Newgrange. Older than the pyramids Newgrange
was built around 3200 BC. Its enormous mound covers an area of
over an acre and it is surrounded by 97 kerbstones, many of which
are adorned with megalithic artwork. Inside the mound is a 19 meter
long passage leading to a cruciform chamber. Newgrange draws
over 200,000 visitors annually and together with the other megalithic
sites of the Boyne Valley has been designated as a UNESCO World
Heritage site.
Less than two miles outside the city of Armagh in Northern Ireland
is Eamhain Mhacha, or Navan Fort, as it is known in English.
Rather than a fort, this Bronze Age enclosure was more probably
used as a pagan ceremonial site. It has massive significance in Irish
mythology and, legend has it, was one of the major centers of power
in pre-Christian Ireland, being home to Conchobar mac Nessa, the
Chieftain of the Ulaid—the clan that gave its name to Ulster—and
the Knights of the Red Branch, whose ranks included Cú Chulainn,
Irish mythology’s most feared warrior.
The Vikings, the early Christians and the Celts, and the Stone Age
and Bronze Age peoples before them all left clues about how they
lived in Ireland. Whether those clues were large settlements or
singular standing stones, they are to be found all over the country.
Ireland, one of the earliest homes of civilization, is there to be
explored. The best guides are the Irish themselves. People in Ireland
are intimately connected with their own part of the land, many know
every inch of it, and are more than willing to share its secrets.
A vacation isn’t an Irish vacation
without a detour or two.
Whether you head to Kilkenny, find your way to a majestic country castle,
hunt for Dublin’s perfect pint or follow the footsteps of James Joyce – which
could very well lead to the perfect pint – Ireland will charm you at every
fork in the road.

See what else is waiting for you.

For great deals and vacation offers,
visit discoverireland.com

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 Experience a year of Irish
arts across America in 2011.

Encounter a brilliant new

wave of creative talent.

Explore the changing cultural

landscape of Ireland in the
United States.
4000 artists. 400 events.
40 states. Imagine Ireland.

© Betty Freeman

LA Philharmonic
The Importance of Being Earnest
World premiere of an opera by Gerald Barry
Walt Disney Hall, Los Angeles Revisiting The Quiet Man:
APRIL Ireland on Film
Curated by Gabriel Byrne,
presented by the Museum
of Modern Art and the
Irish Film Institute
MoMA, New York
MAY

For the full programme of events, visit

vk.com/englishlibrarywww.imagineireland.ie
“Ireland’s culture has
been consistently evolving:
only a culture which changes
remains alive; its breadth
and influence is universal.”
Gabriel Byrne
Cultural Ambassador for Ireland

© Robert Day
Druid / Atlantic Theater Company
The Cripple of Inishmaan
by Martin McDonagh
Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts,
Philadelphia
MAY
© Joe O’Shaughnessy

Whole World Round

Joseph O’Connor and Philip King
New York Public Library
for the Performing Arts, New York
MAY

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 B
etween  and , the world was engulfed in a conflict fought on almost every
continent and ocean, involving every world power, and ultimately costing more than
50 million people, both soldiers and civilians, their lives. More than a dozen nations,
among them the United States, Great Britain, and the U.S.S.R, fought on the side
of the Allies, joining forces against the Axis powers—primarily Germany, Italy, and
Japan—who, at the apex of their power, controlled or were poised to control large swaths of
Europe, Africa, the Pacific Ocean, and East and Southeast Asia. Perhaps the greatest difference
between World War II and the wars and conflicts that preceded it was its ubiquity.
For the first time, there were no clearly defined front lines where battles began and ended, were
won and lost. Instead, according to University College London archaeologist Gabriel Moshen-
ska, who studies the archaeology of modern conflict, “Everyone was on the front line and that
transformed the world. World War II made the modern world what it is more than any single
event in history,” he says. “It changed the technology we use, it changed art and literature and the
world’s legal, international, and political structures—everything from nations to families.”
This new kind of warfare, for archaeologists, requires a different approach to studying military
action. The traditional methodology of battlefield archaeology—identifying a battle’s location,
unearthing weapons and defensive structures, and evaluating historical and literary texts—is not

World War II
Years after the end of the world’s greatest conflict, new research reveals
the true nature and extent of its impact

sufficient to understand World War II’s geographic reach and social impact. What is needed,
according to Tony Pollard, Director of the Center for Battlefield Archaeology at University of
Glasgow, is a new kind of archaeology, one that he has dubbed “conflict archaeology.” “Conflict
archaeology is valuable because it places the violent events of warfare within their wider social con-
text,” he says, allowing for a broader understanding of twentieth- and twenty-first-century war.
The excavations and finds covered here do examine how familiar facets of war—tactics, weap-
ons, technology, and intelligence—can be seen in the archaeological record. There are submerged
tanks, downed airplanes, a cryptological machine, and a forgotten remnant of the nuclear weapons
the United States used on Japan, which both helped end the war and changed the world forever.
But the story of World War II is not only about the last century’s military technology. It is also
about the particular ways global conflict affected civilians.
The study of World War II is at a critical juncture. We are now at a time when both veterans
and civilians who participated in and lived through the war—on the battlefield and on the home
front—are passing away in greater numbers. With their deaths, the chance to hear their stories
and learn from their experiences disappears as well. “Their testimony is a living bridge between the
present and the past that will soon be nonexistent,” says Pollard. But archaeology also has stories
to tell. According to Moshenska, the degree to which archaeology can illuminate things that are
not revealed elsewhere is only now being recognized. “These are not part of the official histories,
and although they are sometimes part of people’s memories, those memories become more unreli-
able as more time passes.” The archaeology of this world-changing time supplements these memo-
ries, and in some cases tells us stories we would never know otherwise. —The Editors

26
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
The Pacific Theater

O n June , , a massive U.S. invasion fleet

stormed the beaches of Saipan, the largest of the
Mariana Islands. The capture of this strategic target
would put Japan within reach of the Americans’ new land-
based, long-range B-29 bombers, and provide a possible
base for an invasion of the country. Now, with a grant from
the National Park Service American Battlefield Protection
Program, maritime archaeologist Jennifer McKinnon is lead-
ing a project to survey a 12-mile stretch of Saipan’s lagoons
and record the battle’s story through the remains of vehicles,
weapons, and personal items left behind by nearly 100,000
Japanese and American troops.
“I want to define the scope and tactics of the whole Battle
of Saipan,” says McKinnon, “and also use archaeology to try
to piece together individual engagements and finer details
that may have had a bearing on its outcome.” For example,
McKinnon’s team has found an LVT (Landing Vehicle
Tracked—an amphibious vehicle introduced by the U.S. in
World War II) with surprising evidence of battlefield modi-
fications. Soldiers had added extra boilerplate to the LVT’s
bow and around the top of the unshielded gun, enhancing
the vehicle’s durability. This modification was previously
unknown from either the historical or oral testimony. News
of the change found its way back to the manufacturer, Food
Machinery Corporation, where it became standard on a
future model known as the “Marianas Model.”
So far McKinnon’s team has surveyed and mapped four
airplanes—two American and two Japanese—three U.S.
Sherman tanks, two Japanese Daihatsu landing craft, a
possible Japanese sub chaser, a Japanese merchant ship that Archaeologists surveying the waters off Saipan in the Mariana
carried Korean conscripts, and several LVTs. These finds, Islands have so far uncovered a variety of vehicles, including
Sherman tanks (top) and an amphibious landing vehicle
in addition to the dozens more McKinnon knows from developed during WWII (above). Between June 15 and July
archaeological surveys and local sources, are in or imme- 9, 1944, a massive Allied invasion force landed on Saipan’s
diately outside the lagoon and will be incorporated into a beaches to secure the strategic island as a base for future WWII
WWII underwater heritage trail. operations in the Marianas, the Philippines, and mainland Japan.

vk.com/englishlibrary
Cracking the Code

O riginally used to encode business transactions

off corporate espionage, during WWII the Enigma
sactions and ward
nigma machine
became a powerful and widely used weapon employed
by the Nazis for encryption and decryption of military
secrets. In July 2001, off the Outer Banks of North
ilitary
h
Carolina, recreational divers recovered an Enigma
from the sunken German sub U-85. The machine
was immediately turned over to the Graveyard of
the Atlantic Museum and an agreement was reached
with the German government to put it on permanent
display. It was soon discovered that this was a very
early example of an advanced, four-wheeled marinee
Enigma, still in its original wood box, that had almost cer-
tainly been made in January 1942, just a month beforee U-85
boats and
left Germany for the U.S. coast. At this time, only U-boats
the German Naval High Command had four-wheeled led Enigmas.
Enigma coding
eir predecessors,
These allowed for greater coding possibilities than their machines like this
which already had hundreds of trillions of code options.ons. This particular one (above), found on a
machine was responsible for the greatest convoy loss in n WWII, in which 19 sunken German submarine
Canadian and British ships went down when U-85’s commander was able to off the coast of North Carolina,
send a coded message indicating their whereabouts and nd send for other were used by the Nazis throughout
the
h war tot encode d military
ili and
d
U-boats in the area. espionage
espion secrets. Each
For close to a decade, archaeological conservator Eric Nor- or- component
com of the Enigma
dgren has worked on the U-85 Enigma. “This is a complexx machine,
ma including the
artifact made of many different kinds of materials—nickel- rotor,
ro or code wheel
plated brass, Bakelite, steel, wood, and zinc alloy. From a (left),
(l is currently being
painstakingly
p cleaned
conservator’s point of view, this makes it really challenging,” and
a conserved.
says Nordgren. In fact, no one has ever tried to conserve an
Enigma before. “When you document an artifact like this, it’s
an opportunity to learn a lot about it,” he adds.“It’s amazing to
see the complexity and sophistication of this machine, the sheerr
number of possibilities it could create, and the daunting task thehe
Allied cryptographers had of breaking this code.”

Gearing Up at the Desert Training Center

Aerial view of the “King’s Throne”
T
he Mojave Desert was once the largest training ground in the his-
tory of warfare. In 1942 and 1943, a million soldiers passed through
the Desert Training Center (DTC), or California/Arizona Maneuver
Area, 28,000 square miles where an inexperienced American military
learned to operate in a harsh environment, and General Patton and other
leaders refined strategies for taking on Field Marshal Rommel and his
Panzers in North Africa. “We learned for the first time how to coordinate
on a large scale and use armored units in broad maneuvers,” says Matt
Bischoff, a historian with California State Parks. Now that solar power
companies are moving in, the desert is home to dozens of archaeologi-
cal surveys, covering some 120,000 acres, according to Bureau of Land
Management archaeologist George Kline. Among the finds are elaborate
defensive structures, makeshift three-dimensional terrain maps, the
remains of tent camps accommodating 15,000 men, and the hill from
which Patton oversaw tank maneuvers (the “King’s Throne”). There are
loads of data to be parsed, but the work is already showing how the
American military developed the tactics and fortitude to challenge the
“Desert Fox.” “It’s a huge undertaking,” says Bischoff, who is consulting
on the project. “The challenge is putting it all together.”

28
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
YP-389 and the Battle of the Atlantic

I n the first half of 1942, while most of the U.S. Navy

was occupied in the Pacific, German U-boats stalked the
Atlantic coast. The Navy did what it could to buy time
while the war effort ramped up—it bolted guns to fishing
boats and yachts. Archaeologists from the National Oce-
anic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) recently
discovered the wreck of one such makeshift battlecraft, the
YP-389—previously the trawler Cohasset. In June 1942, the
YP-389 patrolled a minefield off North Carolina, armed
with a single, nonfunctioning deck gun, when the U-701
surfaced. The U.S. sailors hid behind trawling winches and
returned fire with machine guns, but the battle ended the
way most underdog stories do—the YP-389 was shelled
to the abyss and six of its 24 sailors were killed. The U-701
followed a few weeks later, bombed by U.S. aircraft.
The YP-389, discovered in 320 feet of water 30 miles from
the U-boat, will help show archaeologists how these ships The fishing boat Cohasset
was fitted for combat duty
were hastily refitted. The find is part of a larger NOAA pro- at the Brooklyn Navy Yard
gram to reexamine the Battle of the Atlantic using battlefield (above) and saw action in
archaeology, treating each wreck as an artifact and mapping the Battle of the Atlantic as
convoy routes, to see how the engagement changed through the YP-389. Its wreck (right)
the war. By the end of 1942, sinkings by U-boats had was recently discovered in
dropped dramatically, in part because of lessons learned from North Carolina waters, not
far from the wreck of U-701
boats like the YP-389.“This thing and these people were put (below), the submarine that
to the test against the best Germany had to offer,” says David sank it in 1942. Such early
Alberg, leader of NOAA’s expedition. “And it was right off engagements helped shape
our beaches. That’s a pretty powerful story.” U.S. naval tactics.

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London’s Air-Raid Shelters and Lost Homes

D uring the Spanish Civil War, German and

Italian forces had used aerial bombing raids to aid
Francisco Franco’s Nationalist side. In the run-up to
WWII, British officials were frightened by the prospect of
those very same tactics, so the U.K. passed legislation to begin
digging air-raid shelters. Obviously, they were right to be con-
cerned, as the German Luftwaffe bombed Britain unceasingly
during the Blitz—what the Germans termed “blitzkrieg”—
from the fall of 1940 through the spring of 1941.
Today, many of the shelters’ safety hatches are covered
over by gardens, and some shelters themselves have been
converted into schools, garages, and storage facilities. They
offer great insight into home-front life in wartime. In the
summer of 2005, staff members at an elementary school in
north London discovered the entrance to an air-raid shelter
under a playing field. (It was one of 13 that documents say
were on the school’s property.) Six months later, a team led
by University College London archaeologist Gabriel Mosh-
enska excavated the area, beginning by revealing the prefab
staircase into the shelter.
“It’s like entering a time In 2005, archaeologists began excavating
one of 13 air-raid shelters on the grounds of
capsule,” says Moshenska. a north London school (above) by clearing
“The artifacts, the electric the stairwell into the bunker (left). Once
wiring—everything that’s inside, among other finds, they noted chalk
still there is in its original markings of math problems on the wall of a
1940s environment.” Inside bathroom stall (below).
the nearly 50-foot-long space,
designed to hold up to 50
occupants, they recovered a
fire bucket, a lamp, an inkwell,
and a gas heater. On one of
the walls that divided the two
stalls where toilets were once
installed were chalk-written
math problems. On another
wall, there was a drawing of a
sailboat. While the excavation
was ongoing, a former student
who went to the school during
the war described her experi-
ence taking classes in the shel-
ters, from chanting multiplica-
tion tables and playing games
like Hangman to the “musty”
smell of cement and sandbags that greeted the students as comprehensively destroyed during the Blitz. There, archae-
they entered. Moshenska has also excavated air-raid shelters ologists discovered household items such as cutlery, as well
in a public park in north London. As archaeologists dug as models of WWII-era airplanes that children presumably
underground, a local child attracted by the activity stumbled kept as toys and military badges that may have been given to
upon an original sign obscured by nearby bushes that read: soldiers’ girlfriends or siblings as keepsakes. Noncombatants
“TO PUBLIC SHELTERS.” were faced daily with the necessity of evacuating homes and
To Moshenska, home-front archaeology is as important as seeking out bunkers and air-raid shelters and with the real
excavations of battlefields, shipwrecks, and air crashes, since threat of losing their lives. Moshenska says of his studies of
nuclear and aerial warfare effectively moved the front lines the home front,“It’s the archaeology of the way 99 percent of
of war. A dig at a central London park in 2005 exposed the the population of the countries that were in the war actually
remains of small, lower-middle-class homes that had been experienced the war.”

30
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
World War II Aircraft Crash Sites

I
n World War I, planes were primarily used for reconnais-
sance missions—though early dogfights took place between
aircraft outfitted with machine guns. In World War II, in
addition to recon and air fights, aerial bombing was a major
activity. As a result of this increased use of planes, sites where
World War II planes went down are dotted all over Europe, as
well as parts of Asia and the Pacific. England’s archaeologi-
cal advisory group English Heritage estimates that more than
10,000 aircraft from both the Allied and Axis sides crashed in U.K.
territory alone.
Amateurs, such as WWII buffs or aircraft restorers, are often
the primary investigators of these sites, though several excava-
tions led by academic institutions and humanitarian organizations
have been undertaken. Here are a few sites that clearly illustrate
both the variety of aircraft employed in WWII, as well as the war’s
geographic reach.

PLANE: Hawker Hurricane

PILOT AFFILIATION: U.K.
CRASH SITE: Buckingham Palace Road, London
CAUSE: On September 15, 1940, during the Battle of Britain, Royal Air Force pilot Ray
Holmes spotted a German Dornier headed straight for Buckingham Palace. Out of ammuni-
tion, he chose to run his Hurricane into the German plane, clipping its tail and causing it go
down. Holmes parachuted to safety before his aircraft hit the ground at 350 miles per hour.
EXCAVATION: A 13-year effort led by amateur archaeologist Christopher Bennett sought to
dig up the plane, which was lodged under a water main beneath Buckingham Palace Road.

PLANE: Supermarine Spitfire Mk IIA

PILOT AFFILIATION: Canada
CRASH SITE: County Durham, northeast England
CAUSE: The radio in Harold John Appel’s Spitfire wasn’t working when he took off to patrol
a nearby harbor on March 27, 1942. When he encountered a low cloud while heading back
to base, he broke formation and crashed into a bog.
EXCAVATION: Members of an amateur organization called Air Crash Investigation and
Archaeology recovered parts of the plane during a dig in March 2008. They found remains
of the cockpit instrument panel, radio controller, pilot’s seat, wings, and fuselage.

PLANE: Focke-Wulf FW 190

PILOT AFFILIATION: Germany
CRASH SITE: Nynice, northwest Czech Republic
CAUSE: On May 8, 1945, the Germans surrendered to the Soviets while troops near Prague
were wedged between Soviets to the east and Americans to the west. This FW 190 went
down during an encounter with U.S. planes. Eyewitnesses said the Americans shot it down.
EXCAVATION: In 2010, Czech archaeologists reported that amateurs had been to the site.
The team found plates identifying engine parts and glass from the gunsight. The site’s stra-
tigraphy suggests the pilot did not attempt emergency landing procedures.

PLANE: Messerschmitt ME 109

PILOT AFFILIATION: Hungary
CRASH SITE: Abony, southeast of Budapest, Hungary
CAUSE: A captain in the Royal Hungarian Air Force (known as the “Pumas”) was shot down
by Russian antiaircraft artillery. He tried to execute a crash landing, but died in the process.
EXCAVATION: In 2005, Hungarian archaeologists used geophysical survey techniques
to locate the lost plane. Among artifacts recovered from the crash site were the plane’s
front propeller, its engine block, a large piece of one of its wings, and the mount where its
ammunition was housed.

PLANE: B-24 Bomber

PILOT AFFILIATION: U.S.
CRASH SITE: Arunachal Pradesh, state in northeast India
CAUSE: From 1942 to 1945, U.S. forces ferried supplies to Chinese troops via the treacher-
ous route through the Himalayas known as the “Hump.” On January 25, 1944, an eight-man
crew in the B-24 bomber called Hot as Hell never made it back from China.
EXCAVATION: In December 2006, an American businessman who locates MIA planes recov-
ered remains of the wing, the engine, and the cockpit’s control panel. The Joint POW/MIA
Accounting Command is planning a dig in fall 2011 to recover any human remains.

www.archaeology.org
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 Unexploded War Relics

O
n February 6, 2011, thousands of
residents of the Boulogne-Billan-
court community in west Paris
were awoken at dawn and asked to leave
their homes for more than four hours
while French military explosive experts
defused a nearly 1,000-pound bomb
found in their neighborhood. Construction
workers discovered the unexploded ord-
nance, an artifact from a WWII operation
from nearly 70 years earlier, in January
on land owned by the French automaker
Renault. After the Germans occupied
France in 1940, a Renault factory in the
area was used to make more than 35,000
trucks for Axis forces. On March 3, 1942,
more than 220 Royal Air Force bombers
were sent on a mission to destroy it, drop-
ping roughly 500 tons of explosives on
the factory for nearly two hours.
Unexploded WWII ordnance is an occasional nuisance in bomb had to be defused. According to environmental risk evalu-
the region. Last year, 10,000 people were evacuated from ators, in the U.K., there may be up to 21,000 unexploded bombs
Rennes in northwest France when a 550-pound Royal Air Force waiting to be found.

The Early Days of Nuclear Warfare

O ne of WWII’s most infamous legacies is that it is

the only war to have involved nuclear weapons. At
the time, the U.S. had only four reactors capable
of reprocessing spent nuclear fuel to extract weapons-grade
plutonium. Three of them were at a site in Hanford, Wash-
ington, that supplied plutonium for the first nuclear weapon
test, called Trinity, in July 1945, and for the bomb dropped
on Nagasaki the next month. Nuclear weapon stockpiling
continued at Hanford until after the Cold War ended in the
late 1980s/early 1990s—by that point the town was home to
decades worth of buried nuclear waste. Since then, environ-
mental cleanup has been the primary activity at Hanford.
In 2004, cleanup crews found a rusted safe in a trench. In it
was a one-gallon glass bottle containing a slurry that included
a few milligrams of plutonium. It would turn out that the
contents of the bottle found at Hanford included the second
oldest sample of man-made plutonium. (The oldest was
made at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1940.)
Markings on the bottle indicated that it had gone through
a separation process that had not been used after 1955. On-
site analysis of the radioactive material also hinted that the
plutonium was produced during Hanford’s early years. Due
to the possibility of historical significance, a sample was sent
to the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory for analysis
by Jon Schwantes.
Over time, plutonium decays into the uranium it was
made from. By examining the ratio of plutonium to ura-
nium in the mixture—part of a process he calls “nuclear
archaeology”—Schwantes was able to conclude the sample
was roughly 62 years old. Interestingly, however, study of
those same ratios pointed to the sample coming from a
reactor that burned far less fuel than the three reactors at
Hanford in the early 1940s.
By following a document trail, Schwantes was able to
determine that the plutonium was part of a trial run for a
prototype Hanford reactor. The test, held on December 9,
1944, was to ensure the reactor could separate weapons-
grade plutonium from spent nuclear waste sent over from
Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee.
“The purpose for Oak Ridge to send Hanford the slugs
from their reactor was not to add to the weapons stock-
pile, which, at the time, was zero for plutonium,” explains
Schwantes, adding that the bomb dropped on Hiroshima was
uranium-based. “It was to test the new reprocessing facility.”

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The Sinking of the HMAS Sydney

T he loss of the HMAS Sydney (II), pride of the

Australian navy, has long been a source of pain and
bewilderment. In waters off Western Australia in
late 1941, following a successful tour in the Mediterranean,
the Sydney encountered a ship claiming to be a Dutch
freighter—actually the HSK Kormoran, a German raider
that had menaced merchant ships for months. As the Sydney
approached, the Kormoran opened fire, crippling the more
powerful ship in minutes. Both ships sank, but most of the
Kormoran crew survived and were captured, while the Sydney
and its 645 sailors were gone without a trace.
Amid public disbelief and distrust of the German account
of the battle, “thoughts turned to treachery to explain the
loss,” says Glenys McDonald, director of the nonprofit
Finding Sydney Foundation (FSF). Official inaction and the sides. Evidence of rapid sinking helps explain why there
inability to agree on a search area prevented serious attempts were no survivors. An official commission has determined
to find the wrecks. In this vacuum, many conspiracy theories that all archaeological evidence confirms that there were no
arose, accusing the Germans of illegal ruses and executions, underhanded tricks or war crimes committed. “For under-
and the Australian government of a cover-up. A proper water archaeology to have attended to a running sore on
search was finally mounted by FSF in 2008. Despite bad the Australian psyche is very important,” says University of
weather and technical mishaps, the expedition found both Western Australia maritime archaeologist Mack McCarthy,
ships within two weeks, 14 miles apart in 8,000 feet of water. “proving that you can learn from archaeology an awful lot
“For the relatives of those lost in the action, the significance about what happened, even in World War II.” A nation
of this cannot be overstated,” says John Perryman, senior seeking closure found answers—but not to every ques-
naval historical officer at the Sea Power Centre - Australia. tion. It will never be known why the more powerful Sydney
Archaeologically, the locations of the wrecks and their approached an unknown vessel, forfeiting its superior range
damage support the long-disputed German accounts. As and firepower. “What thought processes were taking place
the survivors said, the Sydney was struck by a torpedo near on the compass platform of the Sydney will never be known
a forward turret and suffered heavy shell damage to both for sure,” says Perryman.

The HMAS Sydney (II) (top, in Sydney Harbour), sank after

a brutal battle with a German raider. The lifeboats (above),
bearing the ship’s badge, were never used—all 645 crewmen
died. The turret (right) was credited by German survivors as
having inflicted the fatal blows to their ship. The loss of the
Sydney has long been a source of pain for Australians.

www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary 33
The Archaeology of Internment
D uring no other war in history have so
many people been forcibly removed from
their homes and confined in internment,
concentration, and death camps. Archaeology, with its
unique ability to discover details of daily life often left
out of personal journals and official histories, is now
being used to document the lives of WWII’s interned,
among them more than 100,000 Japanese Americans
and Japanese, and millions of Jews, Gypsies, Commu-
nists, criminals, homosexuals, and political prisoners.
Whereas on the battlefield the goal is not necessarily
life, but victory, the most meaningful fight in a camp
is for survival. Archaeologists are uncovering evidence
that people not only survived, but also struggled to
maintain their identity and dignity even in the most
restrictive and dehumanizing environments.
After the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941 led to
the U.S. declaration of war on Japan, the U.S. govern-
ment believed that the Japanese military intended
to attack the West Coast. Approximately 70,0000
Japanese-American citizens and 50,000 Japanese
residents of the U.S. were perceived as a threat to
national security and interned. According to Bon-
nie Clark of the University of Denver, who works
at Camp Amache in Colorado, even in these camps,,
internees had an overwhelming need to make their envi- nvi-
ronment familiar and habitable. At Amache, Clark is finding finding that the
internees, more than half of whom were gardeners orr farmers from
California, created gardens—entryway gardens of a type ype deeply root-
The POW Camp Made Famous by The Great Escape
D
esigned to contain those who had
already fled previous detainment,
the German POW camp Stalag Luft
III was built in the woods of modern-day
Poland as far as possible from non-Axis ter-
ritory. The huts that housed prisoners were
raised above ground to discourage tunneling,
and different-colored layers of sand made it
difficult to disguise digging. Nonetheless, in
March 1944, 76 prisoners escaped, the cul-
mination of a strategy that involved digging
three different escape tunnels named “Tom,”
“Dick,” and “Harry.”
In the years since the breakout, immortal-
ized in the 1963 film, The Great Escape, the
majority of the camp site has been looted,
with only evidence of the bathroom floors
and the stairs into the huts remaining. Still,
in 2003, archaeologists set out in search of Dick, which the
escapees stopped digging and used instead for material stor-
age when Stalag Luft III was expanded to the west. Three
surviving POWs and Allied reconnaissance photos from 1944
helped the team get its bearings at the camp, but ground-
penetrating radar was crucial for identifying Dick’s entrance.
34
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D
Despite the restrictive environment
of the internment camps built across
o
the western United States, interned
th
Japanese Americans and Japanese
Ja
residents struggled to maintain their
resid
cultural identity. At the Amache camp
cultura
in Colorado,
Co archaeologists have
uncovered water pipes reused as
unco
planters for a traditional Japanese
plan
garden (above). And at Kooskia camp
gard
in Idaho,
Id they have discovered pieces
from the Japanese game Go (left).
Excavation of the tunnel entrance turned
uup both remnants of the tunnel’s structure
((such as bed boards used to prevent cave-
in
ins), as well as notable artifacts like an
““escape kit” with civilian clothes, a tooth-
bbrush, and a book in German, along with a
RRoyal Air Force (RAF) boot heel repurposed
aas a stamp bearing the Nazi army’s logo,
pprobably used to create false documents.
““We also found the milk tins they joined
uup to make the ventilation system,” says
JJamie Pringle, an environmental geologist
aat Keele University in central England. The
ccans, which lined the tunnel, circulated
aair driven along by a man at the entrance
ppumping bellows.
The investigation at the Stalag Luft III
ssite was the first survey of the area since the
Germans built the c camp in 1944. But, according to Pringle, it
won’t be the last. The RAF, which built a replica of the hut that
sat above the Harry tunnel that facilitated the “Great Escape,”
is planning to excavate a tunnel called “George.” It was dug
for a mass escape if German forces sought reprisal after the
Great Escape.
ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
 From 1936 to the end of the war in 1945,
prisoners of the Third Reich were held at
Sachsenhausen, a concentration camp
in Oranienburg, Germany. The camp,
which has been preseved, now serves
as a memorial to those imprisoned and
murdered by the Nazis.
ed in Japanese culture, communal gardens,
and vegetable gardens where they grew
daikon, melons, and Japanese cucumbers
and eggplant. Clark has also discovered
evidence that the internees were remark-
ably resourceful. In one garden she found
water pipes reused as planters, and in
another, a piece of copper wire, a rare
wartime material, used to train a Chinese
elm, possibly as a bonsai. The internees
were even modifying the soil with eggshell
to make the high desert more fertile.“One
of the few things (they) had control of was
this part of the landscape,” says Clark.
In northern Idaho, Stacey Camp of the University
of Idaho has begun a long-term project ect to investigate
Kooskia, one of the less familiar and morere remote intern-
ment camps. Here too, Camp is uncovering ering evidence of
ection with their
the internees’ efforts to maintain a connection
Japanese identity.“We have found gaming ng pieces used in
the Japanese game of Go and a medicine ne bottle manu-
factured in Japan which must have been carried into the
camp in the one suitcase the owner was allowed. This is
particularly interesting because Japanesee imports were
banned during the war,” Camp says. She has also found
archaeological evidence of a response too the internees’
uding a set of
petitions for better medical care, including
dentures, false teeth, and denture molds. s.
Whereas the history of the Japanesee internment
camps is perhaps lesser known, Europe’ e’s concentra-
tion and death camps are one of the most carefully
examined features of WWII. Alongsidee oral history
and the Nazi’s impeccable record-keeping,ng, archaeol-
ogy is revealing an even more completee picture of
vivors alike
this side of the war. Scholars and survivors
vate where
have asked whether it is proper to excavate
millions died from exhaustion, starvation,n, disease,
and deliberate attempts at extermination. n. How-
ever, for the death camps in Poland, such as
Belzec, which the Nazis attempted to destroy
in 1943 as the Red Army approached,, and
and-
Sobibor, of which very little remains stand-
ing, archaeology may provide virtually the
only chance to understand how the camps’ ps’
At Sachsenhausen, archaeologists
have uncovered artifacts such as this
handmade knife, evidence for the
prisoners’ desperate ingenuity.
www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary
la
layout and architecture are evidence of the atroci-
tties committed there. The pathway to Sobibor’s
ggas chambers was only uncovered during excava-
ti
tions in 2007.
According to Claudia Theune of the University
of Vienna, who has worked at Sachsenhausen and
M
Mauthausen, concentration camps in Germany and
Au
Austria respectively, there is also another reason
to excavate
e the camps. “Material culture tells us a
grea
great deal about the suffering of the victims and their
strat
strategies for survival, and also something about the
perp
perpetrators. Archaeological finds are a new source
with something to add to the discussion of terror and
surviv
survival,” she says. For example, at Sachsenhausen,
Theune
eun found high-quality dishes and silver and stain-
less st
steel cutlery, mostly forks and knives. These she
identified as belonging to the guards. “But we also have
many m more spoons, which are easier to make than knives
or forks
forks, and most are made of less valuable aluminum or
m
sheet metal. These clearly belonged to prisoners. When
there is not enough cutlery, people do what they can
to eat,” sh she says. Theune has also found combs, some of
which we were handmade from salvaged plastic. “There was
certainly a need for hygiene and cleanliness to maintain
one’s digdignity. These are things you will not find in the
written sources,” she adds. Lastly, Theune believes that
Germ
as Germany (of the past) is to blame for the crimes of
Naz era, the modern nation is obliged to preserve
the Nazi
histo long after the last survivors and eyewitnesses
that history,
are gone. ““These finds have their own biography,” she says.
“They carry meaning from the time they were used, and for
us today, they are also objects of memory.” ■
For more about the archaeology of WWII, including videos,
interviews, and pphotographs, visit www.archaeology.org/WWII.
35
India’s Underground
Water Temples
The stepwells of Gujarat are spiritual monuments to water and stark
reminders of the increasing scarcity of this critical resource
text and photographs by Samir S. Patel

D
escend into any of Gujarat’s stepwells, and the
first thing you might notice is the temperature
change—though they are bone dry, it’s nonetheless
like stepping into a pool of cool water. The second
sensation is disorientation. They are marvels of proportion
and symmetry, but they’re also recursive, Escher-esque, and
vertiginous. The final impression, as you look up, down, and
through the stepwell, is surprise that something as mundane
as a well can be both monumental and intimate.
The stepwells of the western Indian state of Gujarat,
known as vavs in Gujarati and baoris in Hindi, are part of an
architectural tradition that goes back more than a thousand
years. The typical vav consists of a long, straight staircase
that leads to the bottom of a circular or octagonal well shaft,
with landings and colonnades on each story along the way.
The design is both a clever solution to the region’s boom-
and-bust monsoon cycle and a place of social and spiritual
significance. In a more typical well, a vessel is lowered by a
rope to gather water, but in stepwells people could walk to
the water level—near the top just after the monsoon, and
six or more stories down just before it—to collect water,
bathe, and socialize.
Though no formal count has been made, there may be a
thousand or more vavs across the state and in neighboring
Rajasthan. The form developed from wells cut into rock
around a.d. 200 to 400, and evolved over the next few
centuries to become deep trenches lined with stone blocks.
Suddenly in the eleventh century, extravagant, adorned wells
appeared, and continued to be built through the sixteenth
century. Though they were all but invisible from ground
level, these vavs were great public monuments, sometimes
financed by wealthy female patrons.
One of the grandest is Rani Ki Vav (pictured on these
pages), or the Queen’s Stepwell, built in 1060 in Patan,
seat of the ancient Hindu Solanki Dynasty. Excavated by
the Archaeological Survey of India in the 1950s and 1960s,
Rani Ki Vav depicts, in hundreds of reliefs, the avatars and
attendants of Vishnu. The utilitarian and esoteric func-
tions of places such as Rani Ki Vav were indistinguishable,
according to art historian Michael Meister of the University
of Pennsylvania. They were both water sources and subter-
ranean agoras and shrines, particularly for women, who were

36
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responsible for collecting water. Water has long been associated with fertility and
with Devi, the Hindu mother-goddess. The vavs provided a place for women to pray
and hold rituals, away from the more rigid strictures of a temple. “They’re much freer
than temples,” says Morna Livingston, a professor of architecture at Philadelphia
University. “They fill a gap that some other sites are not going to fill.”
Muslim kingdoms ruled Gujarat for centuries following the fall of the Solanki
Dynasty in the thirteenth century, and they continued to build vavs. The Muslim
builders used the same columned form, but replaced the Hindu statuary with scroll-
work and inscriptions characteristic of Islamic architecture. (To see photos of these
later vavs, visit www.archaeology.org/stepwells.)
Though they are spectacular examples of medieval Indian architecture, vavs are Rani Ki Vav (Queen’s
often overlooked as part of the country’s heritage. But Rani Ki Vav is about to get Stepwell), Patan, Gujarat

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some very focused attention. A group led by Historic Scot-
land has agreed to conduct a detailed laser scan of the site
(as they recently did for Mount Rushmore and Neolithic
Orkney), which should help monitor erosion of the delicate
carvings, elucidate the well’s hydrology, and provide glimpses
of its deepest recesses. “That’s what excites me about the
laser scanning,” says David Mitchell, director of conserva-
tion for Historic Scotland, “giving people that access.” The
Archaeological Survey of India hopes the research will help
get the site a UNESCO World Heritage designation.
When the British arrived in Gujarat in the early nine-
teenth century, they saw the stepwells as sanitary disasters
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(and to some extent they were, as they often harbored night-
marish parasitic guinea worms). The Raj shut down many
vavs in favor of pumps and dismantled or filled many of the
small earthen dams that helped recharge the underground
aquifers. Today, most vavs rarely, if ever, have water in them,
as overexploitation of Gujarat’s groundwater has dropped
the water table dramatically. Though many of these now-
dry wells have been lost to destruction and neglect, some
persist—enduring as places to socialize, cool off, pray to
Devi, and remember the exalted place water once held. ■
Samir S. Patel is deputy editor of Archaeology.
vk.com/englishlibrary
 R
oyal. The term conjures images of vast territories under the control of one monarch.
And “royal site” implies a place where one might find a castle or some other form of
royal residence. Early Irish manuscripts, in fact, mention four sites, each one referred
to as the royal center for a province—the Hill of Tara in Meath, Dún Ailinne in
Leinster in the southeast, Crúachan (referred to also as Rathcroghan) in Connacht
in the west, and Emain Macha in Ulster to the north. What we actually find at
each of these places is a complex of monuments that bear no resemblance to a royal residence,
but that can tell us much about pre-Christian Ireland.
The monuments in each complex belong to a range of time, from the Neolithic, which began
in Ireland about 4000 b.c., to the Iron Age, around 600 b.c. to a.d. 500. In each case, the focus of
the complex is a very large, roughly circular earthen bank with an internal ditch, constructed on
a high point of land or surrounding a hilltop. Each has a wide view in all directions. Crúachan,
Dún Ailinne, and Emain Macha form an almost equilateral triangle some 80 miles on a side, with

Evidence from both excavations and rare manuscripts

reveal much about early Ireland’s cosmology and its
people’s deep connection to the land
by Ronald Hicks

Tara near the midpoint of the north-south line connecting Emain Macha and Dún Ailinne. The
significance of this arrangement is still unknown, but it is notable. Archaeological work shows
An aerial view of the that early activity at these sites may have had to do with burials, and that these enclosures were
royal site of Tara (looking constructed during the Iron Age. Surprisingly, none of them are suitable for defense. Instead,
southeast). Referred to
in medieval manuscripts,
each seems to mark off an area that only makes sense if viewed as sacred.
its largest enclosure, One of the compelling things about doing archaeological work in Ireland is that the early
Fort of Kings, encircles medieval manuscripts preserve so many tales surrounding these sites. Some stories are clearly
three others: A possible mythological, others are pseudohistory—medieval invention—and it isn’t always easy to tell
ring barrow (left) called them apart. Even so, they are essential in developing a full understanding of the sites. And, in
King’s Seat sits alongside
turn, by studying the sites archaeologically, we can begin to understand some of the meaning
a ring fort (right) called
Cormac’s House, and behind the myths. Collections of Old and Middle Irish stories called dindshenchas, literally
the small mound (below “histories of places,” were compiled between the tenth and twelfth centuries a.d. and imply a
them) is a passage sacred geography for the pre-Christian sites in Ireland. All the places listed in these stories are
tumulus called Mound connected with the old gods.
of the Hostages. A later
The study of Irish mythology and ancient manuscripts has been limited by a number of
churchyard wall (bottom)
borders an early double circumstances, beginning with a prohibition against owning Old Irish manuscripts during the
enclosure known as Ráth Reformation in the early seventeenth century. Book burnings were common and nearly all of the
of the Synods. early Irish material was lost. There was no scholarship conducted until the 1830s, when some

40
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vk.com/englishlibrary
manuscripts that hadn’t been destroyed oyed began to come
to light. Over the years, only a veryy few researchers
could read Old Irish, and there are re still relatively
few today who can. In addition, the he scholars and
scribes who wrote the manuscripts ipts
often used an even earlier form of the
Irish language, so translations can
differ. Nonetheless, the manuscripts ipts
are crucial to any understanding of Crúachan
pre-Christian sites in Ireland. They
make it clear that in ancient Ireland nd
the landscape itself was sacred. Th Thee
royal sites were meant primarily for cer-
emonies connected with the kingship ship of
each region, and for great gatherings rings
at the time of one of the four major ajor
festivals in the agricultural and
calendrical cycle of the time.
These festivals occur around
the midpoints between the sol-
stices and equinoxes, called cross-
quarter days. They include Imbolcc
or Oimelg at the beginning of Febru- u-
ary, marking the beginning of the agricultural year and the
lambing season; Beltaine in early May, when herds and flocks
were driven to summer pastures; Lughnasa in August, mark-
ing the beginning of the harvest; and Samhain at the begin-
ning of November, when the harvest ended, the herds and
flocks returned, and feasting was the order of the day. Tara
was associated primarily with Samhain. The other three sites
were associated with Lughnasa, when a week was devoted to
a festival of storytelling, trading, and games, mostly involving
horse races. In the case of Tara, the Lughnasa assembly was
held at a sister site not far north, Tailtiu. Crúachan is linked
in the mythology with both Lughnasa and Samhain.
Each of the royal sites, and Tailtiu
as well, was named for a woman,
apparently a goddess who, accord-
ing to myths or tales, died or was
carried off. We are told that the
festival of Lughnasa, or the games
of Lugh, was founded to honor the
god’s foster mother, Tailtiu, who
died after having the forests cleared
for farming. These goddesses almost
certainly represent the grain that is
about to be harvested in much the
same way that Persephone does in
Greek and Roman stories. In those
A geophysical survey of Tara (looking
northwest), undertaken between 1992
and 2002, revealed a large ditch and
pit circle, not visible on the ground,
completely surrounding Ráth of the
Synods and Mound of the Hostages. It
predates Fort of Kings.
42
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tales, Ceres (or Demeter), from whose
nam
name we get the word “cereal,” saw her
d
daughter, Persephone, carried off to
Belfast
tthe underworld, not to return until
Emain Macha tthe following year.
These goddesses had a profound
im
impact on how the Irish tribes were
gover
governed. In late Iron Age Ireland, the
Tara
word fo “king” actually meant something
for
closer to “chieftain.” They ruled tribal ter-
Dublin ritorie
ritories (tuath) that averaged around 120
square miles. There were nearly 300 of
Dún Ailinne them
them, and it can be shown that their
boun
boundaries closely matched those of medi-
b
eval baronies. Iron Age kings were elected
w
from within a restricted kinship group, and,
accordi to the few records, the inaugural
according
ceremon for each required that the new king
ceremony
th goddess of the land. It was then his
marry the
role to protect th
the landscape and the harvest, and, by
extension, the people. If I he displeased his tribe, they would
remove and likely kill him.h There were kings and overkings,
with these relationships sorted out by way of conquest. After
about a.d. 800, the concept of high king was introduced, and
a word that could be likened to the modern conception of
“royal” entered ancient Old Irish manuscripts.
T he place known as Tech Midchuarta at the Hill
of Tara is referred to in early Irish manuscripts as
the House of the Women or the Great House of a
Thousand Soldiers. Medieval historians tell us its long, paral-
lel earthen banks were once part of a banquet hall where the
Feast of Tara, marking Samhain, was held. Modern archaeol-
ogy tells us otherwise, that these earthworks were never the
walls of a building, but rather the boundaries of a ceremonial
roadway. To trudge up this wide ave-
nue is to follow the path of countless
forgotten ritual processions.
According to the ancient stories,
Tara was named for Tea, daughter
of Lugaid or wife of King Eremon.
The hill’s namesake, according to one
tale, once saw a rampart in Spain,
and wanted one like it built on every
hill she chose—but only the one at
Tara is considered a royal site. The
dindshenchas tell of over 40 places
of note within the Tara complex:
wells, mounds, standing stones, and
gravesites of characters from legend.
The monuments include three great
earthen enclosures, including Ráth na
Riogh, the enclosure (or fort) of kings,
which has been dated to the Iron Age,
within which is the Mound of the
Hostages, an older earthwork dating
ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
 Archaeologists excavating an Iron Age temple, at the eastern
foot of the Hill of Tara, in summer 2007. The site, in Lismullin
Townland, dates to between 520 and 370 ı

Thereafter she refused to share, and forced another of the

defeated king’s sons to dig the enclosure at Emain Macha.
The third story says she was the wife of Crund, who bragged
of her horse-racing prowess. Forced by King Conchobar to
race while pregnant, she won and then cursed the men of
Ulster so that they would suffer the pangs of labor whenever
faced with a crisis. Then she gave birth to twins, died, and
was buried on Ard Macha. This version also identifies her as
Grian Banchure,“the Sun of the Women,” suggesting she was
equated with the moon and was daughter of the god Midir.
Midir also figures in the story of the next royal site,
Crúachan to the southwest. It was named for Cruachu, or
Cróchan Croderg, handmaiden to Étaín, second wife of
to the Neolithic. Just to the north, adjacent to St. Patrick’s Midir. Midir is said to have carried Étaín off from Tara—at
churchyard, where Patrick is said to have established the first a gathering he turned them both into swans, and they flew
church in Ireland, is the Ráth of the Synods, which has been away through a hole in the roof. There is good reason to
thoroughly disturbed. A little over a century ago a group believe that Étaín was a personification of the moon, like
calling themselves the British Israelites became convinced Macha. Another source says that Cruachu was the mother
that the Lost Ark of the Covenant was buried there, so they of Medb, who, as queen at Crúachan, is a central character in
dug up the whole enclosure in search of it. Not surprisingly, the Irish epic The Cattle Raid of Cooley. Tána, or cattle raids,
they had no luck. form a separate class of early Irish tale, and all that survive
Almost straight north of Tara is the next royal site, Emain revolve around Crúachan and Samhain.
Macha, now called Navan Fort. Because of nearby quarry- Like the other royal sites, Crúachan is a complex of earth-
ing, the full extent of the complex isn’t clear. At its southern works and standing stones covering several square miles.
limit, it includes Mag Macha, or the Plain of Macha, where The central monument is called Rathcroghan. Another is
the ancient Lughnasa assembly was held. A neighboring hill Relig na Rí, a low hill surrounded by a circular earthwork
to the east is Ard Macha, or Macha’s High g Place, now the
town of Armagh. In the grounds of the Armagh Cathedral
is evidence suggesting it, too, wass surrounded by a bank
and ditch. Like the church at Tara, a, its presence reflects the
Christianization of the old sacred places.
The name Macha comes from the he local god-
dess, though there are several other ther
explanations for its source. First, we
are told that it was named for the
wife of Nemed, leader of the third
nd
group to settle in Ireland. In a second
version of the story, Macha was the
daughter of Aed the Red. In a longer nger
version of this story, Aed was one ne of
three kings, each of whom was too rule
Ireland for seven years at a time. After
Aed’s death, Macha of the Ruddyy Hair
demanded to be allowed to take hiss turn.
When the other two refused, she defeated
them in battle and took the kingship.

A folio from the Book of Leinster,r, dated to

Å 1160, contains medieval accounts unts of the
dindshenchas, or “histories of places,”
aces,” from
Old and Middle Irish stories. They effectively
ffectively tie
ds of Ireland.
specific locations to the old gods

www.archaeology.org
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 Within the enclosure of the royal site of Emain Macha, now
known as Navan Fort, archaeologists excavated a large mound
covering a timber building that had been filled with stones and
burned shortly after its construction.

Lughnasa. Even today the Curragh is the site of one of Ire-

land’s primary racetracks. In an uneven line northwest across
the Curragh are a series of small enclosures with external
banks and internal ditches, just as at the royal sites.
The namesakes of the four royal sites play very minor
roles in Irish myth (except Macha), but their stories relate
a great deal about early Irish kingship. For example, two
are said to be named for daughters of Lugaid, a variant of
Lugh, the Irish god associated with the Lughnasa festival.
And all except Tara have traditions of great assemblies at
that time. Another clue to the relationship between the old
religion and kingship is found in the tale of Macha’s race,
that is said to be the burial place of the kings of Connacht. which suggests she was a horse goddess. Horses, specifically
A natural limestone cave nearby called Owenygat is thought white mares, were a symbol of kingship among the Celts. A
to be the entrance to the underworld and the source of vari- twelfth-century account tells of an inauguration ceremony
ous otherworldly beasts. This is Síd Crúachan, one of the that involved the new king mating with a white mare, which
dwelling places of the old gods, who, according to the tales, was then sacrificed. The River Gabhra, at the eastern foot
agreed to live underground when the Gaels came to Ireland of the Hill of Tara, means “white mare.” This association is
from Iberia. Dáthi’s Monument, a nearby circular embank- also reflected far away in southern England, in the famous
ment similar to those at Tara and Emain Macha but much horse-shaped chalk hill figure at Uffington, which was said
smaller, is said to be the burial place of the last pagan king to have been the headquarters of the local king. The white
of Ireland. mare even appears in an ongoing post-Christmas tradition in
Dún Ailinne, last of the royal sites, is some 40 miles due southwest Ireland in which a dancer dressed as a white mare
south of Tara. From the air, it could be a twin of Emain tries to bite onlookers—connecting the white mare with the
Macha. Dún Ailinne is identified in the dindshenchas as renewal of the year at the winter solstice.
an assembly place of warriors or young men. It received its
name when Aillenn, a daughter of Lugaid, king of Leinster
and (in one version) also father of Tea, was abducted and
died of shame at her captivity. Through her grave grew an
apple tree, and through the grave of her lapdog, Báile, grew a
yew. In another version of the story, Báile was not a dog but
her lover. Hearing that she had died on the way to a liaison,
he dropped dead. The same sinister messenger tells Aillenn
the same thing, leading to her death. Again, it ended with
an apple tree and a yew tree growing from their graves, only
this time the tops of the trees were shaped like their heads.
After seven years, the trees were cut down and made into
“poet’s tablets,” upon which were written the visions, espous-
als, loves, and courtships of Leinster and of Ulster. Much
later, the tablets were brought together at Tara at Samhain.
According to legend, they sprang together and could not be
pulled apart.
On a low hill immediately to the east of Dún Ailinne lie
the ruins of another church said to have been founded by St.
Patrick. To the west is an open range known as the Curragh,
sacred to St. Brigid and thought to have been the site of a

Excavations at the site of Dún Ailinne have revealed

structures dating from the Neolithic and Bronze Age,
and a series of at least three reconstructed buildings
dating to the Early Iron Age.

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 The Book of Ballymote, written in the
late 14th century, contains a number of
dindshenchas, a life of St. Patrick, the “Book
of Rights,” and the bansenchas, or “histories
of women,” which comment on the lives of
women from Irish myth. It also holds a key to o
deciphering ancient Irish writing..

A rchaeological work at the royal

sites over the past few decades has
provided further evidence for their
sacred or ceremonial nature. At Tara, geo-
physical surveys under the direction of Conor
yal
as
eir
eo-
nor
Newman, now at National University of Ireland and
(NUI), Galway, revealed that there are many
other features on the hilltop and surrounding nding
land that can no longer be seen, including a large
post circle surrounding the Ráth of the Synods ynods
and overlapping Ráth na Riogh.
In April 2007, another major monument nt was
found during highway construction in Lismullin, mullin,
he River
in the valley east of the hilltop adjacent to the
Gabhra. It appears to be the site of a largee temple,
with a surrounding post enclosure 90 yards in diam-
eter. A funnel-shaped alignment of posts leads ads to the
entrance of the inner structure. This site lies in a basin,
forming a natural amphitheater.
During excavations at Emain Macha, a large cir-
cular mound within the enclosure was found nd to cover
a building that had been completely filled with stones
and burned shortly after its construction. n. This was
ochronology
unquestionably part of some ritual. Dendrochronology
has shown that the timbers, the lower parts rts of which
survived, dated to approximately 95 b.c. Those excava-
tions produced another surprising find—the he skeleton of
a Barbary ape, a type of macaque from southern uthern Iberia,
on the Gibraltar peninsula. It was probably ly brought as a
gift by a trader. down. Both the excavator and a medical doc-
Geophysical surveys at Crúachan show not only that it tor who reexamined the records of the find some years later
was once surrounded by a very large circular earthwork, but came to the same conclusion—she appeared to have been a
also that the central mound has a more complex structure dedicatory sacrifice who was buried alive. This irregular line
than previously believed. Little excavation has yet been done of enclosures lies along the alignment between Dún Ailinne
there, though the work of John Waddell of NUI Galway at and Crúachan, which coincides with sunset at the summer
Dathi’s Monument indicates that it dates to about the same solstice. Exactly midway between these two royal sites lies
period as the enclosures at Tara, Emain Macha, and Dún Uisneach, the traditional meeting place of the five provinces
Ailinne—the Iron Age. said to be the home of the Dagda, chief of the old gods, and
Atop the hill within the Dún Ailinne enclosure, excava- the burial place of Lugh.
tions carried out under the direction of Bernard Wailes of The royal sites were clearly part of a sacred landscape that
the University of Pennsylvania found a series of large circular we are only beginning to apprehend. By combining archaeo-
structures with their entrances to the northeast, toward logical work with careful study of both ancient manuscripts
the direction of sunrise at Beltaine and Lughnasa. And as and the spatial relationships among the monuments, we may
at Lismullin, there was a funnel-shaped alignment leading yet come to a fuller understanding of ancient Ireland and its
up to the entrance of the structures. In the center of one of pre-Christian religion. ■
the small enclosures on the Curragh, excavators found the
burial of a young woman. However, it did not appear to Ronald Hicks is a professor of anthropology at Ball
be a typical burial. Her skeleton was lying with her hands State University specializing in landscape and cognitive
pressed against the sides of the grave and her head ducked archaeology.

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 B
eneath the surface of Mexico’s Yucatán peninsula is a massive network of
caves that forms a world unto itself. Until 7,600 years ago, the caves were
mostly dry, providing shelter and naturally occurring pools of drinkable
water to people and animals living in a region with few rivers. As the gla-
ciers in North America melted and sea levels rose, so did the water levels in
the caves, preserving the traces of human activity in place. These water-filled spaces,
called cenotes, are largely unexplored, but a dedicated group of archaeologists and
divers are working together to investigate them.
In 2007, four expert divers—Alberto Nava, Alejandro Alvarez, Danny Riorden,
and Franco Attolini—were mapping the extensive network in southeastern Yuca-
tán. Nearly a mile into the cave in improbably clear water, they entered a dome-like
chamber with a roof that opens to the sky. Beneath them the floor dropped away,
swallowing the beams of their flashlights. They found themselves suspended above
a 190-foot-deep hole, which they named “Hoyo Negro,” the Black Hole. “We were
mesmerized by the immense pit,” said Nava. “We did not realize the significance of
Hoyo Negro until we had visited it a few times.”
On a subsequent dive they found a concentration of charcoal in a campfire on a
ledge at a depth of about 140 feet. In the center of the cenote at a depth of 160 feet
lay a human skull and a bone that belonged to an elephant-like animal that became
extinct as recently as 9,000 years ago. Over the past two decades, human and animal
remains such as these have become increasingly common discoveries in cenotes across
the Yucatán. They have become an invaluable resource for understanding the earliest
inhabitants of the Americas.

L ittle more than two decades ago, our knowledge of the world under
the Yucatán peninsula stopped at the bottom of just a few of the thousands
of cenotes there. The first divers to begin to trace the cave systems were
James Coke, Mike Madden, and Parker Turner. In the late 1980s they discovered
a submerged hearth, extinct elephant remains, and the skeleton of the “Naharon
Woman.” It is standard practice for professional divers to leave objects in the
cenotes in place until they can be documented by archaeologists and preserved for

Diving Ice Age Mexico

Clues about the earliest Americans emerge from the Yucatán’s watery underworld
by Christina Elson
future study. Arturo González, a paleoanthropologist and cave diver who works for
Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), later recovered
and studied Naharon Woman. Radiocarbon dates showed that she could be up to
13,500 years old.
The Yucatán peninsula had a warm, wet climate until sometime between 13,000
and 13,500 years ago, according to Mark Bush, an expert in the region’s ancient veg-
etation. After 13,000 years ago, the climate shifted, becoming cooler and extremely
dry. “The landscape was dominated by acacia and grasses, probably representing a
dry shrubland,” Bush says. Even with sea levels rising from melting glaciers, water
would have remained scarce. People and animals might then have been living on a
waterless, treeless plain and perhaps would have looked for water in the cave systems
underlying the Yucatán.
Naharon Woman was discovered in a cave system called Naranjal. Down a dif-
ferent passageway of the same system González found another intriguing skeleton.
Also a female, this 45- to 50-year old might have been bound in a seated position
using rope or textiles and placed against a wall after her death. Her remains were

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carbon-dated to about 9,000 years ago, while uranium-thorium dates provided an Research divers exploring a vast
even older estimate of 10,000 to 12,000 years. cave network have found the
pelvis and limb bone of an extinct
In the last decade, González and his team have painstakingly recovered a total
species of elephant. These finds
of four human skeletons. Two of the skeletons, a male aged 25 to 30 at the time of date to a period when water
death and a recently discovered juvenile dubbed the “Young Man of Chan Hol,” levels in the cave were lower.
have not been dated yet, but the cave where they were laid to rest was inundated by
rising water levels about 7,600 years ago, suggesting they were buried earlier than
that. The date of Naharon Woman makes her the oldest known and most complete
set of remains in the Americas, edging out some 13,000-year-old partial leg bones
found in the Channel Islands off the coast of California. González, however, is quick
to caution that the collagen in Naharon Woman’s waterlogged skeleton is degraded,
making it difficult to get accurate radiocarbon dates for her. He hopes that a new
set of radiocarbon dates using a technique called accelerator mass spectrometry will
clarify the skeleton’s age.
That five skeletons more than 7,600 years old—the four studied by González
and the skull from Hoyo Negro—have been found in the Yucatán is noteworthy,

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 The limestone that forms the Yucatán’s bedrock is riddled
with caves. Prior to about 7,600 years ago, groundwater
levels were hundreds of feet lower, making the caves an
inviting place to find water and take shelter.

Beddows, a geologist at Northwestern University and an

expert in the formation of limestone cave environments.
“Bloated bodies can float for many meters on the surface
of underground rivers.”
One of the first concerns that the divers and the archae-
ologists have is protecting the site from unwanted visitors.
Signs warning potential divers to stay away have been posted
by INAH. Nava, Alvarez, Riorden, and Attolini conduct
regular dives to check the site.
Working closely with archaeologists, the divers will begin
documenting the hearth and the human and animal remains.
Together they will execute a research plan that includes map-
ping the cave in greater detail, taking radiocarbon samples
from the bones and the charcoal, and taking samples of rock
formations called speleothems [see sidebar]. Analyzing the
speleothem samples will provide an additional set of dates
for the cave and help researchers understand what the envi-
ronment was like and how high the water levels in the cave
were when the bones were left there.
considering there are fewer than a dozen skeletons of similar
antiquity in all of North America.“The Yucatán peninsula is
emerging as one of the most promising frontiers for Paleoin-
dian studies,” says Dominique Rissolo, an archaeologist
working with the Hoyo Negro project.
A ccording to Steven Holen, an expert in Pleisto-
cene archaeology at the Denver Museum of Nature
and Science, “the discoveries in the Yucatán caves
support evidence showing humans had arrived and adapted
to diverse environmental conditions on both continents

S till in its early days, the Hoyo Negro project has

a number of unanswered questions. One of the major
ones is how the bones of a human and a proboscidean,
an order of mammals that includes extinct species such as
mastodons, mammoths, and gomphotheres, wound up at the
well before the Holocene,” the geological time period we live
in now, which began about 11,500 years ago. The physical
attributes of some Paleoindian skeletons in the Americas
also suggest at least two different populations were living
in the region.
bottom of Hoyo Negro together.
Studies by paleontologist Dan Fisher
suggest that humans might have submerged
animal remains in water to preserve the meat
and keep it away from scavengers. Could
humans have killed the creature and kept
it stored in the cenote, where they either
forgot about it or accidentally dropped it?
Or was Hoyo Negro simply a dangerous
watering hole that once lured a proboscid-
ean and a human to their deaths?
“The story of where death occurred,
and how a skeleton arrived at its final
resting place must be understood in the
context of the water level and cave condi-
tions at the time of death,” says Patricia

This upside-down skull and limb bone

have not been radiocarbon dated,
but they may be among the oldest
human remains in the Americas.

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 Dating Speleothems

S peleothems are cave formations made from mineral-laden

Cross-section of a speleothem
water that drips and seeps through limestone. They don’t grow in
submerged environments or when a cave’s temperature is below
freezing. Similar to ice, speleothems such as stalagmites, stalactites, and
flowstone are deposited in layers. Each layer can be dated by measuring
the ratio of uranium to thorium in the stone. Analyzing stable isotopes
of carbon and oxygen in these layers can also provide an estimate of
ancient temperatures and rainfall. In order to analyze it, a speleothem is
taken from a cave and brought to the lab where it is cut in half along the
growth axis and polished so that the layers can be identified. Samples
are extracted from specific layers using handheld drills or saws, and then
analyzed by a mass spectrometer, which measures the amounts of the
elements uranium-238 and thorium-230 in the sample. Uranium has a
radioactive half-life of 4.47 billion years, while thorium’s is much shorter,
only 75,380. Comparing how much uranium and thorium has decayed
into stable, nonradioactive elements allows researchers to estimate the
age of the speleothem sample.

One population was a group of hunter-gatherers who
came to the Americas from northeastern Asia across the
Bering Strait. While there were probably several separate
migrations across the Bering Strait, one of the earliest migra-
tions is associated with the Clovis people, who were primar-
ily big-game hunters, and are best known to archaeologists
for their distinctive spear points. The
Clovis culture may have only existed
for a 200-year period that can be placed
somewhere between about 12,800 and
13,250 years ago, but in that relatively
brief time they spread across nearly all
of North America. Just a few months
ago researchers from INAH announced
the discovery of Clovis points associated
with gomphothere remains at an above-
ground site called El Fin del Mundo
in Sonora, providing direct evidence
that humans hunted this animal, which
stood nine to 13 feet tall when fully
grown, and could easily weigh 10 tons.
The finding supports the idea that the A fire pit found 140 feet underwater
people who lived at Hoyo Negro also shows that people lived in Hoyo Negro but contamination and degradation of
more than 7,600 years ago.
would have hunted those animals.
While mitochondrial DNA studies
show that most modern-day Native Americans are descen-
dants of people who came to the Americas from Siberia,
there is a growing body of evidence that another group of
people beat them to the Americas. These people may have
traveled in boats along the coast of the Bering land bridge or
made their way across from the islands of the Pacific. This
group is distinguished by having relatively tall and narrow
skulls and short, slender faces similar to people of Australo-
Melanesian descent, the ancestors of the natives of Australia,
Fiji, and Papua New Guinea. This group probably came to
the Americas by boat around 15,000 years ago, which is
the approximate age of Monte Verde, the oldest known site
in the Americas. More than 80 human crania from Lagoa
Santa in Brazil that date to between 7,500 and 11,000 years
ago have Australo-Melanesian characteristics, as do two
skeletons found in North America, the
9,400-year-old Spirit Cave Man from
Nevada and the 8,900-year-old Ken-
newick Man from the state of Wash-
ington. The skull from Hoyo Negro
has not been taken from the cave and
analyzed yet. However, a study by Ale-
jandro Terrazas and Martha Benavente
of the National University of Mexico
Institute of Anthropological Investiga-
tions, showed that three of the four
skeletons recovered by González from
the cenotes bear a physical resemblance
to Australo-Melanesian people.
Dating the remains will provide a
start toward answering many questions,
bone during a long period of submer-
sion may make it difficult to obtain
accurate dates, just as it has for Naharon Woman. Charcoal
from Hoyo Negro’s hearth may provide researchers with a
more accurate date for when people lived in the cave. With
this basic information about Hoyo Negro in place, the
research team will be in a position to start exploring ques-
tions such as who the first settlers of the Americas were, and
where they might have come from. ■
Christina Elson is a freelance writer based in Washington, D.C.

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 A
t the foot of Mount Songak, in the center of the
Korean peninsula, sits Manwoldae, a vast tenth-century
royal palace complex built by the Goryeo, one of medi-
eval Korea’s least-known dynasties. There is an ancient
explanation for this gap in knowledge about medieval
Korean history: Although the Goryeo ruled for almost
400 years, they left very few records of their own, and the sparse texts in
which they are mentioned were written by historians from the succeeding
Joseon Dynasty. There is also a modern reason why we know so little.
Most Goryeo sites, including Manwoldae, are located in North Korea,
which is almost entirely closed to foreign researchers.
However, for the past three years, in an unusual collaborative effort,
North and South Korean archaeologists have been coming to Manwoldae
to explore the palace’s unique architectural and engineering achievements,
which reveal a profound respect for the natural landscape. The subtext to
all of this is that even as the two modern nations are divided by politics
and geography, they are there to uncover evidence of their shared his-
tory through the story of the Goryeo Dynasty—one of the first to unite
ancient Korea.

I n , scholars from the two Koreas held a joint conference in Kae-
song, North Korea, only 45 miles from the South Korean capital of
Seoul, and site of the Goryeo Dynasty’s main capital, Gaegyeong. At
the meeting, cohosted by the Inter-Korean Historian Conference and the
North’s People’s Reconciliation Council, South Korean scholars proposed
that the two nations conduct a joint excavation in the Kaesong Historical
District, a large area encompassing all the city’s historic sites, including
Manwoldae, the tombs of the Goryeo kings, and Sungkyunkwan, a former
Confucian educational institute, among other sites.

North Korea’s
A joint project between the two Koreas
searches for their shared history
by Hyung-eun Kim

“At first the North Korean scholars found the suggestion absurd,” says
Seo Joong-seok, a professor of Korean history at today’s Sungkyunkwan
University in Seoul. “This was understandable, because the project would
take at least two months, and even in Pyongyang, which is the city in
North Korea most open to foreigners, South Koreans aren’t allowed to
stay longer than two weeks.” Nonetheless, in January 2006, an agree-
ment was signed to conduct an excavation at one historic site. Because
the North Koreans had been working for at least seven years to register
the Kaesong Historical District on UNESCO’s World Heritage List,
they proposed Manwoldae as the site for the project.
The North Korean leadership places a great deal of emphasis on its
country’s history. Kim Il-sung (1912–1994), the founder of the Demo-
cratic People’s Republic of Korea, was particularly proud of the Goguryeo
Kingdom, which preceded the Goryeo Dynasty. The Goguryeo, known
for their military prowess and brave spirit, covered a massive territory

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Full Moon Tower
that included not only today’s North Korea, but southern Manchuria and
southeastern Russia as well. Kim said, “The era in which our country was
Archaeologists are working to
uncover the huge 10th-century
Goryeo Dynasty palace
the strongest in our history was the Goguryeo era,” and he highlighted complex of Manwoldae at the
the need to learn about and preserve the country’s history in order to base of Mount Songak in North
spread his own form of strongly branded nationalism. Korea (above). Among the
Historians in both North and South Korea generally agree that the artifacts they have recovered
are more than a thousand
Goryeo sought to emulate the spirit of the Goguryeo and to be their
patterned ceramic roof tiles
successors. They say that Taejo, the dynasty’s founder (a.d. 877–943), decorated with vines and
named it “Goryeo” for its similarity to “Goguryeo” and kept the previ- dragons (far left).
ous kingdom’s capital, Seogyeong (today’s Pyongyang), as his secondary
capital. Scholars also believe Taejo was in a constant struggle to recover
the former territory of the Goguryeo, which had been lost to the Silla
Dynasty in a.d. 668.
The South Koreans saw the project as an opportunity to promote
cultural exchange and build better relations between the two Koreas.
Like the North Koreans, they also embraced the goal of preserving the
country’s history. Manwoldae is equally important to both nations as
evidence of their past. The South Koreans would also be able to share
new archaeological technologies and equipment that had previously
been unavailable to the North Koreans due to the country’s economic
difficulties.

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The project was set to begin on July 3, 2006. But on June
30, the North Korean archaeologists sent a fax saying that
the excavation had to be postponed. In October 2006, the
North conducted a nuclear test that soured inter-Korean
relations, and it wasn’t until April 2007 that Korean officials
from both sides reaffirmed their promise to jointly excavate
Manwoldae. Finally, that May, 11 South Korean archaeolo-
gists traveled through the Demilitarized Zone by bus and
met their colleagues in Kaesong.
T oday Kaesong, located at the center of the Korean
peninsula and known for its high-quality ginseng,
is a large city with a population of about 380,000.
But Kaesong’s heydey was in the years between a.d. 919
and 1392, after Taejo declared that Gaegyeong would be
At the opening ceremony of the excavations at Manwoldae in
2007, North and South Korean archaeologists celebrate this
historic joint archaeological project.
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Manwoldae is located next to the modern
city of Kaesong, the ancient Goryeo Dynasty
capital of Gaegyeong. In an effort to conserve
not only the palace complex but the area
around it, the North Korean government has
designated these traditional hanok houses for
historic preservation.
his new capital. He immediately began
to build Manwoldae, a name given to the
palace by the Joseon Dynasty. (It is thought
that the Goryeo called it either “the imperial
palace” or “the forbidden inside.”) The entire
complex is believed to have covered more
than six acres and contained more than 100
structures including living quarters, shrines,
temples, a throne hall, a library, a treasure
house, and an astronomical observatory.
This would serve as the main palace for the duration of the
Goryeo Dynasty, with the exception of the period from
1232 to 1271 when the capital was moved temporarily to
the island of Ganghwa on the west coast of Korea, 36 miles
from Seoul, during the Mongol invasion.
To help choose the site, Taejo’s father, Wang Ryung,
met with the Buddhist master Doseon, whose theories on
geomancy—a type of divination using figures, lines, or geo-
graphic features—would greatly affect the Goryeo Dynasty.
Finally Taejo settled on the site at the base of Mount Son-
gak, which Koreans say is shaped like a pregnant woman
lying down with her hair pulled back and her hands on her
chest. There were also other, more practical reasons Taejo
settled on the site. The Goryeo Dynasty was established
on the Korean peninsula after 50 years of internal conflict
among different regional forces. Thus, security was a top
priority. Taejo located the palace in a basin surrounded
by high mountains over which his enemies could not pass,
adding additional protection with a complex ringed system
ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011

of fortresses, some of which are still visible, along the moun-
tains’ ridges. The outermost of these fortresses lay 14 miles
from the palace itself and had no less than 25 gates, a large
number that indicates the sophistication and engineering
of Goryeo architecture. (One of the largest fortresses of the
subsequent Joseon Dynasty had only eight gates.)
With Mount Songak as its backdrop, records show the
palace was not only imposing, but beautiful.
Seogeung, an envoy from China’s Song Dynasty
(a.d. 960–1279), visited the Goryeo capital in
1123 and wrote a book called Goryeo Pictures
and Texts based on what he saw on his trip.
“The ridges of the roofs are connected as if flying
through the air and decorated with dancheong
[traditional multicolored paint on wooden
buildings] of red and blue.” He also would have
seen pillars, staircases, and roof tiles covered in
elaborate decorative patterns such as phoenixes,
dragons, and devils’ masks, as well as chrysanthe-
mums, peonies, and creeping vines.
One of the main distinguishing features of
Manwoldae is the complicated set of drainage
canals, part of which is being excavated (right).
The drainage system is one of several examples
of the sophisticated engineering skills the Goryeo
used in constructing the palace.
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A portrait of Taejo, founder of the Goryeo Dynasty, was found
in the home of one of the king’s descendants. After consulting
a Buddhist master of geomancy, Taejo chose the location at
the base of Mount Songak as the most propitious for his new
palace of Manwoldae.
W hen North Korean archaeologists first
came to Manwoldae in 1954, they could not see
the glorious palace that Seogeung had described.
In 1361 the palace was burned down by the Red Turban
Army, soldiers of China’s Yuan Dynasty. In fact, very little of
the wooden palace remained and only the stone foundations
survived intact. During these first excavations at the site, the
North Koreans worked in an area of the palace called the
hoegyeongjeon (throne hall), thought to have been built in
the early eleventh century. Unfortunately, according to Park
Sung-jin, a researcher at the National Research Institute of
Cultural Heritage who has participated in the joint project
since 2007, very few excavation reports from this dig exist.
Today, four huge stone staircases that once led to the throne
hall are all that can be seen from these excavations. The next
campaign took place in the early 1970s, during which time
archaeologists continued their work in the hoegyeongjeon.
In 1994, digging began in the wondeokjeon, where military
meetings are thought to have taken place. At the Goryeo
Museum in Kaesong, which opened in 1988, more than
1,000 artifacts from the dynasty are on display, including
armor, weaponry, ink sticks, ink stones, silk, beads, and pot-
tery uncovered during these earlier excavations.
Since 2007, four seasons of the joint North-South
archaeological project have taken place. Lee Sang-jun, a
researcher at the National Institute of Cultural Heritage,
directed the South Korean archaeologists at the site. The
North Korean archaeologists came from the Chosun
Central History Museum in the capital of Pyongyang.
“The moment I arrived at the site, I knew that it would be
 The distinctive alignment of five parallel
rooms allowed archaeologists at
Manwoldae to identify this structure as a
gyeongnyeonjeon, a building where portraits
of the Goryeo Dynasty kings were kept.

performed ancestral rituals attended by

the king himself. When they came upon
stone foundations that had supported
five parallel rooms, they identified it
using historical records that say “there
was a fire at the gyeongnyeonjeon, and
Eunggyu [a government official] ran
inside and got the portraits of former
kings kept in five rooms.” Archaeolo-
gists have never been able to excavate a
gyeongnyeonjeon at any other Korean
palace.
an excavation that would not be easy, but at the same time Kim Dong-uk, a professor of architec-
could lead to some groundbreaking discoveries,” says Lee. tural history at Kyonggi University who
The first round of excavations consisted of took part in the excavation, says that
trial trenches in sections of the area west the Goryeo palace is unique in many
of the hoegyeongjeon. In that first year, ways. “The site poses several disadvan-
the team uncovered stonework covered in tages as it’s hilly and heavy rains could
decorations depicting kudzu vine, stone make the buildings collapse, but the
foundations of varying sizes on manu- Goryeo sought to overcome that by
ally leveled ground belonging to seven or ingenious architectural techniques,” he
eight buildings, and countless pieces of says. Unique among them, according
decorated roof tiles. Overall, more than to Ryu Chung-seong, a researcher at
7,500 artifacts were uncovered. the Chosun Central History Museum,
Between September 2007 and March was a sophisticated system of drainage
2010, scholars began to get a picture of canals that encircled almost all the
many of Manwoldae’s structures and structures in the palace complex and
their arrangement. These had been largely was constructed like a net. “This was
unknown with the exception of the area done in a careful, scientific, and calcu-
around and including the hoegyeongjeon. lated manner,” he says.
In 2010, more than 40 buildings were But scientific principles were not
identified and then grouped together in the only guiding force the Goryeo
zones that appeared to contain buildings used in building Manwoldae. They did
with similar functions. Zone A, which not want to change the landscape or
was excavated by Lee’s team, had seven destroy the topography, unlike many
large buildings and encompassed the king’s other Korean palaces before and after,
living quarters, audience chamber, library, as well as contemporary palaces in neigh-
and bedrooms. Zone B was crowded with boring countries such as China and
smaller structures that are thought to have Japan. Hence, Manwoldae’s main axis
had ritual purposes. is not strictly vertical, nor are its struc-
In Zone C, archaeologists uncovered tures symmetrically positioned. Rather,
one of the excavation’s highlights, the it respects the natural landscape. “Even
tenth-century gyeongnyeonjeon, a building the roads and drainage canals are designed
where officials kept the portraits of Taejo to be organically connected. I call this
and other former kings, and where they type of architecture ‘nature-adapting’ and
‘environment-respecting’ architecture,” says
The Goryeo were famous for their celadon, a
Kim. “Building a palace on a hilly site with
type of pottery which uses a distinctive green this elaborate architectural system also had
glaze. This 2-foot-tall vase is one of the largest the added advantage of making it look more
celadon pieces ever found in Korea. imposing than it actually is,” he adds.

54
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
T he finds at Manwoldae are
not limited to architectural and
engineering achievements.
One of the most surprising arti-
facts uncovered in 2007 is a well-
preserved, two-foot-tall celadon
cylinder. Celadon is a type
of ceramic ware invented in
China whose distinct charac-
teristic is its pale, jade-green
glaze. The cylinder has large
holes on the top and bot-
tom and features delicate and
complex inscribed patterns of
grapevines and peonies on its
surface. Goryeo celadon is famous
for its high quality and is found at
almost all Goryeo sites, including kings’
tombs and a fourteenth-century ship discov-
ered off Korea’s southeastern coast. Yun Do-hyeon,
a celadon artisan who currently works in South Korea,
greatly admires the ancient artist’s work. “A celadon piece
as large as this is rarely made, as there are risks of bending
and even damaging the work,” Yun says. Even when much
smaller celadon pieces are placed in a furnace to be fired, the
inconsistent heat results in only one in five objects emerging
undamaged. Archaeologists are still unsure of the cylinder’s
function since nothing like it has ever been found in either
North or South Korea. Some scholars speculate that it might
have had a somewhat mundane purpose, such as holding a
plant, while others say it was likely used for some sort of
royal ritual.
Several other important celadon artifacts were among the
1,400 pieces of pottery uncovered during the joint excava-
tion. Hundreds of roof tiles confirm historical records that
in 1157, a large pond and a pavilion for the king’s entertain-
ment had been built within the palace compound. Its roof
A replica of Manwoldae at the Goryeo Museum in Kaesong shows the palace’s large scale, ity, he estimates that the project
impressive appearance, and picturesque location at the base of the mountain.
vk.com/englishlibrary
Beautiful celadon pieces, many of
which are decorated with floral
patterns like this bowl, have
been found at all major
Goryeo Dynasty sites.
had been covered with this
kind of tile. Archaeologists also
discovered the base of a thir-
teenth- or fourteenth-century
masangbae, a celadon cup spe-
cifically intended for drinking
while horseback riding. During
the Goryeo Dynasty, it was the
custom for the king to bestow a
drink on a commander going to war
in order to wish him victory, and it is
possible that this masangbae is an example
of this type of cup.
Another major find was a roof tile inscribed in
Sanskrit, one of 114 roof tiles with text that were recovered
in the excavation of Manwoldae. The tile contains the word
Amitābha, which roughly translates as “The Buddha of Infi-
nite Light,” leading archaeologists to suggest that it had been
used in a religious structure. While the Goryeo Dynasty
was influenced by both Confucianism, which came to Korea
from China during the Three Kingdoms Period (57 b.c.–
a.d. 668), and Daoism, which arrived in the seventh century
a.d., it was most notably influenced by Buddhism. Goryeo
rulers built Buddhist temples, supported Buddhist monks,
and created some of the world’s most precious Buddhist art,
including paintings and scriptures housed in pagodas and
temples all across both North and South Korea.
A ccording to Lee Sang-jun, so far only about
one-fifth of Manwoldae has been excavated. In
order to truly understand the site’s complexity
and the Goryeo Dynasty’s ingenu-
will take at least another 30 years.
Researchers from the North also
agree that the work at Manwoldae
must be a long-term project, but
thus far have signed on to work as
part of the cooperative effort only
until 2012. The sobering truth is
that with inter-Korean relations
currently at one of the lowest points
in recent memory, it is impossible
to know how long the North and
South Koreans’ cooperative effort to
uncover their past will continue. ■
Hyung-eun Kim is a reporter at
Korea JoongAng Daily, a Seoul-
based English-language newspaper.
55
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Colonial Heights, VA 23834

The Origins of American Medicine
A paramedic-turned-archaeologist sees evidence in a mortuary pond
for an ancient culture’s medical ingenuity
W indover pond is a
secluded body of water
near the eastern coast
of central Florida, minutes from
Kennedy Space Center, in the city
of Titusville. In winter, barren limbs
draped in Spanish moss graze the
pale-green mat of algae that cov-
ers its surface. The muddy shores
gradually give way to shallow waters.
Shadows roll over the pond’s surface.
The air is cold, and the surround-
ing woods provide a buffer between
the pond and the Windover Farms
housing development and muffle
the sound of neighborhood traffic,
reducing it to a soft hum. It is the
burial place of, as far as we know,
168 individuals.
The pond quietly held its ancient
contents for thousands of years,
until 1982, when a backhoe operator
working on the construction of the
www.archaeology.org
LETTER FROM FLORIDA
by Rachel K. Wentz
Windover Farms subdivision dis-
covered the burial site. For the last
10 years, this pond has been at the
center of my work.
F rom  to , physical
anthropologists led excava-
tions of Windover Pond—
now a protected archaeological
site—and recovered the 168 bodies.
Similar mortuary ponds have been
discovered in Florida, all of them
dating to the area’s Archaic period
(approximately 3,000 to 9,000 years
ago). Radiocarbon dating of bone,
wood, and a bottle gourd show that
Windover Pond was in use before
5000 b.c. The burials found there
comprise the largest skeletal popula-
tion of this age in North America.
The people from Windover were
an Archaic period society of hunter-
gatherers who archaeologists believe
vk.com/englishlibrary
Windover Pond
traveled in bands of about 50 individ-
uals. They differed from Paleoindian
cultures that had existed until about
9000 b.c., when the Continental
Ice Sheet retreated and big game,
such as wooly mammoths, began to
disappear. Without those animals to
prey on, Archaic peoples relied on
smaller animals and plants for their
food. Scientists can learn about an
ancient people’s diet by studying the
ratios of stable isotopes of carbon and
nitrogen in their bones and teeth. In
fact, isotopic analysis of the skeletons
found at Windover Pond revealed
these ancient Americans relied on riv-
er-dwelling fauna such as duck, turtle,
and catfish, and local plants such as
prickly pear, persimmon, elderberry,
and wild grapes. Analysis of plant
remains at the pond indicates the
group only visited there seasonally,
during the late summer to early fall
57

months, though core samples taken
throughout the pond show it held
water year-round. Its continued use
may have been due to its proximity to
favorable hunting territory.
While we know what these peo-
ple likely ate, archaeological surveys
of the area around the pond failed
to turn up any clues as to where
the group lived. Archaic period
settlements can be difficult to locate
because there is no evidence of, say,
pottery or architecture during this
time—pottery first appears in the
southeastern U.S. around 2500 b.c.,
whereas architecture, in the form of
mounds sometimes used for buri-
als, turns up around 1,000 years
later. Of course, rather than burial
mounds, this group relied on a pond,
a spot that radiocarbon dating shows
they returned to for possibly as long
as 1,000 years.
I met the people from Win-
dover—or, more accurately, their
remains—a decade ago after I’d
spent 13 years as a paramedic and
firefighter in Orlando. I had gone
back to school to study archaeology,
and my background in medicine
led me to specialize in the health
and pathology of past populations.
It was amazing to see the same
injuries and illnesses that we experi-
ence today in remains such as those
found in Windover Pond. What
stunned me more, however, was the
evidence these burials offered about
how these early Americans may have
coped with and overcome the diseas-
es and injuries that plagued them—
58
In the 1980s, archaeologists
excavated Windover Pond
and found the remains of
168 individuals.
findings that would push
back the first recorded
evidence of medicine by
two millennia, to before
5000 b.c.
Windover Pond’s neu-
tral pH and anaerobic
conditions combined to
offer a suitable environment for the
preservation of organic remains.
Ninety-one of the recovered adult
skulls even contained brain matter.
Although they varied in size and
state of preservation, some of the
brains had maintained their original
shape. The brains’ overall condition
indicates the individuals were buried
within 48 hours of death.
The majority of burials were
placed on their left sides, tucked in a
flexed position (knees drawn close to
their chests and arms tightly folded),
with their heads oriented north.
Whether this was done for ritual
significance or ease of interment is
unclear. The body was then wrapped
in woven matting. More than one-
third of the adults and many of
the children were found with grave
goods accompanying their remains.
These included tools fashioned from
bones and teeth, antler, and wood,
as well as shells and shark teeth that
could have been worn as jewelry—all
of which were bundled with them.
The textiles surrounding the buri-
als are the oldest known fabrics of
their type in the New World and
are believed to have been made pri-
marily from cabbage palm, or sabal
palm. The flexible fabrics, bags, and
matting showcase several styles of
weaving and braiding. Many of the
textiles show wear, suggesting the
items had been used during life.
Those found with children, though,
show little use, suggesting they were
made specifically as burial shrouds.
Their production likely necessitated
a delay between a child’s passing and
vk.com/englishlibrary
his or her burial—an inference sup-
ported by the lack of preserved brain
matter among the children.
The bodies were likely carried
into the soft soils at the shallow mar-
gins of the pond, beyond the thick
tangles of tree roots. A small teepee-
style construction of branches was
then erected over the body. The
wood used for these shelters was pri-
marily ash, which does not naturally
grow near the pond and appears to
have been chosen specifically for this
purpose. These structures may have
protected the burials from animals
within the pond. Individual wooden
stakes, made for the most part of
pine, anchored many of the dead to
the floor of the pond. Weathering
at the stakes’ tapered ends indicates
they probably protruded from the
water’s surface, perhaps serving as
grave markers to show the location
of individual burials or family units.
T he remarkable preserva-
tion of the Windover people’s
remains allowed me to make
strong inferences about the health
of the population. Relative to other
archaeological skeletal populations in
the Western hemisphere, the Win-
dover people show higher rates of
some forms of pathology, such as ane-
mia and traumatic injury. However,
they suffered lower incidences of den-
tal and degenerative joint diseases.
Fracture frequencies and their
locations on the body can serve as
indicators of interpersonal violence,
which is implied when several inju-
ries in the same skeleton appear
to have occurred concurrently. At
Windover, the skeletons show little
indication of conflict. One individu-
al, however, died with a spear point
made from an antler embedded in
his hip. There is no indication of
healing, so it probably coincides with
time of death. His head and first cer-
vical vertebra are missing, indicating
possible decapitation.
The skulls found at Windover
Pond exhibit severe wear to their
teeth, including the teeth of chil-
ARCHAEOLOGY •May/June 2011
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 Archaeology Travel Adventures
EXCEPTIONAL SCHOLARS
dren, possibly due to large amounts
of grit in their diet. The condition of
front teeth seen in some of the adults
indicates they were using them as
tools, perhaps to grasp hides as they
Yellow Clay & scraped or sewed them. Tooth loss
Yucca Brushes was common.
A Hopi Pottery Workshop Growth interruptions in the enam-
Scholar: Rachel Sahmie Nampeyo el of children’s teeth, as well as porous
August 14–20, 2011 lesions on their skulls, indicate nutri-
tional deficits that may have been
chaco canyon due to parasites, such as hookworms,
& the Jemez which sap the body of iron, leading to
Pueblo world anemia and malnutrition—a chronic
Scholars: Dr. Gwinn Vivian & Chris Toya health problem plaguing developing
September 11–17, 2011 countries today. The anemic chil-
dren would have experienced lack of
CST 2059347-50
Spina bifida is a relatively common
birth defect (affecting more than
150,000 people in the U.S. today),
and several members of this group
suffered from it. The teenager’s skel-
eton has no left ankle; the leg bones
taper to withered points. His foot,
likely deprived of adequate blood flow
due to a massive infection in his leg,
may have slowly rotted away or even
been amputated. The boy survived for
almost 18 years, which would have
been nearly impossible if he hadn’t
received long-term medical care.
D uring my examination of
the skeletal remains, I noted

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energy, stunted growth, and delayed
mental development. This condition
may help explain why more than half
the people buried in the pond never
reached adulthood.
Those malnourished children
would have required treatment to
enable them to survive their early
years. Several adults bore marks
of long-term illness or injury and
would have required care. Burial 72, a
middle-aged woman who at one time
sustained a fractured femur, would
have been unable to walk for many
weeks while the bone mended. Burial
119, a man in his 60s suffering from
arthritis, had extensive fusion of the
vertebrae that would have rendered
his spine immobile, prohibiting him
from bending or flexing side-to-side.
One of the bodies recovered from
the pond belonged to a teenager
plagued by numerous health prob-
lems. During his prenatal develop-
ment, the lower segments of
his spine failed to fuse, a con-
dition known as spina bifida.
This likely caused paralysis
of his lower limbs, eventu-
ally leading to wasting away
of his skeleton and extensive
infection throughout his body.
The bodies in Windover Pond
were placed in a flexed position
on their left sides, bundled in
textiles, and had teepee-like
structures erected over them,
anchoring the burials in the peat.
that an overwhelming num-
ber—approximately 95 percent—of
the broken bones had healed in
proper alignment, which suggests
the ancient people made splints for
fractures. Immobilizing injuries
would have reduced pain, minimized
damage to the surrounding tissue,
and allowed the bones to heal in their
proper positions.
Artifacts recovered from burials
further reveal the Windover popula-
tion’s medicinal practices. Intricately
incised bird-bone tubes, approxi-
mately two inches in length, were
found accompanying three women.
Such tubes have been fashioned by
ancient peoples in many parts of the
world, with some of the oldest dat-
ing to 9000 b.c. in Iraq. They were
commonly used in healing and ritual
ceremonies, to inhale smoke from
fires, for a healer to symbolically suck
(continued on page 65)

60
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY •May/June 2011
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vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
 (continued from page 60)
an infirmity from a victim’s skin, or
to blow snuff or hallucinogens into
the nose.
Three different women were
buried with turtle-shell containers,
too small to be used for food
preparation. It’s possible they
could have been used to make
medicines. Gathering, preparing,
and administering treatments for
the sick may have been a traditional
role for women of the group, as it
is on the South Pacific islands of
Samoa, where female specialists
known as taulasea receive training
analgesic and antiarthritic properties,
suggesting she consumed these
plants as an attempt at end-of-life
pain relief. The abdomen of Burial
93, a woman in her 50s, held 127
grape seeds, which are natural pain
relievers. Examination of her skeleton
revealed a possible cancerous lesion
in her skull, along with a compression
fracture of her spine and a healed
fracture of her arm. Excavators also
found 190 grape seeds close to Burial
119, the elderly man whose immobile
spine kept him permanently stooped.
Getting ahead
in archaeology
Studying a distance learning
programme means you can achieve
an academic qualification without
taking a career break. We’re one of
the top on-campus archaeology
schools in the UK with the highest
possible grade for teaching quality.
But Leicester is also one of the
largest providers of distance learning
education in the UK and with over
20 years experience and more than

T he average lifespan of an 18,000 distance learning graduates

(via the maternal line) in how to
locate, identify, and process wild
medicinal plants.
Previous archaeological evidence
for the medicinal use of plants
Intricately incised bird-bone tubes
found with the remains of three
females may have been used in
healing ceremonies.
dates back more than 5,000 years
in China. Among the 19 medicinal
plants identified during the Win-
dover excavation were black gum
(typically used for gastrointestinal
problems), wax myrtle (an analge-
sic), and arrowhead (a pain reliever
and antiarthritic). Seeds from these
and other plants with curative prop-
erties were found in the abdominal
areas of the buried individuals.
Burial 125, for instance, is a
woman in her 60s who suffered
from severe arthritis of the spine
and possible bone cancer. In her
belly was a large concentration
of elderberry seeds, along with
nightshade and grape seeds.
Elderberry and nightshade have
individual in the Windover our record speaks for itself.
population was probably
between 30 and 40 years of age, but a
few individuals were able to survive
into their 50s and 60s. The skeletal
re
remains found at
W
Windover Pond speak
to a high prevalence of
il
illness and injury, but
a suggest a people
also
s MA in Archaeology &
c
capable of
Heritage
withsta
withstanding years of pain
and dis
discomfort. Today, Accepted as a qualification for
members of RoPA
people equate medical care
ad
with advanced technology s MA in The Classical
and spee
speed of treatment. But, Mediterranean
in my work as an archaeologist, I’ve s MA in Historical Archaeology
learned that the medical care practiced
thousands of years ago by this s Postgraduate Certificates
population—in the absence of 911, Build credits towards an MA
ambulances, and emergency rooms— s Research Degrees
enabled them to survive in the
challenging environment of Florida. Introductory courses also available.
And, indeed, there is still much
about these ancient Floridians left Get ahead, get in touch
to be discovered. The well-preserved www.le.ac.uk/archaeology
brains afford soft tissue for DNA
analysis, from which future inves- +44 (0)116 252 2772/3360
tigations might better enable us to archdl@le.ac.uk
pinpoint contemporary ancestors of
the people from Windover. As long as
the skeletal remains are available for School of Archaeology and
study, there is limitless potential for Ancient History
learning about this part of America’s Distance Learning
ancient past. ■
Rachel K. Wentz is a regional director
for the Florida Public Archaeology
Network.

www.archaeology.org
vk.com/englishlibrary 65
 FROM THE TRENCHES

(continued from page 10)

Northeast Africa. In addition, Jebel
Faya is located far south of the areas
where Neanderthals were living at
this time. The conclusion is that
anatomically modern humans were
the earliest occupants of Jebel Faya.
And due to the absence at the site,
after 90,000 years ago, of the kinds
of stone tools that they made, it is
believed that they left.
According to the archaeological
findings, later residents of the site
appear to have migrated there from
the north. A collection of stone
tools believed to date between
90,000 and 40,000 years ago seem
to have been derived directly from
the tool-making traditions of
people who lived in the Levant or
the Zagros mountains.
Hans-Peter Uerpmann of the University of Tübingen holds a stone hand ax from Jebel

W
Faya in the Arabian Peninsula. The ax resembles stone tools from eastern Africa.
hen glaciers in Europe
and Asia were at their
largest, from about
200,000 to 135,000 years ago,
the Arabian Peninsula was drier.
The expanding deserts would
have served as barriers to people
attempting to migrate from Africa
at that time. Earlier hominins,
such as Homo erectus, had the
advantage of leaving Africa millions
of years earlier, probably while the
Arabian Peninsula was relatively
wet, making it easier to travel and
find food. Homo sapiens may not
have been able to expand into the
rest of the world because they
hadn’t developed techniques to
carry enough provisions to cross
the deserts. They may only have
been capable of leaving Africa when
the wetter conditions created by
retreating glaciers made it possible
for them to do so. Uerpmann
says, “Now we see that it was the
environment that was the key to
this [leaving Africa].” According
to the climate data assembled
by the team’s paleoclimatologist,
Adrian Parker of Oxford Brookes
University, between 135,000 and
120,000 years ago, the water level
in the Red Sea would have been
low enough to make the crossing to
the Arabian Peninsula possible and
it would have had a mild enough
climate to make it inviting to people
looking for a new home.
The climate, however, is believed
to have become, once again, much
drier by some 90,000 years ago. The
earliest people at Jebel Faya may
then have gone back to Africa when
the climate became inhospitable
and it may be that this early attempt
by Homo sapiens to expand their
range beyond Africa failed—even
if temporarily. The sites of Skhul
and Qafzeh in modern-day Israel
contain evidence that Homo sapiens
lived at those sites around 120,000
to 81,000 years ago, but then
evidence of them also disappears.
And while stone tools recovered
from the site of Jwalapuram in India
indicate that Homo sapiens may have
made it there by about 78,000 years
ago, there are no human bones to
confirm conclusively that the species
lived at the site. It is still possible,
then, that the migration that led
Homo sapiens to finally spread across
the globe took place later.
One additional problematic
issue is that the archaeological data
doesn’t currently match well with
the information provided by genetics
research. DNA points to the idea
that Homo sapiens was present in
Southern Asia by 70,000 to 50,000
years ago, but this may just mean
that a migration that took place
around that time had a much larger
impact on the modern gene pool,
essentially wiping out any genetic
evidence of earlier migrations.
While the Jebel Faya team’s
findings may not provide a
conclusive answer about when that
southern migration took place,
and what it meant to the spread of
modern humans across the globe
and their impact on other hominin
species, they are an essential step in
building an understanding of how
we came to dominate the planet.
“I think we can never be sure of
anything that is only based on one
single site,” says Uerpmann. “I think
that our findings just open our views
and tell us where to look for further
evidence.” —Zach Zorich

66
vk.com/englishlibrary ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011
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Beyond Lectures: AIA Local Societies and Public Outreach

E
ach year the AIA’s National programs and activities for the gen- of Dispatches and we will continue to
Lecture Program sends nearly eral public. Last year, almost 20 per feature them in future issues so that
100 archaeologists around the cent of the societies received some they can share some of the innova-
U.S. and Canada to give approxi- funding from the AIA. Grant win- tive and successful approaches they’ve
mately 300 lectures to over 100 local ners have been featured in past issues taken to public outreach.
societies. There was a time when
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the societies.
But that was in the past. Today,
societies are organizing everything
from archaeology fairs to movie fes-
tivals and are reaching out to people
of all ages and interest levels. Society
programs have a significant impact
in terms of audience attendance
and participation—the annual two-
day archaeology fair in Boston, for
instance, attracts between 4,000 and
5,000 visitors. This new emphasis
means that more people have access
to archaeological activities and infor-
mation than ever before.
Specific outreach initiatives are
also actively bringing programs to
local schools, community centers,
libraries, museums, and retirement
communities. In an era when the
pace of development and change is
altering the archaeological landscape
at unprecedented rates, it is essential
that archaeologists spread the mes-
sage, to a vast and diverse audience,
that the past is important, but frag-
ile, and needs to be protected and
preserved. Judging by the success of
these programs, clearly the public is
interested.
In an effort to support these fresh
efforts, for the last two years the AIA
has increased its support for local
societies by expanding and enhancing
the existing Society Outreach Grant
Program. These grants are geared to
helping societies organize and host

68
vk.com/englishlibrary
Advocacy: Good News…Italy Import Restrictions Renewed!
I
n the July/August  issue
of Dispatches we reported that the
AIA and hundreds of its members
had expressed their support for
renewing the import restrictions on
Italian archaeological materials by
sending letters to the U.S. State
Department’s Cultural Property
Advisory Committee (CPAC). Addi-
tionally, over a dozen AIA members
traveled to Washington D.C. for the
interim meeting in November 2009
and the renewal meeting in May
2010. We are very pleased to report
that on January 19, 2011, the Federal
Register included a ruling that
extends and expands protection to
certain types of antiquities for a peri-
od of five additional years. The
“Extension of Import Restrictions
Imposed on Archaeological Material
Originating in Italy and Representing
the Pre-Classical, Classical, and
Imperial Roman Periods,” is as out-
lined in the bilateral agreement
between the United States and Italy.
It now also includes on its list of arti-
facts designated for protection, “Coins
of Italian Types” under the metal cat-
egory with sub-categories described
as, “lumps of bronze, bronze bars, cast
In Memoriam
Dr. Donny George Youkhanna, the former
General Director of the Iraq Museum in
Baghdad who did so much to defend
its collections in the wake of the ouster
of Saddam Hussein, died while visiting
Toronto on March 11. Dr. George was widely
credited for his tireless work safeguard-
ing Iraq’s antiquities and for leading the
effort to recover artifacts looted from the
coins, struck coins, struck colonial
coinage, and coins of the Greek cities.”
(The complete text of the ruling can
be found on the Federal Register
website: www.federalregister.gov).
Import restrictions made through
bilateral agreements between the
U.S. and various countries are an
important step in restricting the
movement of archaeological materi-
als across international borders and
serve to discourage looting and the
illicit trafficking of cultural heritage.
The renewal of the Italian agreement
was helped inestimably by the public
testimonies offered at hearings of the
dangers still faced by Italian cultural
patrimony. Public outpouring and
the strong and ongoing commitment
Site Preservation Grant: Visiting Gault
I
n the January/Febru-
ary  issue of Dis-
patches we featured grant
recipient, Gault School
of Archaeological Research
(GSAR). On January 5,
2011, a group of AIA Site
Preservation Committee
members, trustees, and staff
visited the Gault archaeo-
logical site prior to the start
of the 112th AIA Annual
Meeting in San Antonio,
Texas. The Gault archaeological site
is an important location for study-
ing the peopling of the Americas.
Ongoing year-round fieldwork
examines the rich Clovis (13,500
b.c.) and pre-Clovis occupations.
museum. Following death threats to him-
self and his family, he immigrated to the
United States in 2007, where he received
an appointment as Visiting Professor at
Stony Brook University. Dr. George was a
Lifetime Member of the Archaeological
Institute of America and a popular speaker,
serving as this year’s Kershaw Lecturer. His
most recent AIA presentations were at the
Valparaiso and Kansas City Societies. Dr.
George was 61 years old.
of both Italy and the U.S. to enrich
cultural exchange for the benefit of
the public, were surely influential
in helping United States Assistant
Secretary for Educational and Cul-
tural Affairs, Ann Stock, to take the
appropriate steps to renew the import
restrictions. The result is, for another
five years, through 2016, additional
legal protection has been afforded to
Italian artifacts and the way has been
paved for increased cultural exchange
between the U.S. and Italy.
Thank you, again, to the hundreds
of AIA members who responded to
our call to action. To join our next let-
ter writing campaign please sign up for
the AIA’s e-Update on our website:
archaeological.org/about/eupdate.
With over two million artifacts
excavated at the site so far, the depth
and variety of the stone tool assem-
blage is providing a considerably dif-
ferent look into the lives of North
America’s earliest inhabitants.
GSAR Executive Director, Clark
Wernecke and Educational Coordi-
nator, Nancy Littlefield led the tour.
At its conclusion, AIA President,
Elizabeth Bartman, commented,
“the Gault School of Archaeological
Research is making great use of the
funds awarded to them by the AIA
Site Preservation Committee. They
have certainly set a high standard
that I hope all our future grant
applicants will strive to meet.”
69
 Political Unrest and CHAMP Website
Excavate, Educate, Advocate

I
the Destruction of n the November/
Cultural Heritage December  issue of

W
Dispatches we reported on
hile this issue of Dispatches
was being prepared,
momentous events were
unfolding in Egypt and
other parts of northern Africa and the
Near East. As is often the case in
times of national instability and
unrest, reports of destruction and
looting of archaeological sites
■
the formation of CHAMP
(Cultural Heritage by AIA-
Military Panel). We are
pleased to report that
CHAMP launched its official
website in January 2011
(aiamilitarypanel.org).
CHAMP is dedicated to
creating awareness among

appeared in the news and on the deploying military personnel preserving and safeguarding historical
Internet. The plundering of cultural regarding the culture and history of sites and cultural artifacts and will
Dispatches from the AIA

heritage in wartime, in a climate of the local communities that will host promote greater understanding and
political unrest, and as a follow on to them. Education and training of improved relations with local
natural disasters, has a long and ugly military personnel is a critical step in communities.
history. Now, more than ever, it is
important for the AIA and those who
love archaeology to speak out for the
protection of archaeological sites and
AIA’s Partnership with SAA and SHA

I
against the destruction of cultural
heritage. Furthermore, we need to n , the AIA, the Society Education Clearinghouse (AEC),
remind people that looters are supply- for American Archaeology the three organizations
ing a demand and that stopping that (SAA), and the Society planned several joint ven-
demand will help to stop the looting. for Historical Archaeol- tures the first of which was
While Egypt’s future, in the short ogy (SHA) joined forces to to showcase and distribute
term, is a bit uncertain, we hope that promote the organizations’ educator resources at the
the cultural legacy of Egypt will educator resources. Working National Council for the
emerge relatively unscathed. under the name Archaeology Social Studies
(NCSS)
conferences. The
Newly Elected Officers AEC has had a
The AIA Annual Meeting is both a time for archaeologists to present presence at the last
and discuss their work and for the Institute to conduct some important four NCSS meetings
business including the election of officers. The results of the 2011 (2007-2010) and will be at the
election are listed below. next one in Washington, D.C.
The AEC offers archaeologically-
Officers: themed educational materials to
Elizabeth Bartman, President social studies
Andrew Moore, First Vice President teachers and
Sebastian Heath, Vice President for Professional Responsibilities other educators
John Younger, Vice President for Publications for use in
Thomas Morton, Vice President for Societies classroom
and interpretive settings. By
General Trustees: combining resources, the AIA,
Cathleen Asch SAA, and SHA can now present
Greg Goggin a more comprehensive list of
Julie Herzig Desnick resources that highlight each
Shilpi Mehta organization’s strengths and
Academic Trustees: provide educators with a variety
Lynne Lancaster, Ohio University of options. Visit AEC’s website
Shelley Wachsmann, Texas A&M University for more information: www.
archaeologyeducationclearinghouse.org.

70
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 ARTIFACT

E
gyptians appear to have taken great pains to have the WHAT IS IT?
An artificial toe
bodies of their dead buried intact. Some mummified remains are
DATE
found with makeshift limbs and false eyes to replace missing 950–710 b.c.
parts. This artificial toe, attached to the right foot of a priest’s MATERIAL
Wood and leather
daughter, is so well made, however, it’s unlikely it was only intended to DISCOVERED

prepare her for the afterlife. 2000, tomb of

Tabeketenmut in
The dense hardwood used in the toe’s construction is robust enough to necropolis of Thebes,
near Luxor
withstand bodily forces—while walking, a big toe must bear up to 40 percent
SIZE
of a person’s body weight. It also has a beveled edge at its attachment point, 4.7 inches, from
tip of toe to point
indicating it was deliberately designed to maximize comfort, says Jacqueline of attachment
Finch, a visiting scientist at the University of Manchester’s KNH Centre for CURRENTLY LOCATED
Egyptian Museum,
Cairo

Biomedical Egyptology. She recruited two volunteers who are missing their right big toes to
wear a reproduction of this device along with replica Egyptian sandals. Both reported that it
was comfortable and assisted them in walking.
Until now, an artificial leg made of bronze and wood and found buried with a Roman
aristocrat in southern Italy dating to 300 b.c. was thought to be the first prosthesis. Finch’s
work suggests, however, that the Egyptians be credited with pioneering prosthetic medicine.

72 ARCHAEOLOGY • May/June 2011

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