CHAPTER … 3

SPEEDS

"Do not pray for easy lives. Pray to be stronger man.

Do not pray for tasks equal to your powers. Pray for
powers equal to your tasks. Then the doing of your
work shall be no miracle, but you shall be miracle."

..Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

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 3.1 Factor of Speed

Many traffic studies require the speed of journey times of traffic along a road to be
measured or estimated. In economics studies, for example, the cost of a journey
depends a great deal on the speed at which it is made. When new roads are being
designed it is important to have a realistic estimate of the speeds at which vehicles
will travel along them.

As such speed is one of the most important factors to the traveler in selecting
alternate routes or transportation modes. The value of a transportation facility in
carrying people and goods is judged by its convenience and economy, which are
directly related to its speed. The alternativeness of a public transportation system or a
new highway is each weighed by the traveler in terms of time, convenience, and
money saved. Hence, the desirability of rapid transit may well rest with how rapid it
actually is. The speed of vehicles on a road or highway depends, in addition to
capabilities of the drivers and their vehicles, upon four general conditions: the
physical characteristics of the highway and its roadsides, the weather, the presence of
other vehicles, and the speed limitations (either legal or because of control devices).
Although any one of these may govern, the effects of these conditions are usually
combined.

The objective of any engineered facility to be used by the public is to satisfy the
demands for service in the safest and most economical manner. The facility should
therefore accommodate nearly all demands with responsible adequacy and also not
fail completely under the severe or extreme load. In applying this principle to the
design of highways, with particular reference to speed demands, provision should be
made for a speed that satisfies nearly all drivers. Only a small percentage of drivers
travel at extremely high speed, and it is not economically feasible to design for them.
They can use the highway, of course, but must travel at speeds somewhat less than
they consider desirable. On the other hand, the speed chosen for design should not be
that used by drivers under unfavorable conditions, such as inclement weather, because
the highway then would be unsafe for drivers under favorable conditions, and would
not satisfy reasonable demands.

3.2 Operating Speed

Operating speed is the speed at which a driver can travel on a given highway under
favorable weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions without at any
time exceeding the safe speed as determined by the design speed on a section-by-
section basis. A road user has to an eye on the operating speed constantly.

3.3 Design Speeds

The method adopted, in all the road design standards known to the authors, is to
control the balance of the different elements of the design by reference to a design
speed. Thus, a design speed is selected appropriate to the forecast volume and type of
terrain through which the particular road alignment will pass. Then, from tables,
value for the different design elements may be selected from ranges of values, each

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range appropriate to the select design speed. In this way radii can be applied.
Compatible standards of horizontal and vertical curve as well as road width, super
elevation and if appropriate, road widening and horizontal transition curve.

Consequently, to further elucidate the design speed, in simple words, it is the

maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway
when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern. The
assumed design speed should be a logical one with respect to the topography, the
adjacent land use, and the type of highway. Except for local streets where speeds
controls are frequently included internationally, every effort should be made to use as
high a design speed as practicable to attain a desired degree of safety, mobility, and
efficiency while under the constrains of environmental quality, economics, esthetics,
and social or political impacts. Once selected, all of the pertinent features of the
highway should be related to the design speed to obtain a balanced design. Above
minimum design values should be used where feasible, but in view of numerous
constraints often encountered, practical values should be recognized and used. Some
features, such as curvature, super elevation, and sight distance, are directly related to,
and vary appreciably with, design speed. Other features, such as, widths of pavements
and shoulders and clearances to walls and rails, are not directly related to design,
speed, but they affect vehicle speed, and higher standards should be accorded these
features for the higher design speeds. Thus, when a change is made in design speed,
nearly all design elements of the highway are subject to change.

The design speed chosen should be consistent with the speed a driver is likely to
expect. Where a difficult condition is obvious, drivers are more opt to accept lower
speed operation than where there is no apparent reason for it. A highway carrying a
large volume of traffic may justify a higher design speed than a less important facility
in similar topography. Particularly where savings in vehicle operation and other
operating costs are sufficient to offset the increased costs of right-of-way and
construction. A low design speed, however, should not be assumed for a secondary
road where the topography is such that drivers are likely to travel by high speeds.
Drivers do not adjust their speeds to the importance of the highway, but to the
physical limitations and traffic thereon.

Unfortunately, no national data for speeds on intercity highways is ever recorded.

This should have been a must exercise to know the speed trends of different vehicles
average speeds between buses, cars, trucks, vans and others), invariable geographical
conditions. Further, such a data would have been very useful for assigning design
speeds to the design of new highways and traffic management agencies. However, at
present 55-mph (88.5 kph) is allowed on the motorways.

The speed selected for design should fit the travel desires and habits of nearly all
drivers. Where traffic and roadway conditions are such that drivers can travel at their
chosen speed, there is always a wide range in the speeds at which various individuals
operate their vehicles. A cumulative distribution of vehicles speeds has the typical "S"
pattern when plotted as percent of vehicles verses observed speeds. In traffic studies it
is important diagram and called the percentile curve also called an orgive. When this
has been plotted it enables the percentage of observations falling below--or above, at
choice--any desired value, to be read off the curve. As an illustration of the use of this
type of curve, it may be mentioned that in the U.S.A. it is becoming the practice to

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impose speed limits of the nearest round figure to that speed which 85% of traffic is
not exceeding, or which 15% of it is exceeding. The argument behind this practice is
that the great majority of drivers are reasonable, competent people who can be trusted
to decide what is a safe speed to use under any given conditions; so if a limit based on
the speed they use is imposed, some at least of the other sort of driver may think that
the limit is justified, and observe it themselves. It also has the advantage that it brings
an element of reason into the limit. It is claimed that this, "percentile limit" has been
successful in reducing accidents, especially fatal accidents. The cumulative frequency
diagram thus obtained is the most common method of illustrating speed distributions
and is particularly useful when two or more distributions are being compared. To plot
a percentile curve speed on a city street are taken as an example.

As general principle, if the quality we are considering is measurable or countable, it is

useful to refer to it as the variate. We may think of the variate as the statistical
equivalent of the algebraic variable, though as a special type with a probability
attached to it.

In this, the range of the variate is divided into a number of groups of an equal smaller
range within the main range and all observations within a group are counted together,
as if they were all of the value of the centre reading of the group. Ten to dozen is the
most convenient number of groups, though the number is purely a matter of ease of
calculations. It should preferably not be less than eight. A grouped table (as it is
called, Table 1), is given below, which is a convenient way of presenting the data, and
as a basis for computing a percentile curve.

Table 1. Timing of Vehicle Speeds:

(a) Within speed limits.
(b) In lengths where a speed limit has been demanded.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(a) (b)
Speed V %age %age
Frequency Cumulative Frequency Cumulative
mph faster faster
f f f f
than V than V
56/60 5 5 0.3
52/56 1 1 0.1 11 16 1.0
48/52 6 7 0.9 26 42 2.5
44/48 21 28 3.5 52 94 5.7
40/44 37 65 8.2 125 219 13.2
36/40 116 181 22.8 213 432 26.0
32/36 184 365 46.0 353 785 47.3
28/32 219 584 73.6 431 1216 73.2
24/28 141 725 91.4 299 1515 91.2
20/24 56 781 98.5 100 1615 97.3
16/20 11 792 99.9 35 1650 99.4
12/16 1 793 100.0 10 1660 100.0
Sum S
793 1660
(f)

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Calculations: This is described as under:-

The range of speeds observed was from 12mph to about 60 mph. groups of 4mph
cover most of the observations conveniently, and the grouping used will be one of 4
mph. this range, of 4 mph, is called the unit of grouping. The table shows two sets of
observations of the speeds of traffic, each set consisting of the sum of a number of
separate timings taken at different times. The first set, denoted by (a), covers timings
taken on roads subject to the 30 mph speed limit. The second set, denotes by (b), were
taken in stretches physically similar with no speed limit imposed.

These timings are made so that full and careful consideration can be given to the need
for a speed limit. The object of the present analysis is to find out if there is any
evidence to show weather motorists behave differently in roads which are physically
similar, but of which some have the limit, while some have not. In other words, to see
whether the motorist adjusts his speed to an imposed limit, or to road conditions.

In the Table 1 the top line, containing numbers from 1 to 7, is merely the numbering
of the columns for ease of explanation in the text. Then column 1 sets out the range of
speeds in groups of 4 mph. the bottom line covers the range of speeds between 12 and
16 mph, the next line above those between 16 and 20 mph, and so on up the table. In
practice, all speeds from 12 mph, up to, but not actually reaching, 16 mph, were
included in the first group. Strictly speaking, any recording of exact figures 12, 16, 20
mph and so on should have been given half to the group above, and half to the group
below, in a small sample this might be important, but with large ones such as these it
is not worth doing.

The number of recordings in any on group is called the frequency, and is denoted by
the letter f. the frequencies of the cars traveling on the set (a)-30 mph speed limit-
stretches are given in column 2 of the table in the groups in which they occurred.
Thus in these places, one car was timed at between 12 and 16 mph, eleven between
16 and 20 mph, fifty-six between 20 and 24 mph, and so on up the column. In column
5 the same thing has been done for the stretches on which the limit has been
demanded. At the foot of the two columns they are added up to give the total number
of cars timed I the two sets, or S (f) according to the symbolism already explained.
These totals will be seen to be 793 for the set (a) and 1660 for set (b). Both are large
samples, but not abnormally large for traffic studies, in which the variations are apt to
be wide. Columns 3, 4, 6, and 7 will be used later.

The method of computing a percentile curve is included in Table 1, in column 3 and 4

the set (a) timings and in columns 6 and 7 for the set (b) timings. The first step is to
sum the frequencies cumulatively. This can be done indifferently from the top or the
bottom of the column, entirely at the choice of the computer. It is here done from the
top. This operation is done in column 3 and 6. Taking column3, for the set (a)
timings, the first frequency is 1, in the 52/56 group, and this is entered in the same
line in column 3. in the next line the frequency is 6, and this figure is added to the
first one, of 1 to give 7 in the next line of column 3. The next frequency below 21, is
then added to this, giving 28, and entered into the next line of column 3, and so on
down the column. The last figure, in the last line in which a frequency occurs-here
12/16 group, should give the sum of the total number of timings, i.e. S (f), if the
working is correct. A similar process is done for the set (b) timings in column 6.

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 Figure 1. Percentile Curves for the timings in Table 1

The next step is to work out, and enter into column 4-or 7 as the case may be--the
percentage of the total number of observations represented by the entry in each line of
column 3 or 6. Thus, again taking column 3, the number in the first line, namely 1, is
0.1% of the total of 793, and this figure is entered into the same line of column 4. The
next number in column 3, namely7, is 0.9% of 793, and so on down the column. In
drawing the percentile curve (Figure 1), the speeds are plotted as abscissa, and the
percentage as ordinate. On one side of the diagram, on the ordinate line, the
percentages are plotted upwards from the bottom. This is done on the left side of the
table, and the line shows the percentage of vehicles traveling slower than the speed V,
given by the intercept of the plotted curve on the abscissa. On the other side the
percentages are plotted downwards, and this line reads the percentage traveling faster
than the speed V.

In this case, the curve is plotted from the top, as the calculation has been done that
way. The percentage figure in column 4 or 6 is plotted against the lower speed of its
group range, because the percentage is that of speeds greater than the lower speed of
the group. For example, the percentage in the 40/44 group of set (a) is 8.2, and this is
the percentage of cars traveling at over 40 mph. if the percentage had been calculated
from the bottom, the reverse would apply, and the percentages would be plotted
against the upper speed for the group. Here, for the set (a) curve, 0.1% on the right-
hand line is plotted against 52 mph, 0.9% against 48 mph, and so on. The points so
plotted are then joined by a smooth curve. In Fig. 1 the set (a) timings are plotted in a
full line, and those for set (b) timings in a dashed line. Below the 60%-40% line the
two curves coincide. The 85%-15% or 85 percentile line has been drawn on, and it
will be seen that 85 percentile speed for curve (a) is about 38 mph, and for curve (b),
about 39 mph. the curves also indicate that principal effect of the imposed limit seems
to have been slightly to reduce the highest speeds, with little or no effect on the
speeds below about 33 mph. The reduction is, however, not very marked.

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A percentile curve is usually of the shape shown on the figure. Different conditions
will affect its scale, but not usually its general shape.

Figure 2. Method of illustrating a speed distribution

Figure 2 is another example of a cumulative frequency diagram very useful when two
or more distributions are being compared. As would be expected, the scatter of
vehicle, speed is greatest when speeds are limited only by the capabilities of vehicles
and by the wishes of their drivers and not by the road layout, amount of traffic etc.,
e.g. on lightly trafficked motorways; on the other hand, when driving conditions are
unfavorable, e.g. in the built-up areas, drivers of vehicles, capable of high speeds are
forced to travel at much the same speeds as drivers of other vehicles and the scatter of
speeds is greatly reduced.

Speeds on different types of roads

Since cars usually constitute the majority of vehicles in the traffic and since they
travel faster than other types of vehicle and are therefore more susceptible to changes
in driving conditions, it is useful to consider how the mean speed of cars varies on
different types of road. Typical values for the mean speed of cars obtained in
measurement in recent years on roads were as under:

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 TYPICAL SPEEDS OF CARS

RURAL
Motorway Mean speed (miles/h)

3 lane . . 60
2 lane . . 58

Dual Carriageway

2 lane . . 40-55

Single Carriageway

3 lane . . 35-40
2 lane . . 25-40
1 lane . . 10-35

URBAN
Suburban

Dual Carriageway . . 30-40

Single Carriageway . . 20-35

Central . . 10

The above values refer to mean speeds on straight and level sections of road or to
journey speeds over long sections of road or to journey speeds over long sections of
road which may include curves, gradients, intersections, etc. They are not applicable
to individual curves gradients or at intersections, particularly roundabouts or signal-
controlled junctions, where speeds would, of course, be lower.

SPEEDS ON MOTORWAYS

The excellent layout of motorways, in the form of wide dual carriageways, easy
alignment, gentle gradients, controlled access, flyover junctions, etc., probably
enables motorists to travel as fast as they wish, subject to the limitations of their
vehicles, so that speeds are much higher than on all-purpose roads. A further factor is
that motorways probably attract vehicles capable of higher speeds and that slower or
older vehicles may remain on ordinary roads. Observations showed that speeds of
cars on all the motorways were between the differing classes of vehicles. As would be
expected, speeds on the 3-lane carriageways are highest in the offside lane and lowest
in the nearside lane. The mean speeds of cars from left to right were 52, 61 and 69
miles/h respectively.

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 3.4 Running Speed

In design it is necessary to know actual vehicle speeds for traffic en masse to be

expected on highways of different design speeds and various volume conditions.
Speed of operation is one measure of the service that a highway renders, and it
affords a means of evaluating road-user costs and benefits. The running speed is the
speed of a vehicle over a specified section of highway, being the distance traveled
divided by the running time (the time the vehicle is in motion).

One means of obtaining an equivalent average running speed on an existing facility

where flow is reasonably continuous is to measure the spot speed. The average spot
speed is the arithmetic means of the speeds of all traffic at a specified point. For short
sections of highway on which speed characteristics do not vary materially, the
average spot speed may be considered as being representative of the average running
speed. On longer stretches of rural highway, spot speeds measured at several points,
where each represents the speed characteristics pertinent to a selected segment of
highway, may be averaged (taking relative lengths into account) to represent the
average running speed.

Average spot speeds, which generally are indicative of average running speeds, have
been measured over a period of years on many highway sections of favorable
alignments in Pakistan:-

Experience on horizontal curves shows that speeds are lower than those on tangent
alignments and that the difference between average spot speed and calculated design
speed on such curves becomes less as the degree of curvature becomes greater. In this
regard, it is generally accepted that a greater proportion of drivers operate near or at
the design speed on highways with low design speed than on highways with high
design speed. It is also known that some sections of low-design-speed highways are
frequently overdriven, with an appreciable number of drivers exceeding the design
speed.

Figure 3. Relation of average running speed and volume conditions

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The general relation between design speed and average running speed (the average
for all traffic or component of traffic, being the summation of running times; it is
approximately equal to the average of the running speeds of all vehicles being
considered), is illustrated in Figure 3. The upper curve represents the conditions for
low traffic volume as described. As a common observation, as traffic volume
increases on any highway, the average running speed decreases because of
interference among vehicles. The relation between design speed and average running
speed for very high traffic volumes is of academic interest only. It merely establishes
a limiting condition for average running speeds but it is of little value in design.
Highways should usually be designed to accommodate their traffic volumes without
being subjected to the high degree of congestion.

Average running speed on a given highway varies somewhat during the day,
depending primarily on the volume of traffic. Therefore, when reference is made to
running speed it should be clear whether this speed is for peak hours or off-peak
hours or whether it is an average for the day. The first two are of concern in design
and operation; the latter is of importance in economic analysis.

Average spot speeds represent average running speeds in relation to hourly traffic
volumes. Where volume is the only variable, average speed decreases as volume
increases in approximately a straight line relation.

3.5 Measurement of Speeds and Journey Times

If possible, speeds or journey times should be measured rather than estimated.

Measurement can be made from the roadside with a speed-meter; both speeds and
journey times can be measured from a moving car in the traffic stream. Generalized
results obtained from speed studies elsewhere can be used where it is necessary to
estimate speeds or speed distribution.

Knowledge of the relationship between the speed and flow of traffic on a road enables
the capacity of road to be estimated. These relations are also of importance in the
assessment of the effect of large-scale road improvements.

However, measurement of journey time involves timing vehicles between two points.
The accuracy of the measurement depends on:-

a) The accuracy with which the time is measured. Generally speaking the more
accurate the results the more complicated are the methods.
b) The accuracy with which the exact position of the vehicle is determined. Speeds
of vehicles are frequently are obtained by timing vehicles over a known distance.
In this case the accuracy of the measurements depend also on:
c) The accuracy with which the distance traveled by the vehicle is determined. The
exception to this method is the use of the radar speed-meter which measures
vehicle speed directly.

In general, methods of timing vehicles fall into two groups:

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(1) Those in which vehicles are timed over a long distance (long base), and
(2) Those in which vehicles are timed over a short distance (short base).

Generally speaking a short-base method (which requires more elaborate equipment)

will only be used when speeds rather than journey times are required.

The simplest method in using a long-base, timing vehicles is by stopwatches over a

known distance of several hundred feet. The drawback of the method of is that only a
limited number of observations could be made (say 150 ph). An error of
approximately 1 mph at 40 mph over 500 ft. is possible. Modification to this
method, giving more accurate results incorporates the use of Enoscope. However, in
congested traffic conditions the Enoscope cannot be used with any degree of
efficiency.

As a modification of the method, detectors (say pneumatic tubes) are used to indicate
when the vehicle enters and leaves the measured section. Electromagnetically
controlled stopwatch is used to eliminate some of the errors which occur when an
ordinary stopwatch and the Enoscope are used. Nevertheless, the above methods are
cheap and can be operated by relatively unskilled staff, but they can only be used
where both ends of the measured section can be seen.

Another long-base method is the registration number method of measuring speeds

and journey times over a distance of say, half a mile or more. Two observers equipped
with synchronized watches are stationed at the ends of the section along which
journey times are being measured, and note down the registration numbers of vehicles
and the times at which the vehicles pass them. Subsequent comparison of the records
obtained by the two observers enables the journey times of individual vehicles to be
determined. Although this method can be used successfully when the two timing
points of the section under observation are situated at a great distance from each
other. However, it is unsuitable where many vehicles enter, leave or stop within the
section. In general, the greater the length of the section under observation the greater
the likelihood that vehicles will not pass directly between two timing points.

As a field technique, before work begins two observers start their watches
simultaneously, they then separate and take up their positions at opposite ends of the
section of road. The observers usually note the vehicle classification and the
registration number before the vehicle reaches the timing point and enter the watch
reading as soon as possible after the passage of the vehicle. To facilitate the field
work, only the figures of the registration numbers are noted; if letters only are
recorded it is difficult to match vehicles in areas where one registration number
predominates. Further, it is an essential part of the method that the watches must not
be stopped during the period of observation. When the observers come together at the
end of the work, watches are then stopped simultaneously and any discrepancy noted
so that the timings may be adjusted accordingly.

The other short-base methods of speed measurement, worth to mention are

SAMPLING and PEN RECORDER. In the first method the observations are limited
to traffic in only one direction at a time unless the traffic is very light. In the later
method, the greatest disadvantage is that the analysis which is extremely laborious
than the other mentioned methods. PEN RECORDER is only used where it is

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necessary to know the speed of all the vehicles passing a point during a given period
of time.

The short-base speed meters with accurate methods of timings can operate on bases
of about six feet. In this way it is much more likely that the vehicle which first hits
the "start" detectors will be the vehicle which will first hits the "stop" detectors.

However, advanced automatic electronic computer speed meters are manufactured by

different laboratories around the globe. However, the only type of device which does
not employ some form of timing to measure the speed of vehicles is the Radar speed
meter. Different advanced types of radar speed meters are available to measure the
speed of vehicles on roads with minimum effort, whatsoever.

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