SECTION B

Q(3) The systems analyst systematically assesses how users interact with technology
and how businesses function by examining the inputting and processing of data and the
outputting of information with the intent of improving organizational processes. Many
improvements involve better support of users’ work tasks and business functions
through the use of computerized information systems. This definition emphasizes a
systematic, methodical approach to analyzing—and potentially improving—what is
occurring in the specific context experienced by users and created by a business.

Systems Analyst as Consultant

The systems analyst frequently acts as a systems consultant to humans and their
businesses and, thus, may be hired specifically to address information systems issues
within a business. Such hiring can be an advantage because outside consultants can
bring with them a fresh perspective that other people in an organization do not possess.
It also means that outside analysts are at a disadvantage because an outsider can
never know the true organizational culture.

Systems Analyst as Supporting Expert

Another role that you may be required to play is that of supporting expert within a
business for which you are regularly employed in some systems capacity. In this role
the analyst draws on professional expertise concerning computer hardware and
software and their uses in the business. This work is often not a full-blown systems
project, but rather it entails a small modification or decision affecting a single
department.

Systems Analyst as Agent of Change

The most comprehensive and responsible role that the systems analyst takes on is that
of an agent of change, whether internal or external to the business. As an analyst, you
are an agent of change whenever you perform any of the activities in the systems
development life cycle (discussed in the next section) and are present and interacting
with users and the business for an extended period (from two weeks to more than a
year).

Qualities of the Systems Analyst

From the foregoing descriptions of the roles the systems analyst plays, it is easy to see
that the successful systems analyst must possess a wide range of qualities. Many
different kinds of people are systems analysts, so any description is destined to fall
short in some way. There are some qualities, however, that most systems analysts
seem to display.

Q(4) Information gathering tools...

Information Gathering Tools

There is no standard procedures defined when it comes to the gathering of information. However, an
important rule that must be followed is the following: information must be acquired accurately and
methodically, under the right conditions and with minimum interruption to the individual from whom
the information is sought.
1. Review of Procedural Forms

These are a very good starting point for gathering information. Procedural manuals can give a good
picture of the system to be studied: how the existing system works, what are its assumptions, what
information flows in, and what flows out, what dependency there is on the external system, if any.
Problems that one can encounter here are the lack of updated manuals or documents, or sometimes the
need for possession of the correct documents. Hence, this is just one of the means of gathering
information.

2. On Site Visits and Observations

The main objective of an on site visit is to get as close to the real system as possible.
It is important that the person who visits on site is a keen observer and is knowledgeable about the
system and the normal activities that occur within the system. When a person observes a system, the
emphasis is more on observing how things are done rather than giving advice as to what is wrong or
right or passing judgment. There are various observation methods used:

3. Interviews and Questionnaires

The interview is a face-to-face interpersonal meeting designed to identify relations and verify
information to capture raw information as told by the interviewee.
3.1 Interview – Interview is a flexible tool and a better tool than a questionnaire for the evaluation of
the validity of the information that is being gathered. It is an art that requires experience in arranging
the interview, setting the stage, establishing rapport. The questions must be phrased clearly, avoiding
misunderstandings and carefully evaluating the responses. The disadvantage in this technique is the
preparation time it requires and it is obviously restricted to only one person at a time which means that
the whole process of gathering results will take far longer.

Types of Interview

A. Structured Interview

The skill of the interviewer helps in getting the interviewee to respond and move to the next question
without diversion. The questions are presented to the interviewee with exactly the same wording and in
the same order.

B. Unstructured Interview

In the unstructured Interview the respondents are allowed answer freely in their own words. The
responses are not forced. They are self-revealing and personal rather than general and superficial. The
interviewer has encouraged the respondents talk freely.

3.2 Questionnaire- Questionnaire is a self-administered tool that is more economical and requires less
skill to administer than the interview. At any point in time, unlike the interview, feedback from many
respondents can be collected at the same time.

Types of Questionnaire

A. Fill-in-the-blanks Questions:

They seek specific responses.

B. Yes / No Questions:

They just seek one value either true or false or Yes or NO. There is no mixed response.

C. Ranking Scale Questions:

The respondent needs to rank the responses into a certain scale. For e.g. to a question you might be
asked to rate a service from a level 1 to 5.
Q(5) The Tools of Structured Analysis:

The Data Flow Diagram

The first step is to draw a data flow diagram (DFD). The DFD was-first developed by Larry Constantine as
a way of expressing system requirements in a graphical form; this led to a modular design.

A DFD, also known as a "bubble chart,’’ has the purpose of clarifying system requirements and
identifying major transformations that will be come programs in system design, So it is the starting point of
the design phase that functionally decomposes the requirements specifications down to the lowest level
of detail.

A DFD consists of a series of bubbles joined by lines, The bubbles represent data transformations and
the lines represent data flows in the system. The system takes orders from the customer (bookstore,
library, etc.), checks them against an index (file) listing the books available, verifies. Customer credit
through credit information files, and authorizes shipment with an invoice.

Data Dictionary
•A structured place to keep details of the contents of data flows, processes, and data store.

•It is a structured repository of data about data.

•It is a set of definitions of all DFD elements

Advantages of Data Dictionary

•Documentation- it is a valuable reference in any organization.

•It improves analyst/user communication by establishing consistent definitions of various elements, terms
and procedures

•It is important step in building a database

Items to be defined in Data Dictionary

•Data Elements- smallest unit of data that provides for no further decomposition.

For example: date consists of day, month and year

•Data Structure- a group of data elements handled as a unit.

For example: phone is a data structure consisting of four data elements: area-code-exchange-number-
extension.

•Data Flows and Data Stores- data flows are data structures in motion, whereas data stores are data
structures at rest. A data store is a location where data structures are temporarily located.

Decision Tree
A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like graph or model of decisions and their
possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It is one way to
display an algorithm. Decision trees are commonly used in operations research, specifically in decision
analysis, to help identify a strategy most likely to reach a goal. If in practice decisions have to be taken
online with no recall under incomplete knowledge, a decision tree should be paralleled by
a probability model as a best choice model or online selection model algorithm. Another use of decision
trees is as a descriptive means for calculating conditional probabilities.

Structured English
 Structured English borrows heavily from structured programming; it uses logical construction and
imperative sentences designed to carry out instructions for action. Decisions are made through IF, THEN,
ELSE, and so statements. The structured English for our publisher's discount policy is shown

COMPUTE-DISCOUNT

Add up the number of copies per book title

IF order is from bookstore

and-IF order is for 6 copies or more per book title
THEN: Discount is 25%
ELSE (order is for fewer than 6 copies per book title)
SO: no discount is allowed
ELSE (order is from libraries or individual customers)
order is for 50 copies or more per book title discount is 15%
ELSE IF order is for 20 to 49 copies per book title discount is 10%
ELSE IF order is for 6 to 19 copies per book title discount is 5%
ELSE SO:(order is for less' than 6 copies per book order) no discount is allowed
MEDIUM: 20 to 49 copies LARGE: 50 or more copies

Q(7)

1. Set the framework for the analysis. Specify the program or policy change and the
current status quo, or the state of the world before implementation compared to after.
2. Decide whose costs benefits should be recognized. You need to determine the
geographic scope of the analysis in order to limit the groups impacted by the policy.
3. Identity and categorize costs and benefits. It is important to label costs and benefits
as direct (intended costs/benefits)/indirect (unintended costs/benefits), tangible (easy to
measure and quantify)/intangible (hard to identify and measure), and real (anything that
contributes to the bottom line net-benefits)/transfer (money changing hands) in order to
ensure that you understand the effects of each cost and benefit.
4. Project costs and benefits over the life of the program. Assess how costs and
benefits will change each year. It is important to do this even before you begin to place
numbers on things.
5. Monetize costs. Make sure to place all costs in the same unit.
6. Monetize benefits. Make sure to place all benefits in the same unit.
7. Discount costs and benefits to obtain present values. This means converting future
costs and benefits into present value. This is also known as the social discount rate, or
the rate at which society makes tradeoffs over time. Every agency tends to have a
different discount rate. It generally ranges between 2-7%.
8. Compute net present values. This is done by subtracting costs from benefits. The
policy is considered efficient if a positive result is produced; however, it is important to
think about the policy’s feasibility and social justice.
9. Perform sensitivity analysis. This step allows you to check the accuracy of your
estimates and assumptions. This is normally done by altering the social discount rate
utilized, by increasing it and decreasing it. If you still get a positive number during this
step, then the policy should be accepted. If you get a negative number during this step,
then you should calculate where the balancing point is zero.
10. Make a recommendation. Assess all results and account for other qualitative
considerations.