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Chapter 1
Chapter 1
HOCHIMINH CITY
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 1 / 68
CONTENTS
1 Functions
An introduction to Calculus
Review of set theory
Functions and graphs
2 Limits
Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
3 Continuity
Continuity: Definitions and properties
The Intermediate Value Theorem
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 2 / 68
1.1. An introduction to Calculus
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 3 / 68
1.1. An introduction to Calculus
In Calculus 1 we study
(a) basic concepts of functions and limits,
(b) techniques of differentiation and integration,
(c) applications to a wide range of practical situations.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 4 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 5 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 5 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 5 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 6 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
[a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b}
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 6 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
|a + b| 6 |a| + |b| .
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 7 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
|a + b| 6 |a| + |b| .
Example
Describe the set S = x : 21 x − 3 > 4 in terms of intervals
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 7 / 68
1.2. Review of set theory
Solution
Consider the complement: S c = x : 12 x − 3 ≤ 4
1
x − 3 6 4 ⇔ −4 6 1 x − 3 6 4 ⇔ −2 6 x 6 14.
2 2
Thus
S c = [−2, 14] ⇒ S = (−∞, −2) ∪ (14, ∞)
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 8 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Coordinates and Graphs: O is the origin, Ox is the x-axis, Oy is
the y-axis (x, y ) are the x- and y -coordinates.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 9 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Coordinates and Graphs: O is the origin, Ox is the x-axis, Oy is
the y-axis (x, y ) are the x- and y -coordinates.
Consider any two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on a straight line.
On the interval [x1 , x2 ]. We call ∆x = x2 − x1 and ∆y = y2 − y1
the change in x and y , respectively.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 9 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Coordinates and Graphs: O is the origin, Ox is the x-axis, Oy is
the y-axis (x, y ) are the x- and y -coordinates.
Consider any two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on a straight line.
On the interval [x1 , x2 ]. We call ∆x = x2 − x1 and ∆y = y2 − y1
the change in x and y , respectively.
The slope (or gradient) of the line is
∆y y2 − y1
m = tan α = =
∆x x2 − x1
m tell us the rate of change of y with respect to x.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 9 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Example
For the graph shown below, state the slope
(a) for 0 < x < 1
(b) for 5 < x < 9
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 10 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Suppose a straight line crosses the y -axis at y = c. We call c
the y-intercept.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 11 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Suppose a straight line crosses the y -axis at y = c. We call c
the y-intercept.
For any point (x, y ) on the line, the slope is defined by
y −c
m=
x −0
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 11 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Suppose a straight line crosses the y -axis at y = c. We call c
the y-intercept.
For any point (x, y ) on the line, the slope is defined by
y −c
m=
x −0
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 11 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
The slope-intercept form is very convenient for graph-sketching.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 12 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
The slope-intercept form is very convenient for graph-sketching.
Other forms
Point-Slope Form: y = y1 + m(x − x1 ).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 12 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
The slope-intercept form is very convenient for graph-sketching.
Other forms
Point-Slope Form: y = y1 + m(x − x1 ).
Two Point Form: For a line passing through points (x1 , y1 ) and
(x2 , y2 ):
y − y1 y2 − y1
= (= m)
x − x1 x2 − x1
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 12 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Linear model
Example
Find the equation of the straight line passing through points (1, 0)
and (0, 4).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 13 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Linear model
Example
Find the equation of the straight line passing through points (1, 0)
and (0, 4).
Example
At a certain place, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere was
measured to be 339 ppm in the year 1980 and 373 ppm in 2002.
Assume a linear model. Find an equation for the CO2 concentration
C (in ppm) as a function of time t (in years). Use your equation to
predict the CO2 concentration in 2015.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 13 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Example
Table 1 lists the average carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere,
measured in parts per million at Mauna Loa Observatory from 1980
to 1998. Use the data in Table 1 to find a model for the carbon
dioxide level.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 14 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 15 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Solution
We use the data in Table 1 to make the scatter plot as in the figure
above where t represents time (in years) and C represents the CO2
level. We find the equation of the line that passes through the first
and last data points.
The slope is m = 366.7−338.5
1998−1980
= 1.56667.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 15 / 68
1.2 Functions and graphs: Straight Lines.
Solution
We use the data in Table 1 to make the scatter plot as in the figure
above where t represents time (in years) and C represents the CO2
level. We find the equation of the line that passes through the first
and last data points.
The slope is m = 366.7−338.5
1998−1980
= 1.56667. Thus,
C − 338.5 = 1.56667 (t − 1980) or C = 1.56667t − 2763.51.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 15 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
A function of a variable x is a rule f that assigns to each value of x
in a set D a unique number f (x) in a set E , called the value of the
function at x. [We read "f(x)" or "f of x".]
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 16 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
A function of a variable x is a rule f that assigns to each value of x
in a set D a unique number f (x) in a set E , called the value of the
function at x. [We read "f(x)" or "f of x".]
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 16 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
A function of a variable x is a rule f that assigns to each value of x
in a set D a unique number f (x) in a set E , called the value of the
function at x. [We read "f(x)" or "f of x".]
The set D is called the domain and the range is the set of all possible
values of of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 16 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
√
Example The domain of the function y = f (x) = x is the set
D = {x ∈ R : x > 0}, and the range of this function is [0, ∞)
(why?).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 17 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
√
Example The domain of the function y = f (x) = x is the set
D = {x ∈ R : x > 0}, and the range of this function is [0, ∞)
(why?).
Definition
f is surjective (or onto, or a subjection) if for every y ∈ E ,
there is at least an element x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 17 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
√
Example The domain of the function y = f (x) = x is the set
D = {x ∈ R : x > 0}, and the range of this function is [0, ∞)
(why?).
Definition
f is surjective (or onto, or a subjection) if for every y ∈ E ,
there is at least an element x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
f is injective (or one-to-one, or an injection) if for every y ∈ E ,
there is at most one x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 17 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
√
Example The domain of the function y = f (x) = x is the set
D = {x ∈ R : x > 0}, and the range of this function is [0, ∞)
(why?).
Definition
f is surjective (or onto, or a subjection) if for every y ∈ E ,
there is at least an element x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
f is injective (or one-to-one, or an injection) if for every y ∈ E ,
there is at most one x ∈ D such that f (x) = y .
f is bijective or a bijection iff it is both surjective and injective.
Definition
Given two functions f and g , the composite function (also called the
composition of f and g ) is f ◦ g defined by (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 18 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
Given two functions f and g , the composite function (also called the
composition of f and g ) is f ◦ g defined by (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 18 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
Given f (x) = 3x 2 , g (x) = x − 1 find each of the following:
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 19 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
Given f (x) = 3x 2 , g (x) = x − 1 find each of the following:
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Solution
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (x − 1) = 3 (x − 1)2
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 19 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
Given f (x) = 3x 2 , g (x) = x − 1 find each of the following:
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Solution
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (x − 1) = 3 (x − 1)2
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (3x 2 ) = 3x 2 − 1.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 19 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
Given f (x) = 3x 2 , g (x) = x − 1 find each of the following:
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x).
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x).
Solution
(a) (f ◦ g ) (x) = f (g (x)) = f (x − 1) = 3 (x − 1)2
(b) (g ◦ f ) (x) = g (f (x)) = g (3x 2 ) = 3x 2 − 1.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 19 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
Given two one-to-one functions f (x) and g (x) if
f ◦ g (x) = g ◦ f (x) = x
then we say that f (x) and g (x) are inverses of each other.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 20 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
Given two one-to-one functions f (x) and g (x) if
f ◦ g (x) = g ◦ f (x) = x
then we say that f (x) and g (x) are inverses of each other.
More specifically we will say that g (x) is the inverse of f (x) and
denote it by
g (x) = f −1 (x)
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 20 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Definition
Given two one-to-one functions f (x) and g (x) if
f ◦ g (x) = g ◦ f (x) = x
then we say that f (x) and g (x) are inverses of each other.
More specifically we will say that g (x) is the inverse of f (x) and
denote it by
g (x) = f −1 (x)
Given f (x), how to find f −1 (x)?
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 20 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
Given f (x) = 3x − 2. Find f −1 (x).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 21 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
Given f (x) = 3x − 2. Find f −1 (x).
Solution
1 1
y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = (y + 2) ⇒ f −1 (x) = (x + 2)
3 3
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 21 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
Given f (x) = 3x − 2. Find f −1 (x).
Solution
1 1
y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = (y + 2) ⇒ f −1 (x) = (x + 2)
3 3
Check:
−1
1 1
f f (x) = f (x + 2) =3 (x + 2) − 2 = x
3 3
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 21 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
√
Given f (x) = x − 3. Find f −1 (x).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 22 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
√
Given f (x) = x − 3. Find f −1 (x).
Solution
1 1
y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = (y + 2) ⇒ f −1 (x) = (x + 2)
3 3
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 22 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Example
√
Given f (x) = x − 3. Find f −1 (x).
Solution
1 1
y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = (y + 2) ⇒ f −1 (x) = (x + 2)
3 3
Check:
−1
1 1
f f (x) = f (x + 2) =3 (x + 2) − 2 = x
3 3
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 22 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 23 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 23 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 24 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 24 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 24 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function. By some simple
transformations, we can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions.
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 25 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function. By some simple
transformations, we can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions.
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) down c units.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 25 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function. By some simple
transformations, we can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions.
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) down c units.
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) left c units.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 25 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function. By some simple
transformations, we can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions.
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) down c units.
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) left c units.
y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) right c units
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 25 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function. By some simple
transformations, we can quickly obtain the graphs of some related
functions.
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) up by c units.
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) down c units.
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) left c units.
y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) right c units
Example
Sketch the graphs
(a) y = x 2 ,
(b) y = x 2 − 3,
(c) y = (x − 1)2 − 3.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 25 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 26 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 26 / 68
New Functions from Old Functions
Example
Sketch the graphs
(a) y = 2sinx,
(b) y = sin(πx).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 26 / 68
Symmetry. Even Functions. Odd Functions
Definition
If f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every number x in its domain, then f
is called an even function.
For example, the function f (x) = x 2 is even.
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the
y -axis.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 27 / 68
Symmetry. Even Functions. Odd Functions
Definition
If f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every number x in its domain, then f
is called an even function.
For example, the function f (x) = x 2 is even.
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the
y -axis.
Definition
If f satisfies f (−x) = −f (x) for every number x in its domain, then
f is called an odd function.
For example, the function f (x) = x 3 is odd
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 27 / 68
Symmetry. Even Functions. Odd Functions
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 28 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a
function! A curve in the xy −plane is the graph of a function iff no
vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 29 / 68
1.3. Functions and graphs
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a
function! A curve in the xy −plane is the graph of a function iff no
vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 30 / 68
Parametric Curves
Example
Sketch the curve defined by x = t 2 − 2t , y = t + 1.
We construct a table of values and thus plot the curve:
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 31 / 68
Parametric Curves
Example
Sketch the curve defined by x = t 2 − 2t, y = t + 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.
Note: The parametric equations not only describe the curve but also
tell us how it is traced.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 32 / 68
Some Common Functions
Polynomials: P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 .
Power function: y = x a .
Trigonometric functions:
sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), .... And
1 1 1
cosec x = , sec x = , cot x = ...
sin x cos x tan x
Exponential function: y = ax (a is the base). The most common
exponential function (often called the exponential function) is
f (x) = e x . e is an irrational number called the exponential
constant, e = 2.7182818. We will study e in detail later on.
If x = ay then y = loga x. This is a logarithmic function. a is
again called the base.
Note: lnx = loge x.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 33 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
In this section, we define limits and study them using numerical and
graphical techniques. We begin with the following question: How do
the values of a function f (x) behave when x approaches a number c,
whether or not f (c) is defined?
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 34 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Example (Cont.)
The following table gives the impression that f (x) gets closer and
closer to 1 as x approaches 0 through positive and negative values
(from both sides: the left or the right).
sin x
lim f (x) = lim = 1.
x→0 x→0 x
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 35 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Definition: Graphical Approach
Suppose is f (x) defined when x is near the number a. Then we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 36 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Solution
The graph of f (x) has a gap at x = 9 since f (9) is NOT defined.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 37 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Example: A limit that does not exist
Investigate graphically and numerically
1
lim sin
x→0 x
Solution
The function (x) is NOT defined at x = 0.
Numerical evidence and the graph suggests that the values of f (x)
bounce around and do not tend toward any limit L as x → 0.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 38 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Example
Use the definition above to verify the following limits:
a. lim 5 = 5. b. lim (3x + 1) = 13.
x→7 x→4
Solution
a. Let f (x) = 5. We need to show that f (x) arbitrarily close to 5
when x is sufficiently close to 7. Since f (x) = 5, for all x, so what
we are required to show is automatic.
b. Let f (x) = 3x + 1. We want to show that |f (x) − 13| becomes
arbitrarily small when x is sufficiently close (but not equal) to 4. We
have |f (x) − 13| = 3|x − 4|, i.e., |f (x) − 13| is a multiple of |x − 4|,
thus we can make |f (x) − 13| arbitrarily small by taking x sufficiently
close to 4.
Q: How can we make |f (x) − L| arbitrarily small by taking x
sufficiently close to a?
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 39 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Definition: δ − approach
We say that f (x) converges to L as x → a
lim f (x) = L
x→a
|f (x) − L| <
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 40 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Example: δ − approach
x 2 −1
Show that lim = 2.
x→1 x−1
Solution
Choose δ = , for 0 < |1 − x| < δ,
2
x − 1
x −1 − 2 = |1 − x| <
Hence
x2 − 1
lim =2
x→1 x − 1
Example: δ − approach
Show that lim (3x + 1) = 13. Hints: Choose δ = /3.
x→4
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 41 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Exercise
Find δ > 0 such that,
1 1
− < , for 0 < |x − 3| < δ.
x 3
Exercise
Show that √
lim x + 2 = 2.
x→2
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 42 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
if, for every > 0, there exists a number M such that |f (x) − L| <
for all x > M.
In other words, limx→∞ f (x) = L means the values of f (x) can be
made arbitrarily large by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not
equal to a.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 43 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Hence
3x − 1
lim = 1.5
x→∞ 2x + 5
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 44 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
if, for every > 0, there exists a number M such that |f (x) − L| <
for all x < M.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 45 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Hence
x
lim √ = −1.
x→−∞ x2 + 1
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 46 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if, for every > 0, there exists a number M < a such that
|f (x) − L| <
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 47 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Hence √
lim− 1 − x 2 = 0.
x→1
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 48 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Definition: Limit at one side
We say f (x) converges to L as x tends to a from the right and write
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
|f (x) − L| <
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 49 / 68
2.1. Limits. Definitions. One-sided Limits
Theorem
lim f (x) = L ⇔ lim+ f (x) = L = lim− f (x)
x→a x→a x→a
Exercise
Show that √
lim x2 = 0
x→0
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 50 / 68
2.2. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
Properties
lim x = a, lim k = k
x→a x→a
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 51 / 68
2.2. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
Example
Show that lim (3t − 5) = 1.
t→2
Solution
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 52 / 68
2.2. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
1
= lim √
x→10 x −6+2
1 1
= √ = .
10 − 6 + 2 4
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 53 / 68
2.2. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
Exercise
1. Evaluate
−2t − 4
lim
t→2 t +1
2. Assume
lim f (x) = 2, lim g (x) = 3
x→−4 x→−4
Evaluate
lim f (x)g (x), lim (2f (x) + 3g (x),
x→−4 x→−4
g (x) f (x) + 1
lim 2
, lim
x→−4 x x→−4 3g (x) − 2
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 54 / 68
2.2. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
Sandwich Theorem or Squeeze Theorem
If for 0 < |x − a| < (i.e. for x is near a):
and
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x).
x→a x→a
Then
lim g (x) = L.
x→a
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 55 / 68
2.2. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze Theorem
Example
Show that lim x 2 sin x1 = 0.
x→0
Solution
Applying the Sandwich Theorem, note that:
1
−x 2 6 x 2 sin 6 x2
x
and lim x 2 = lim −x 2 = 0. Therefore lim x 2 sin x1 = 0.
x→0 x→0 x→0
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 56 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Definition
Suppose f is defined in an open interval that contains a, then f is
continuous at a if and only if
In other words, f (a) must be defined and, for any > 0, there exists
δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − f (a)| < .
whenever |x − a| < δ and f (x) is defined.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 57 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 58 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Example
Show that f (x) = x and g (x) = k (constant) are continuous
everywhere.
Solution:
Choose δ =
|f (x) − f (a)| = |x − a| < .
whenever |x − a| < δ.
whenever |x − a| < δ.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 59 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Example
Another Proof:
At any point a
lim f (x) = lim x = a = f (a)
x→a x→a
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 60 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Example (Cont.)
Show that
1 x >0
f (x) =
0 x ≤0
is not continuous at 0.
Solution:
Given = 1 and any δ > 0,
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 61 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Exercise
1. Show that
1
x
x=6 0
f (x) =
0 x =0
is not continuous at 0.
2. Show that
x sin( x1 ) x 6= 0
f (x) =
0 x =0
is continuous at 0.
Hints: Choose δ =
1
|f (x) − f (0)| ≤ x sin ≤ |x| < .
x
whenever |x − 0| < δ.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 62 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Theorem
Suppose f , g are continuous at a. Then
f + g , f − g , fg
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 63 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Theorem
If f is a continuous bijection from an interval I onto an interval J,
then f −1 is continuous on J.
Example
n
The functions
√ x√ are continuous bijections from [0, ∞) onto itself.
Therefore x, n x √ are defined and continuous at every non-negative
points. If n is odd, n x is continuous at every point.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 64 / 68
3.1. Continuity: Definitions and properties
Theorem
The exponential functions ax and their inverses loga x are continuous
at every point of their domains.
Theorem
Let F (x) = f (g (x)) be a composite function. If g is continuous at a
and f is continuous at g (a), then F (x) is continuous at a.
Example
√ √
x 2 + 1 and 3 x 5 + 4x 2 − 7x + 3 are composite functions of
continuous functions and therefore defined and continuous
everywhere.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 65 / 68
3.2. The Intermediate Value Theorem
Note: If f (a)f (b) < 0, equation f (x) = 0 has a solution c ∈ (a, b).
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 66 / 68
3.2. The Intermediate Value Theorem
Solution
f is continuous on [0, 1], f (0) = 1 > 0 and f (1) = −1 < 0. Hence,
by the IVT, there exists a solution c ∈ (0, 1) of the equation
5x − bx = 0.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 67 / 68
3.2. The Intermediate Value Theorem
Exercise
1. Evaluate the limit
√ √
1+x − 1−x
lim
x→0 x
2. Show that the equation
1
x2 − x − 1 =
x +1
has a solution in (1, 2).
3. Prove that the equation 2x = bx has a solution if b > 2. Find an
1
approximate solution of the equation 2x = 5x with an error < 16 .
√ √
4. Show that c + c − 1 = 2 for some number c between 1 and 2.
Dr. Nguyen Minh Quan (HCMIU) CHAP. 1. FUNCTS., LIMITS AND CONT. 10-03-2012 68 / 68