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Horizontal and Vertical Alignment: 2006 Edition
Horizontal and Vertical Alignment: 2006 Edition
Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses design considerations and criteria for incorporating
horizontal and vertical curves in a roadway’s alignment. All types of
roadways are discussed in this chapter - ranging from local low-speed
facilities to median divided highways. A horizontal curve in a roadway
refers to the alignment, or how “straight” the roadway section is. A
vertical curve refers to a roadway’s change in elevation, or the “flatness”
of the roadway.
Good alignment design is critical in the effort to balance the needs and
safety of the road user with the value of preserving the integrity of the
environment.
topographical/terrain variations
vehicle characteristics
driver limitations
design speed
lines of sight
radius of curve
length of curve
tangent-to-curve transition
profile
drainage considerations
cost
Vertical Curves
compatibility with existing grades and elevations on adjacent land
and approaching roads and driveways/entrances adjacent to the
new alignment
design speed
sight distance
vertical clearances
lengths of grade
horizontal alignment
drainage considerations
costs
project limits
private property
pedestrian functions
regulated wetlands
rail facilities
Exhibit 4-1
Simple Circular Curve
FORMULAS
T = R tan(U/2) C= 2R sin(U/2) E = R (sec(U/2) – 1)
M = R (1 - cosU/2) L= U (2 π R) sinD = 1/2 ÷ C’R
360
Source: MassHighway
POC POINT ON CURVE. The point on curve is any point along the
curve.
Exhibits 4-2 and 4-3 illustrate a typical compound curve layout and
design for compound curvature transition.
RMIN = V2
15(0.01eMAX+fMAX)
The design values derived from the equation above are dependent
upon selection of superelevation rates as described in Section 4.2.4.
Exhibit 4-2
Compound Curve Layout
Formulas
PI - PI1 = sin U2 (t1 + t2) U = U1 + U2
sin U
PI - PI2 = sin U2 (t1 + t2) U2 = U - U1
sin U
T1 = t1 + PI - PI1 t1 = R1 tan(U1/2)
T2 = t2 + PI - PI2 t2 = R2 tan(U2/2)
L1 = (U1 / 360) (2 πR1) C1 = 2R1 sin(U1/2)
L2 = (U2 / 360) (2 πR2) C2 = 2R2 sin(U2/2)
M1 = R1 (1 - cosU1/2) E1 = R1 (sec(U1/2) – 1)
M2 = R2 (1 - cosU2/2) E2 = R2 (sec(U2/2) – 1)
Source: MassHighway
Exhibit 4-3
Compound Curvature Transition
Where the horizontal curves are of radii less than “R” shown in table above:
1. Curves R1…Rn are introduced for the purpose of making the transition from the tangent to curve “R”.
2. Curves R1…Rn are compounded with “R”.
3. The radius of curves R1 …Rn is to be no more than 1.5 times the radius of the preceding curve, i.e. , R1 = 1.5R, etc.,
starting from each end of curve “R”.
4. The curves are increased in radius until “Rn” is at least equal to the values indicated for the respective speeds shown
on the table above.
5. Superelevation should be developed as discussed in Section 4.2.3.
Source: MassHighway
⎡⎛ 28.65S ⎞⎤
M = R ⎢⎜1 − cos ⎟
⎣⎝ R ⎠⎥⎦
Where: M = middle ordinate, or distance from the center of the
inside lane to the obstruction, feet.
R = radius of curve, feet.
S = sight distance, feet.
Exhibit 4-4 illustrates the concept of a middle ordinate and its impact
on sight distance around a curve. Exhibit 4-5 is a design chart
showing the horizontal sight line offsets (middle ordinate) needed for
clear sight areas that satisfy stopping sight distance criteria presented
in Exhibit 3-8 for horizontal curves of various radii. The designer
should make every practical effort to achieve the stopping sight
distance criterion.
The stopping sight distance is based on eye height of 3.5 feet and
object height of 2 feet. The line-of-sight intercept with the view
obstruction is at the midpoint of the sight line and 2.75 feet above the
center of the inside lane.
Exhibit 4-4
Sight Distance on a Curve
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-5
Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance Criteria
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-6
Method of Cutting Slope for Horizontal Sight Distance
Source: MassHighway
4.2.3 Superelevation
Superelevation is the banking of a roadway around a curve as
illustrated in Exhibit 4-7. The purpose of employing superelevation of
the roadway cross section is to counterbalance the centrifugal force, or
outward pull, of a vehicle traversing a horizontal curve. Side friction
developed between the tires and the road surface also counterbalances
the outward pull of the vehicle. A combination of these two concepts
allows a vehicle to negotiate curves safely at higher speeds than would
otherwise be possible.
Exhibit 4-7
Superelevation for Left and Right Turning Curves
Source: MassHighway
Exhibit 4-8
Minimum Design Radii for Common Superelevation Rates
(e = 4 Percent or e = 6 Percent)
Design Speed Minimum Design Radius (ft) Minimum Design Radius (ft)
(mph) with e = 4 % with e = 6 %
15 45 40
20 90 85
25 155 145
30 250 235
35 375 340
40 535 485
45 715 645
50 930 835
55 1190 1060
60 1500 1330
65 Not Permitted 1660
70 Not Permitted 2040
75 Not Permitted 2500
Note: For design speeds less than 35 mph, designers should avoid using superelevation to the extent possible.
In recognition of safety considerations, use of emax = 4.0% should be limited to developed areas (such as
suburban high intensity, suburban town centers, and urban areas).
Radii are rounded to the nearest 5 feet
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004 Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-9
Minimum Radius (ft) with Low or No Superelevation
(e of -2.0 Percent, 0 Percent, and 2.0 Percent)
Percent Superelevation (e)
Design Speed
(mph)1 - 2.0 % 0% 2.0 %
151 50 50 45
201 110 100 95
251 200 185 170
301 335 300 275
35 510 455 410
40 765 670 595
45 1040 900 795
Note: Radii are rounded up to the nearest 5 feet
1 For design speeds less than 35 mph, designers should avoid using superelevation to the extent possible.
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004 Chapter 3 Elements of Design
There are five basic cross section controls — (-a-) through (-e-) —
involved in transitioning the pavement to obtain full superelevation
illustrated in Exhibit 4-10.
Exhibit 4-10
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-11
Superelevation on Compound Curves
500 ft
500 ft
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-12
Banking Undivided Highways – Rotation Around Centerline
Equations: Where:
Hc = 8 x W W = Width of travel lane(s) from CL
Ha = 8 x W S = Normal cross slope
HAe = e x W e = Superelevation rate at full bank
P = (e x W) / L L = Length of runoff
Tangent Runout = Ha / P P = Rate of transition
X = 2 x Tangent runout
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-13
Banking Undivided Highways – Rotation About Inside Edge
Equations: Where:
Ha = 8 x W W = Width of travel lane(s) from CL
Ho = 8 x W S = Normal cross slope
He = 2 x e x W e = Superelevation rate at full bank
P = (e x W) / L L = Length of runoff
Tangent Runout = Ha / P P = Rate of transition
2P = 2 x P
X = 2 x tangent runout
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-14
Banking Undivided Highways – Rotation about Outside Edge
Equations: Where:
Ha = 8 x W W = Width of travel lane(s) from CL
Ho = 8 x W S = Normal cross slope
He = 2 x e x W e = Superelevation rate at full bank
P = (e x W) / L L = Length of runoff
Tangent Runout = Ha / P P = Rate of transition
2P = 2 x P
X = 2 x tangent runout
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-15
Undivided Highways – Straight Cross Slope, Rotation
About Outside Edge
Equations: Where:
Ha = 8 x W W = Width of travel lane(s) from CL
Ho = 8 x W S = Normal cross slope
He = 2 x e x W e = Superelevation rate at full bank
P = (e x W) / L L = Length of runoff
Tangent Runout = Ha / P P = Rate of transition
2P = 2 x P
X = 2 x tangent runout
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-16
Highway with Paved Shoulders
Source: MassHighway
Note: Shoulder treatments are typical for all methods of superelevation.
Shoulder less than 4.0 ft. should slope in the same direction as the travel lane.
“Roll-over” between travel lane and shoulder cannot exceed 0.09.
Exhibit 4-17
Banking Divided Highways – Rotation About Median Edge
Equations: Where:
Ha = 8 x W W = Width of travel lane(s) from CL
Ho = 8 x W S = Normal cross slope
He = 2 x e x W e = Superelevation rate at full bank
P = (e x W) / L L = Length of runoff
Tangent Runout = Ha / P P = Rate of transition
X = 2 x tangent runout
2P = 2 x P
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-18
Minimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Radius and Design Speeds
(emax = 6%)
1.5 868 1580 2290 3130 4100 5230 6480 7870 9410 11100 12600 14100 15700
2.0 614 1120 1630 2240 2950 3770 4680 5700 6820 8060 9130 10300 11500
2.2 543 991 1450 2000 2630 3370 4190 5100 6110 7230 8200 9240 10400
2.4 482 884 1300 1790 2360 3030 3770 4600 5520 6540 7430 8380 9420
2.6 430 791 1170 1610 2130 2740 3420 4170 5020 5950 6770 7660 8620
2.8 384 709 1050 1460 1930 2490 3110 3800 4580 5440 6200 7030 7930
3.0 341 635 944 1320 1760 2270 2840 3480 4200 4990 5710 6490 7330
3.2 300 566 850 1200 1600 2080 2600 3200 3860 4600 5280 6010 6810
3.4 256 498 761 1080 1460 1900 2390 2940 3560 4250 4890 5580 6340
3.6 209 422 673 972 1320 1740 2190 2710 3290 3940 4540 5210 5930
3.8 176 358 583 864 1190 1590 2010 2490 3040 3650 4230 4860 5560
4.0 151 309 511 766 1070 1440 1840 2300 2810 3390 3950 4550 5220
4.2 131 270 452 684 960 1310 1680 2110 2590 3140 3680 4270 4910
4.4 116 238 402 615 868 1190 1540 1940 2400 2920 3440 4010 4630
4.6 102 212 360 555 788 1090 1410 1780 2210 2710 3220 3770 4380
4.8 91 189 324 502 718 995 1300 1640 2050 2510 3000 3550 4140
5.0 82 169 292 456 654 911 1190 1510 1890 2330 2800 3330 3910
5.2 73 152 264 413 595 833 1090 1390 1750 2160 2610 3120 3690
5.4 65 136 237 373 540 759 995 1280 1610 1990 2420 2910 3460
5.6 58 121 212 335 487 687 903 1160 1470 1830 2230 2700 3230
5.8 51 106 186 296 431 611 806 1040 1320 1650 2020 2460 2970
6.0 39 81 144 231 340 485 643 833 1060 1330 1660 2040 2500
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004 Chapter 3 – Elements of Design
Note: Based on banking an undivided highway (2 or 4 lanes) around the centerline. See Exhibit 4-12.
Exhibit 4-19
Superelevation Runoff Length for Design Superelevation and Design Speed
Design Speed Vd
15 mph 20 mph 25 mph 30 mph 35 mph 40 mph 45 mph 50 mph 55 mph 60 mph 65 mph 70 mph 75 mph
Number of Lanes Rotated. Note that 1 lane rotated is typical for a 2-lane highway, 2 lanes rotated is typical for a 4-lane highway, etc.
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
e Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr Lr
(%) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
1.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.0 31 46 32 49 34 51 36 55 39 58 41 62 44 67 48 72 51 77 53 80 56 84 60 90 63 95
2.2 34 51 36 54 38 57 40 60 43 64 46 68 49 73 53 79 56 84 59 88 61 92 66 99 69 104
3.4 52 78 55 83 58 87 62 93 66 99 70 106 76 113 82 122 87 130 91 136 95 142 102 153 107 161
3.6 55 83 58 88 62 93 65 98 70 105 74 112 80 120 86 130 92 138 96 144 100 151 108 162 114 171
3.8 58 88 62 92 65 98 69 104 74 110 79 118 84 127 91 137 97 146 101 152 106 159 114 171 120 180
4.0 62 92 65 97 69 103 73 109 77 116 83 124 89 133 96 144 102 153 107 160 112 167 120 180 126 189
4.2 65 97 68 102 72 108 76 115 81 122 87 130 93 140 101 151 107 161 112 168 117 176 126 189 133 199
4.4 68 102 71 107 75 113 80 120 85 128 91 137 98 147 106 158 112 169 117 176 123 184 132 198 139 208
4.6 71 106 75 112 79 118 84 125 89 134 95 143 102 153 110 166 117 176 123 184 128 193 138 207 145 218
4.8 74 111 78 117 82 123 87 131 93 139 99 149 107 160 115 173 123 184 128 192 134 201 144 216 152 227
5.0 77 115 81 122 86 129 91 136 97 145 103 155 111 167 120 180 128 191 133 200 140 209 150 225 158 237
5.2 80 120 84 126 89 134 95 142 101 151 108 161 116 173 125 187 133 199 139 208 145 218 156 234 164 246
5.4 83 125 88 131 93 139 98 147 105 157 112 168 120 180 130 194 138 207 144 216 151 226 162 243 171 256
5.6 86 129 91 136 96 144 102 153 108 163 116 174 124 187 134 202 143 214 149 224 156 234 168 252 177 265
5.8 89 134 94 141 99 149 105 158 112 168 120 180 129 193 139 209 148 222 155 232 162 243 174 261 183 275
6.0 92 138 97 146 103 154 109 164 116 174 124 186 133 200 144 216 153 230 160 240 167 251 180 270 189 284
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004 Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-20
Maximum Relative Gradients
Maximum Relative Equivalent
Design Speed (mph) Gradient (%) Maximum Slope
15 0.78 1:128
20 0.74 1:135
25 0.70 1:143
30 0.66 1:152
35 0.62 1:161
40 0.58 1:172
45 0.54 1:185
50 0.50 1:200
55 0.47 1:213
60 0.45 1:222
65 0.43 1:233
70 0.40 1:250
75 0.38 1:263
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004 Chapter 3 Elements of Design
4.3.1 Grades
Roadway grades have a direct correlation to the uniform operation of
vehicles. Vehicle weight and the steepness of the roadway grade have
a direct relationship on the ability of the driver to maintain uniform
speed. Exhibit 4-21 presents the recommended maximum highway
grades in an effort to achieve uniform vehicular operation for various
design speeds. Flatter grades should be used where possible.
Exhibit 4-21
Recommended Maximum Grades
Arterials and (Rural Villages, Suburban High-Intensity, Suburban Town Center, and Urban Areas)
Highways
Percent Grade for Selected Design Speed (mph)
Terrain 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Level 8 7 7 6 6 5 5
Rolling 9 8 8 7 7 6 6
Mountainous 11 10 10 9 9 8 8
Collectors (Rural Natural, Rural Developed, and Suburban Low Intensity Areas)
Percent Grade for Selected Design Speed (mph)
Terrain 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Level 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 5
Rolling 10 10 9 9 8 8 7 7 6
Mountainous 12 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 8
Note: Short lengths of grade in urban areas, such as grades less than 500 ft in length, one-way downgrades, and
grades on low-volume urban collectors may be up to 2 percent steeper than the grades shown above.
Local Roads (Rural Natural, Rural Developed, and Suburban Low Intensity Areas)
Percent Grade for Selected Design Speed (mph)
Terrain 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Level 9 8 7 7 7 7 7
Rolling 12 11 11 10 10 10 9
Mountainous 17 16 15 14 13 13 12
Note: Short lengths of grade in urban areas, such as grades less than 500 ft in length, one-way downgrades, and
grades on low-volume urban collectors may be up to 2 percent steeper than the grades shown above.
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004 .Chapter 4 Rural and Urban Arterials; Chapter 5 Freeways
Exhibit 4-22
Speed-Distance Curves for a Typical Heavy Truck for Deceleration on
Upgrades
not be allowed to fall below that desired for the project as determined
through the parameters described in Chapter 3 and determined in the
project development process. At restricted locations, the ascending
roadway facility may be operating below these guidelines before a
truck climbing lane is warranted. If a truck climbing lane is warranted
and the costs are reasonable, the following criteria should be followed
for designing the lane:
Lane width should be the same as the adjacent lane, but not less
than 12 feet. The useable shoulder width should be at least 4 feet.
The full width of the climbing lane should be achieved at the point
where a truck will have reduced its speed by 10 mph.
The full width of the climbing lane should, when feasible, extend to
the point where the truck speed has returned to within 10 mph of
the typical auto speed. At a minimum it should extend to a point
where full passing sight distance becomes available.
The entering taper should preferably be 25:1 and at least 150 feet
long.
All vertical crest and sag curves are in the shape of a parabola. The
computations for vertical curves are shown in Exhibits 4-23, 4-24,
and 4-25. Design controls for vertical curves are generally based
on the formula K = L/A where L is the length of curve in feet and A
is the algebraic difference in grades expressed as a percent. The
designer's use of K values facilitates geometric design. The tables
are calculated to provide the minimum sight distances for the
corresponding design speed.
Exhibit 4-23
Parabolic Vertical Curves
Note: In all of the above formulas, (G1-G2) is the algebraic difference in percent grade
Source: MassHighway
Exhibit 4-24
Parabolic Vertical Curves
When the algebraic difference of grades is negative, the offsets d, d1 … are added to the elevations P, P1 … on the tangent.
Source: MassHighway
Exhibit 4-25
Parabolic Vertical Curves
S1 and S2 = Slope in percent of a tangent drawn at points 01 02 … at distances, D1 D2 … from P.V.C. of vertical curve
D1 , D2 … = Distance in stations
Note: The above formula may be used to find the rate of grade of a tangent at any point on a vertical curve and to check
slopes of curves for drainage purposes.
Source: MassHighway
Exhibit 4-26
Design Control for Stopping Sight Distance for Crest Vertical Curves
Design Speed Stopping Sight Distance Rate of Vertical curvature, Ka
(mph) (ft) Calculated Design
15 80 3.0 3
20 115 6.1 7
25 155 11.1 12
30 200 18.5 19
35 250 29.0 29
40 305 43.1 44
45 360 60.1 61
50 425 83.7 84
55 495 113.5 114
60 570 150.6 151
65 645 192.8 193
70 730 246.9 247
75 820 311.6 312
Note: Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersection grades (A). K = L/A
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
For the design of crest vertical curves, the following shall apply:
Where: Lmin = 3V
Lmin is in feet, V is in mph
As for crest curves careful drainage design must be made for K values
of greater than or equal to 167.
Exhibit 4-27
Design Control for Sag Vertical Curves
Design Stopping Sight Rate of Vertical
Speed Distance Curvature, Ka
(mph) (ft) Calculated Design
15 80 9.4 10
20 115 16.5 17
25 155 25.5 26
30 200 36.4 37
35 250 49.0 49
40 305 63.4 64
45 360 78.1 79
50 425 95.7 96
55 495 114.9 115
60 570 135.7 136
65 645 156.5 157
70 730 180.3 181
75 820 205.6 206
Note: Rate of vertical curvature, K, is the length of curve per percent algebraic difference in intersection grades
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
Exhibit 4-28
Vertical Clearances
Minimum1,4 (ft) Comments
16.5 Bridges over expressways/freeways
16.55 Bridges over arterial
16.5 Freeway Tunnels
16.5 Tunnels for all other roadway classes
16.5 Bridges over collector
16.5 Bridges over local road
See Note 2 Roadway bridge over railroad
17.0 Sign bridge or pedestrian bridge over roadway
See Note 3 Highway in vicinity of an airport
1. The Chief Engineer shall approve any clearance less than the minimum clearance in writing.
2. The MassHighway Bridge Engineer will coordinate clearance over railroads with the railroads.
3. Clearance in the vicinity of an airport will be coordinated with the FAA through the FHWA.
4. Minimum values allow 4 inches for paving overlays in all cases.
5. New or reconstructed structures should provide 16.5 ft clearance over entire roadway width. In a highly urbanized
area a minimum clearance of 14.5 ft may be provided where an alternate route with 16.5 ft clearance is provided.
Existing structures that provide 14.5 ft clearance may be retained, if allowed by local statute.
6. Provisions must be made for lighting, overhead signs and pavement overlays.
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO 2004. Chapter 3 Elements of Design
On two-lane roads, the need for safe passing sections (at frequent
intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the length of the
roadway) often supersedes the general desirability for combination
of horizontal and vertical alignment. Passing zones with long
tangent sections are needed to secure sufficient passing sight
distance.
Cross Section and Alignment Design Issues, TRB No. 1445, 1994.