Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Is SP 23 1982 PDF
Is SP 23 1982 PDF
Is SP 23 1982 PDF
PRINTED IN INDIA
AT VISA PRESS PVT. LTD., 122. DSIDC SHEDS, OKHLA INDL. AREA, PHASE-I, NEW DELHI 110020
AND PlJBLISI~ED BY
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS, NEW DELHI 110002
SPECIAL COMMITTEE FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY PROJECTS (SCIP)
Chairman
A/embers Representmg
Users of various civil engineering codes have been feeling the need for
explanatory handbooks and other compilations based on Indian Standards. The
need has been further emphasized in view of the publication of the National
Building Code of India 1970 and its implementation. In 1972, the Department of
Science and Technology set up an Expert Group on Housing and Construction
Technology under the chairmanship of Maj-Gen Harkirat Singh. This group carried
out in-depth studies in various areas of civil engineering and construction practices.
During the preparation of the Fifth Five Year Plan in 1975, the Group was assigned
the task of producing a Science and Technology plan for research, development and
extension work in the sector of housing and construction technology. One of the
items of this plan was the production of design handbooks, explanatory handbook s
and design aids based on the National Building Code and various Indian Standards
and other activities in the promotion of National Building Code. The Expert Group
gave high priority to this item and on the recommendation of the Department of
Science and Technology the Planning Commission approved the following two
projects which were assigned to the Indian Standards Institution:
a) Development programme on Code implementation for building and civil
engineering construction, and
b) Typification for industrial buildings.
·Under print.
tPrinted.
Concrete Reinforcement Detailing
Fornl Work
Timber Engineering
Steel Code (IS: 800)
Causes and Prevention of Cracks in Buildings"
Plumbing Services
Loading Code
Fire Safety
Prefabrication
Tall Buildings
Design of Industrial Steel Structures
Inspection of Different Items of Building Work
Bulk Storage Structures in Steel
Liquid Retaining Structures
This handbook which has been formulated under this project provides
information on the factors that influence concrete mix design and discusses them in
detail. Basic features of concrete mix design systems, classification and grade
designation have been highlighted. Relevant Indian Standards on materials for
concrete and their methods of testing, and other special literatures available on the
subject have been taken into consideration in preparing this handbook. The
handbook will be useful to designers of concrete structures, field engineers, quality
control engineers and laboratories engaged in design, research and testing of
concrete mixes,
Some of the important points to be kept in view in the use of this handbook are
as Follows:
a) This handbook is intended to provide general guidance on the design of
concrete mixes. Problems of mix design of special and peculiar nature shall
be dealt with on the merits of each case.
b) The mix design is in accordance with the strength requirements and
acceptance criteria specified in 'IS: 456-1978 Code of practice for plain and
reinforced concrete (third revision)'.
c) Wherever there is any dispute about the interpretation or opinion expressed
in this handbook, the provisions of the relevant Indian Standards referred to
and discussed shall apply. The provisions in this handbook particularly those
relating to other literature should be considered as only supplementary and
informative.
This handbook is based on the first draft prepared by the Cement Research
Institute of India, New Delhi. The draft handbook was circulated for review to
Andhra Pradesh Engineering Research Laboratories, Hyderabad; Central Research
Station, ACC Research and Development Division, Thane; Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi; Irrigation and Power Research Institute, Amritsar; Hindustan
Construction Company Limited, Bombay; Tarapore and Company, Madras;
Gammon India Limited, Bombay; and the views received have been taken into
consideration while finalizing the Handbook.
viii
CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 1
I. INTRODUC'110N 3
I. I Concrete Mix as a System 3
1.2 Classification of Concrete Mixes 3
1.2.1 Grades of Concrete 4
SECTION 2 7
2. C'ONC~RErrE MAKIN(j MATERIALS 9
2.0 General 9
2.1 Cements 9
2.1.1 }Iydration of Cements 11
2.1.2 Portland Pozzolana and Slag Cements 11
2.1.3 Tests on Cements 12
2.2 Aggregate- 13
2.2.1 Classification of Aggregates 13
2.2.1.1 (Jenera) 13
2.2.1.2 Geological Classification of Natural Aggregates 13
2.2.2 Properties of Natural Aggregates 14
2.2.2.1 Mechanical Properties 14
2.2.2.2 Particle Shape and Texture 15
2.2.2.3 Porosity and Absorption 16
2.2.2.4 Deleterious Constituents 16
2.2.2.5 Soundness of Aggregates 20
2.2.2.6 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 21
2.2.3 Lightweight Aggregates 23
2.3 Water 24
2.3.1 Miscellaneous Inorganic Impurities 26
2.3.2 Silt or Suspended Clay Particles 26
2.3.3 Oil Contamination 26
2.3.4 Sea Water 26
2.3.5 Curing Water 26
2.4 Admixtures 26
2.4.1 Accelerating Admixtures 27
2.4.2 Retarding Admixtures 28
2.4.3 Water-Reducing Admixtures 28
2.4-.4 Air-Entraining Admixtures 29
2.4.5 Information on Admixtures 29
Page
SECTION 3 S3
3. PROPERTIES OF FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE 55
3.0 Introduction 55
3.1 Workability S5
3.1.1 Different Measures of Workability 5S
3.1.2 Factors Affecting Workability 56
3.1.2.) Influence of Materials and Mix Proportions 56
3.1.2.2 Effects of Time and Temperature on Workability 57
3.1.3 Requirement of Workability 58
3.2 Compressive Strength 58
3.2. J Influence of Mix Proportions 58
3.2.2 Effect of Placing, Compaction and Curing 60
3.2.2.1 Steam Curing of Concrete 60
3.2.3 Relation with Tensile Strength 61
3.3 Durability of Concrete 62
SECTION 4 83
4. VARIABILITY OF CONCRETE STRENGTH-Sl'ATIS1~ICAL 85
ASPECTS
4.1 Measures of Variabilities of Concrete Strength 85
4.1. ) Factors Contributing to Variability 85
4.1.2 The Distribution of Results 85
4.1.3 Characteristic Strength 86
4. J.4 Target Mean Strength 86
4.2 Statistical Concepts in Concrete Mix Design 86
4.3 Acceptance Criteria 86
SECTION 5 93
5. PRINCIPLES OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN 95
5.1 Basic Considerations 95
5.2 Factors in the Choice of Mix Design 95
5.3 Outline of Mix Design Procedure 96
SECTION 6 101
6. METHODS OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN 103
6.0 Introduction 103
6.1 The ACI Mix Design Practice 104
6.2 The USBR Mix Design Practice 105
6.3 The British Mix Design Method (DOE Method) 105
6.4 Mix Design in Accordance with Indian Standard Recommended 106
Guidelines for Concrete Mix Design
SECTION 7 123
7. EXTREME WEATHER CONCRETING 12S
7.1 Hot Weather Concreting 12S
7. J .1 Effects of Hot Weather on Concrete 12S
7.1.2 Recommended Practices and Precautions 126
7.1.2.1 Temperature Control of Concrete Ingredients 126
x
Page
7.1.2.2 Proportioning of Concrete Mix Materials and Mix 127
Design
7.1.2.3 Production and Delivery 127
7.1.2.4 Placement, Protection and Curing 128
7.2 Cold Weather Concreting 128
7.2.1 Effects of Cold Weather on Concreting 128
7.2.2 Recommended Practice 129
7.2.2.1 Temperature Control of Concrete Aggregates 129
7.2.2.2 Use of Insulating Formwork 129
7.2.2.3 Proportioning of Concrete Ingredients 130
7.2.2.4 Placement, Protection and Curing 130
7.2.2.5 Delayed Removal of Formwork 130
SECTION 8 137
8. TESTING OF CONCRETE MIXES 139
8.1 Sampling and Testing of Concrete 139
8.2 Frequency of Sampling 139
8.3 Workability Tests of Fresh Concrete 139
8.4 Analysis of Fresh Concrete 140
8.5 Measurement of Air Content 140
8.6 Setting Time of Concrete 140
8.7 Tests for Strength 141
8.8 Analysis of Hardened Concrete 142
xi
Page
(J radcs 0 f Concrete 4
2 Compound Composition of Ordinary Portland Cernent-, 29
1 Heat Evolut ion of Different Compounds of Portland Cement 30
(at 21°C)
4 Physical and Chemical Requirements of Indian Standard 30-31
Specification- for Different Cements
5 Propcrticv of Concrete Influenced by Aggregate Properties 32
6 Livt of Rock- Placed Under the Appropriate Groups 33
7 Expected Relationship Between Variou-, Tests for Different Rock 33
Groups
R Particle Shape of Aggregate'> 34
9 Surface Character ivtics of Aggregate, 34
10 Porosity of Some (:011101011 Rocks 34
)1 Typical Ranges of Values of Absorption of Different Type- of 34
Rocks
)1 Limits of Deleterious Materials in Aggregates (Percentage) 35
13 Propenie- of Sands in Their Natural Conditions 35
14 Reactive Minerals 35
J5 React ivc Rock" 35
16 Concentration of Some lmpuriucs in Mixing Water Which can be 36
Considered 3) Tolerable
17 Permissible Limit for Solids 3tl
18 Physical Requirements for Concrete Admixtures 36~~7
19 Optimum Air Content-, of Concretes of Different Maximum Si,C'" 37
of Aggregate
20 Comparison of Consistency Measurements by Various Methods 64
21 Relation Between Slump and Relative Water Content 64
22 Suggested Ranges of Values of Workability of Concrete for 64
Different Placing Conditions
23 Minirnum Cement Content Required in Cement Conerete to Ensure 65
Durability Under Specified Conditions of Exposure
24 Requirements for Plain and Reinforced Concrete Exposed to 66
Sulphate Attack
25 Minimum Cement Content Required in Cement Concrete to Ensure 67
Durability Under Specified Conditions of Exposure for
Prestressed Concrete
26 Requirements for Prestressed Concrete Exposed to Sulphate Attack 68
27 Limit for Chloride Ion in Concrete Prior to Exposure in Service 69
28 Breakdown of Standard Deviation for Compressive Strength for 88
Different Standards of Control
xii
TABLES Page
xiii
FIGURES Page
xiv
FIGURES Page
xv
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION
J.J Concrete Mix as a System - Concrete demands. For example, the requirements of
is by far the most widely-used man-made workability demand that water content in
construction material and studies indicate the mix should be more, whereas the re-
that it will continue to be so in the years and quirements of compressive strength depend
decades to come'. Such versatility of con- upon lower water-cement ratio and,
crete is due to the fact that from the common therefore, the water content be kept as low
ingredients, namely, cement, aggregate and as practicable. In this context a concrete mix
water (and sometimes admixtures), it is forms a 'system'. Concrete mixes are also
possible to tailor the properties of concrete characterised by the fact that, unlike the
so as to meet the demands of any particular other common structural materials like steel,
situation. The advances in concrete these are mostly manufactured at site; the in-
technology has paved the way to make the herent variability of their properties and
best use of locally available materials by need for proper quality control, therefore,
judicious mix proportioning and proper become important considerations.
workmanship, so as to result in a concrete
satisfying the performance requirements. 1.2 Classification of Concrete Mixes-
While the properties of the constituent Concrete mixes are classified in a number of
materials are important, the users are now ways, often depending upon the type of
interested in the concrete itself having specifications, which are broadly of two
desired properties. In the true sense, con- types; the 'prescriptive' specifications where
crete is thus the real building material rather the proportions of the ingredients and their
than the ingredients like cement and ag- characteristics (namely, type of cement,
gregates, which are only intermediate pro- maximum size of aggregate, etc) are
ducts. This concept of treating concrete as specified, with the hope that adherence to
an entity is symbolized with the progress of such prescriptive specification will result in
ready-mixed concrete industry, where the satisfactory performance. Alternately, a
consumer can specify the concrete of his 'performance' oriented specification can be
needs without bothering about the ingre- used wherein the requirements of the
dients; and further in pre-cast concrete in- desirable properties of concrete are specified
dustry where the consumer obtains the (example - strength, workability or any
finished structural component-s satisfying the other property). Concrete is accepted on the
.performance requirements. basis of these requirements being satisfied,
and the choice of materials and mix proper-
This Handbook, therefore, treats concrete
tions is with the producer.
in its entity as a building material. The
various aspects covered are the materials, Based on the above considerations, con-
mix proportioning, elements of workman- crete can be classified either as 'nominal
ship (for example placing, compaction and mix' concrete or 'designed mix' concrete as
curing), methods of testing and relevant has been specified in IS : 456-19782 • British
statistical approach to quality control and practices go a step further to specify 'stan-
special precautions needed in extreme- dard' mixes] or 'prescribed' mixes" which ate
weather concreting. The discussion on these elaboration of 'nominal' mixes, to cater for
aspects centres around the appropriate pro- different ranges of workability and different
visions in the various Indian Standards aggregate characteristics, for the desired
which are relevant. However, certain other compressive strength.
properties of hardened concrete, namely, IS : 4565 had earlier classifled concrete
elasticity. creep and shrinkage are not into 'controlled' concrete and 'ordinary' con-
covered in this Handbook. crete, depending upon the levels of control
While considering the concrete mixes as a exercised in the works and the method of
material in itself, note has to be taken of the proportioning concrete mixes. According to
actions and interactions of its constituents this. where the mix proportions were fixed
on the characteristics of the end product. by designing the concrete mixes with
which may often give rise to conflicting preliminary t~sts were called 'controlled
3
SP : 23-1982
concrete'; whereas 'ordinary concrete' was Grades of concrete lower than M 15 are not
one where 'nominal' concrete mixes were to be used in reinforced concrete works and
adopted. This might have inadvertently led grades of concrete lower than M 30 are not
to a feeling that no quality control was to be used for pre-stressed concrete works.
necessary in case of nominal mixes. Similar grading of concrete on the basis of
However realizing that mix proportioning is
t 28 days characteristic strength has also been
only one aspect of quality control of con- adopted by IS0 7 and most of the other codes
crete and that quality control really encom- of practices.
passes many other aspects like choice of ap-
propriate concrete materials after proper
tests, proper workmanship in batching, mix- TARt.: I (iRADt:S OF CONCRET[
ing, transportation, placing, compaction (Clause 1.2.1)
and curing, coupled with necessary checks
and tests for quality acceptance and quality GRADf Dt::SIGN.a.TION SPECIFIED CHARACTJ:RISfiC
COMPRESSIVE: STRENGTH AT
control, the present concrete code
28 DAVS (N/mm 2 )
IS : 456.1978 2 makes a significant departure, M5 5
in that there is nothing like 'uncontrolled' M 7.5 7.S
concrete; only the degree of control varies,
M 10 10
from 'very good' to 'poor' or no control.
M 15 15
Concrete can be classified in many other M 20 20
ways in special situations; by its density (for M 25 25
example, light weight, normal weight or M 30 30
heavy weight concrete), workability (for M 35 35
example, flowing or pumpable concretes) or M40 40
its durability in specific environments (for
M 45 45
example, sulphate-resisting concrete -or its
resistance to fire). M 50 SO
M 55 55
/.2./ GRADES OF CONCRETE - Among the M60 60
many properties of concrete, its compressive
strength is considered to be the most impor- NOTE I - In the designation of a concrete mix,
tant and has been held as an index of its letter M refers to the mix and the number to the
overall quality. Many other engineering pro- specified characteristic compressive strength of IS-em
perties of concrete appear to be generally cube at 28 days, expressed in Nz mrn'.
related to its compressive strength. Concrete NOTE 2 - M 5 and M 7.5 grades of concrete may be
is, therefore, mostly graded according to its used for lean concrete bases and simple foundations for
compressive strength. The various grades of masonry walls. These mixes need not be designed.
concrete as stipulated in IS : 456-1978 2 and NOTt. 3 - Grades of concrete lower than MIS shall
IS : 1343-198()6 are extracted in Table 1. Out not be used in reinforced concrete.
of these, two grades, namely, M 5 and NOTE 4 - Grades of concrete lower than M 30 shall
M 7.S, are to be used for lean concrete bases not be used in prestressed concrete.
and simple foundations for masonry walls,
SP : 23-1982
2.0 General - The common ingredients of to the respective Indian Standards mention-
concrete are cement, coarse and fine ag- ed above. In case of Portland slag cement,·
gregates and water. A fourth ingredient call- the slag content should not be more than 50
ed 'admixtures' is used to modify certain percent.
specific properties of the concrete mix in
fresh and hardened states. By judicious use Among the various types, ordinary
of available materials for concrete making Portland cement conforming to
and their proportioning, concrete mixes are IS : 269-1976 2 is perhaps the most common.
produced to have the desired properties in . Further discussions relating to composition
the fresh and hardened states, as the situa- and hydration of cements in this clause and
tion demands. In this section the physical in 2. J.J generally pertain to ordinary
and chemical properties of the concrete mak- Portland cement conforming to
ing materials which influence the properties IS : 269-1976 2• Ordinary Portland cement is
and performance of concrete mixes are obtained by intimately mixing together a
discussed. calcarious material such as limestone or
chalk, and an argillaceous material (that is,
2.1 Cements - Cement is by far the most silica, alumina and iron oxide bearing
important constituent of concrete, in that it material), for example, clay or shale, burn-
forms the binding medium for the discrete ing them at a clinkering temperature of
ingredients. Made out of naturally occurring 1 400 to 1 450°C and grinding the resulting
raw materials and sometimes blended or in- clinker with gypsum. Since the raw materials
terground with industrial wastes, cements consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina and
come in various types and chemical composi- iron oxide, these form the major elements in
tions. For general concrete constructions, cement also. Depending upon the wide varie-
IS : 456-1978 1 permits the use of the follow- ty of raw materials used in manufacture of
ing types of cement, subject to the approval cements, the typical ranges of these elements
of the engineer-in-charge: in ordinary Portland cement may be express-
ed as below:
a) Ordinary or low heat Portland cement
conforming to IS : 269-19762 • Percent
b) Rapid hardening Portland cement con- Si0 2 19 - 24
forming to IS : 8041-1978 3• A1 20 J 3- 6
c) Portland slag cement conforming to Fe20 ) 1- 4
IS : 455-1976 4 • CaO 59 - 64
d) Portland pozzolana cement conform- MgO 0.5 - 4
ing to IS : 1489-1976\ NoTE - It may however t be noted that the maxi-
f
e) High strength ordinary Portland mum permissible [mit of MgO content in ordinary
cement conforming to IS : 8112-1976', Portland cement is ( percent (see Table 4).
and
f) Hydrophobic cement conforming to
The compounds of these oxides present in
the raw materials, however, interact with
IS : 8043-1978 7 •
each other and form a series of more com-
In addition to these, high alumina plex products during clinkering. The stage of
cement conforming to IS : 6452-1972 8 and chemical equilibrium reached during clinker-
supersulphated cement conforming to ing in the kiln may be disturbed somewhat
IS : 6909-1973 9 can be used under special cir- during cooling. Assuming that cement has
cumstances with necessary precautions. the same equilibrium as existing at the
clinkering temperature, the basic compound
For prestressed concrete construction, composition of Portland cement along with
IS : 1343.198010 permits the use of ordinary their ranges may be as-shown in Table 2.
Portland cement, rapid hardening Portland
cement, high strength ordinary Portland ce- The role of each of these compounds in
ment and Portland slag cement conforming the properties of cement has been studied in
9
SP : 23·1982
length. As indicated in Table 2, their relative be clear that C]A and C 4AF are the earliest
proportions in the cement may vary and in- to hydrate but their direct individual con-
deed, the differences in the various types of tribution to overall strength development of
ordinary Portland cement are really due to the cement is perhaps less significant than the
-the differences in the proportions of these silicates. In addition, C)A phase is responsi-
major compounds and fineness. The two ble for the highest heat evolution both dur-
silicates, (elS and C 2S) which" together con- ing the initial period as well as in the long
stitute about 70 to 75 percent of the cement, run. Among the silicates, ,C)S has faster rate
are more important from the considerations of reaction accompanied by greater heat
of strength giving properties. Upon hydra- evolution and larger contribution to the
tion, that is, reaction with water, both ClS initial strength than C 2S phase; however, it
and C 2S perhaps result in the same pro- is likely that both C 3S and C~ phases con-
duct - called calcium silicate hydrate hav- tribute equally to the long term strength of
ing approximate composition C)S2HJ and cement.
calcium hydroxide ". Because of the similari-
ty of their structures with that of a naturally Apart from the chemical composition,
occurring mineral, the hydrates are called fineness of cement contributes to the kinetics
'tobermorite'. From approximate of reaction and initial rate of gain of
stoichiometric calculations, C 3S and C2S strength. Generally greater the fineness,
need approximately 24 and 21 percent water greater is the rate of development of strength
by weight, respectively, for chemical reac- during the Initial period (see Fig. 31l) and
tion but CJS liberates nearly three times larger is the heat evolution. This is possible
calcium hydroxide compared to hydration of because greater fineness enables a larger sur-
C 2S. face of cement to come in contact with water
during the initial period, although the long
The reaction of C)A with water is very
term effect may not be different. In addi-
quick and may lead to immediate stiffening
tion, the particle sizes also influence the
of the paste - a phenomenon known as
hydration and strength at various ages. Par-
'flash set'. The role of gypsum added in the
ticles below S micron hydrate within 1 to 2
manufacture of cement is to prevent such
days and the hydration of 10-25 micron
fast reaction. The reaction of gypsum and
sizes may commence after 7 days.
C]A with water first gives rise to an insoluble
compound called calcium sulphoaluminate
THe different 'types' of cement are made
(ettringite). But eventually the final product
by the adjustment in the relative proportion
of hydration is possibly cubic crystal of
of chemical compounds and the fineness to
tricalcium aluminate hydrate (C]AHj. Ap-
proximate stoichiometric calculation shows suit the particular requirement. A summary
that C)A reacts with 40 percent of water by of the requirements for physical
weight, which is more than that required for characteristics and chemical composition of
different Indian cements" is reproduced in
silicates; however, since the amount of C)A
Table 4. It will' be seen that whenever a
in cement is comparatively small, the net
water,required for the hydration of cement is higher rate of initial strength gain is re-
quired, this is achieved by grinding the ce-
not substantially affected. The products of
ment to greater fineness and the cement
hydration of C.AF phase is not so well
composition perhaps being richer in C 3S and
known. Neville!' states 'C.AF is believed to
C 3A phases, but it may give rise to more heat
hydrate into tricalcium aluminate hydrate
of hydration. Contrary to this, the low heat
and an amorphous phase, probably
cements would be required to be ground to a
CaO.Fe20 ) aqueous. It is possible also that
lower fineness and would have lower percen-
some Fe20 ) is present in solid solution in the
tage of C)A and greater percentage of C2S.
tricalcium aluminate hydrate' .
The characteristics of different types of ce-
The role of these four major compounds ment may be summarised as in Fig. 41~ and
on the properties of cement can be sum- SU which are qualitatively applicable to
marised by the kinetics of reaction, develop- Indian conditions. From Fig. S it is apparent
ment of strength and evolution of heat of that irrespective of differences in the initial
hydration of these individual compounds. strength, concretes made ,with different
The state of art can be summarised by Fig. cements tend to have the same long term
III and 2 11, and Table 3 11• From these it will strength.
10
SP : 23-1982
2././ HYDRATION OF CEMENTS - The the unhydrated nucleus more and more
physical properties of concrete depend to a difficult, so the rate of hydration decreases
large extent on the extent of hydration of with time.
cement and the resultant microstructure of
hydrated cement. While the hydration pro- Each gram of cement of average composi-
ducts of individual compounds were describ- tion needs about 0.253 g of water for
ed above, it must be realized that the hydra- chemical reaction". In addition, a
tion of cement is the collective hydration of characteristic amount of water is needed to
each of the compounds present therein and fill the gel pores. The total amount of water
there is no selective hydration of any of the thus needed for chemical reactions and to fill
compounds. Nevertheless, the microstruc- the gel pores is about 42 percent II. Since
ture of hydrated cement is more or less hydration can proceed only when the gel
similar to those of the silicate phases. Upon pores are saturated, it has often been
contact with water, the hydration of cement mistakenly held that water-cement ratio less
proceeds both inward and outward in the than 0.40 or so should not be permitted in
sense that hydration products get deposited concretes. However, it must be emphasised
on the outer periphery and the nucleus of that even in presence of excess water, com-
unhydrated cement inside gets gradually plete hydration of cement never takes place
diminished in volume": At any stage of because of the decreasing porosity of the
hydration the cement paste (that is, hydration products, nor is it necessary that
cement + water) consists of the product of cement should be fully hydrated". In fact,
hydration (which is called 'gel', because of water-cement ratio Jess than 0.40 is quite
the large surface area), the remnant of common in structural concretes, more so in
unreacted cement, Ca(OH)2 and water, high strength concretes.
besides some other minor compounds.. Hex- In concretes, the hardened cement paste is
agonal prismatic crystals of ettringite are thus a porous ensemble; the concentration of
formed first on the tricalcium aluminate solid products of hydration in the total space
phases. Crystals of calcium hydroxide form available (that is original water + hydrated
about four hours after mixing. Thin acicular cement) is an index of porosity. Like any
particles of calcium silicate hydrate start other porous solid, the compressive strength
protruding from the surface' of cement of cement pastes (or concretes) is related to
grains after two hours". In matured pastes, the parameter gel-space ratio" or hydrate-
particles of calcium silicate hydrate form an space ratio" (see Fig. 6). The water-cement
interlocking network and owing to the ratio, which is held as the most important
similarity with the naturally occurring parameter governing compressive strength
mineral, tobermorite is called 'tobermorite (see 3.2), is really an expression of the con-
gel'. This gel -is poorly crystalline, almost centration of hydration products in the total
amorphous and appears as randomly volume at a particular age for the resultant
oriented layers of thin sheets or buckled rib- degree of hydration".
bon". The thickness of primary 'gel' par-
ticles is estimated to be 3.0 x 10-9 to
4.0 x IO-9m'9. 2./.1 PORTLAND POZZOLANA AND SLAG
CEMENTS - Among cements of different
types. mention may be made of Port-
The products of hydration as described land pozzolana cement conforming to
above form a random three dimensional net- IS : 1489-1976~ and Portland slag cement
work gradually filling the space originally conforming to IS : 455-19764 because of in-
occupied by water. Accordingly, the harden- creased production of these cements in the
ed cement paste has a porous structure, the country mainly to offset the shortage of or-
pore sizes varying from very small dinary Portland cement.
(4 x lO-'O m) to much larger, and are called
'gel' pores and 'capillary' pores-". The water Portland slag cement is manufactured by
present in these pores are held with different intergrinding ordinary Portland cement
degrees of affinity and the pore system inside clinker with granulated slags obtained as a
the hardened cement paste mayor may not by-product from the manufacture of steel.
be continuous. As hydration proceeds, the The slags have more or less the same consti-
deposit of hydration products on the original tuents as in ordinary Portland cement in
cement grain makes the diffusion of water to varying proportions, depending upon the
11
SP : 23·1982
processes involved. Typical oxide composi- the reasons cited, the rate of development of
tions of Indian slags suitable for the early strength may be somewhat lower (see
manufacture of Portland slag cement are as Fig. 824) and concrete made with Portland
follows': pozzolana cement may need somewhat
longer curing period under field conditions,
Percent delayed removal of forrnwork, etc. Portland
Si0 2 27-32 pozzolana cement also has the advantage: of
AI 203 17-3' lower heat of hydration and better sulphate
FeO 0-1 resistance; in fact these properties led to its
wide application in USA2'.
CaO 30-40
MgO 0-17 2.1.3 TESTS ON CEMENTS - The usual tests
made, on cement are: fineness, setting time,
The slag should, however, be in glassy
soundness, heat of hydration, compressive
form. IS : 455-19764 permits the proportion
strength and chemical composition. All
of slag to be in the range of 25 to 65 percent.
physical and chemical composition tests are
The products of hydration of such Portland
carried out in accordance with the pro-
slag cement are believed to be similar to that
cedures described in IS: 4031.. 196826 -..nd
of ordinary Portland cement; Ca(OH)2 IS : 4032-1968 27•
liberated by the hydration of ordinary
Portland cement acts as an activator for the The Blaines air permeability method is us-
reaction of slag", Since the hydration of slag ed for determining the fineness of cement.
component depends initially upon liberation The method is based on the permeability to
of Ca(OH)2' the rate of development of early flow of air through a bed of the cement. The
strength may be somewhat slower (see fineness is expressed as specific surface area
Fig. 'II). However, for all engineering pur- per gram of cement.
poses, Portland slag cement may be held to
be similar to ordinary Portland cement and The setting times are measured by Vicat
the requirements of physical characteristics apparatus, with different penetrating
are also identical in both cases. Portland slag attachments. The term setting is used to
cements give lower heat of hydration and describe the stiffening of the cement paste,
better sulphate resistance". and the terms 'initial set" and 'final set' are
used to describe arbitrary chosen stages of
Portland pozzolana cement (see setting.
IS : 1489-1976.5) is made by blending or in-
The soundness of cement is determined in
tergrinding reactive pozzolana (for example,
an accelerated manner by Le-Chatelier ap-
flyash, burnt clay, diatomaceous earth, etc)
paratus. This test detects unsoundness due to
in proportions of 10 to 2S percent with or-
free lime only. Unsoundness due to
dinary Portland cement. Pozzolanas as such
magnesia present in the raw materials from
do not possess cementitious property in
which cement is manufactured can be deter-
themselves but in combination with Ca(OH)2
mined by autoclave test. This test is sensitive
liberated from the hydration of ordinary
to both free magnesia and free lime!'. In this
Portland cement, give rise to cementitious
test high pressure steam accelerates the
products at room ambient temperature and hydration of both magnesia and lime. The
the ultimate products of hydration in both
results of the autoclave test are affected by,
cases are believed to be identical", The re-
in addition to the compounds causing expan-
quirements of 7-day strength of Portland sion, the CJA content. The test gives thus no
pozzolana cement (see IS : 1489-19765) are more than a broad indication of the long-
the same as that of ordinary Portland ce- term expansion expected in service.
ment (21.~N/mm2). The use of Portland
pozzolana cement is recommended in The heat of hydration is the amount of
IS : 456-1978 1 as substitute for ordinary heat in calories per gram of unhydrated ce-
Portland cement for plain and reinforced ment, evolved upon complete hydration at a
concrete work in general building construc- liven temperature. The method of determin-
tion. In addition to 7·day compressive ina the heat of hydration is by measuring the
strength, IS: 1489.1976 5 specifies the heats of solution _of unhydrated and
minimum 28-day compressive strength of hydrated cement in a mixture of nitric and
Portland pozzolana cement. However, for hydrofluoric acids: the difference between
12
SP : 23-1982
the two values gives the heat of hydration. 2.2. I C: A 'i~1I I( AliON OJ A( ,(,RI-c;ATL "
The heat of hydration thus measured con- 2.2. J. J GENERAl - General classification
sists of the chemical heat of the reactions of of aggregates can be on the basis of their
hydration and the heat of absorption of sizes, geological origin, soundness in par-
water on the surface of the gel formed by the ticular environments, unit weight or on
processes of hydration. The heat of hydra- many other similar considerations as the
tion is required to be determined for low situation demands, In so far as the sizes are
heat Portland cement, as specified in concerned, aggregates range from a few cen-
IS : 269-1976 2 •
timetres or more, down to a few rnicrons.
The compressive strength of cement is The maximum size of aggregate used in con-
determined on 1:3 cement-sand mortar cube crete may vary, but in each case the ag-
specimens with standard graded sand, cast gregate i~ to be so graded that particles of
and cured under controlled conditions of different size-fractions are incorporated in
temperature and humidity. The water con- the mix in appropriate proportions. As per
IS : 383-1970~tJ fine aggregates are those,
lent is determined as (I! + 3) percent by most of which pass through 4.75 mm IS
4
weight of cement and sand, where P is sieve; aggregates, most of which are retained
percentage of water required for standard on 4.75 mm IS sieve are termed as 'coarse'
consistency. In most of the cases, it cor- aggregates, Sand is, generally considered to
responds to a water-cement ratio of 0.37 to have a lower size limit of about 0.07 mm.
0.42. Materials between 0.06 mm and 0.002 rnrn
are classified as silt, and still smaller par-
The chemical analysis i~ carried out to ticlev are called clay. Sometimes combined
determine the oxide composition of cement. aggregates are available in nature comprising
The percentages of main compound in ce- different si ze-Ir act io ns of the above
ment (that is, CJS, ('2S, CJA and C4AF) can classification, which are known as 'ali-in-
be calculated (rom oxide composition using aggregates'. In such cases they need not be
Bogue's equations", which is applicable to separated into fine and coarse fractions but
ordinary Portland cement only. In addition adjustments often become necessary to sup-
to the rnaln compounds, two of the minor plement the grading by the addition of
compounds are of interest. They are respective ~ilC fractions which may be defi-
alkalis - Na 20 and K20. The insoluble cient in the total mass. Such 'all-in-
residue determined by treating with aggregates' are generally not found suitable
hydrochloric acid, is a measure of impurities for making concrete of high quality. Ag-
in ordinary Portland cement; largely arising gregates comprising particles falling essen-
from impurities in gypsum. The loss on igni- tially within a narrow limit of size fractions
tion shows the extent of carbonation of free are called 'single-size' aggregates.
lime and hydration due to the exposure of
cement to the atmosphere. 2.2. J.2 (if-Ol OGI(I\I (L"~,,)I"I< AllON OJ
NATURAl AGGRl:(lATES - Aggregates for con-
crete are generally derived from natural
2.2 Aggregates - Aggregates which occupy sources which may have been naturally
nearly 70 to 7S percent volume of concrete reduced to size (for example, gravel or
are sometimes viewed as inert ingre- shingle) or may be required to be crushed.
dients in more than one sense. However. it is As long as they conform to the requirement'
now well recognised that physical, chemical of IS = 383-197Q29 and concrete of satisfac-
and thermal properties of aggregates tory quality can be produced at an
substantially influence the properties and economical cost using them, both
performance of concrete. A list of properties gravel/shingle or crushed natural aggregate
of concrete which are influenced by the pro- can be used for general concrete construc-
perties and characteristics of aggregates is tion. Aggregates can be manufactured from
given in Table 528• Proper selection and use industrial products also, which are
of aggregates are important considerations, used for special purposes, for example, light
both economically as well as technically. Ag- weight concretes, concretes requiring better
gregates are generally cheaper than cement thermal insulating properties, etc. From the
and imparting greater volume stability and petrological stand-point. the natural ag-
durability to concrete. gregates, whether crushed or naturally
13
SP : 23·1981
reduced in size, can be divided into several attrition during subsequent service life
groups of rocks having common of concrete. Quite often among ag-
character ist ics . Natural rocks can be gregates of similar geological
classified according to their mode of forma- classifications one having higher
tion (for example ignious, sedimentary or mechanical strength has been found to
metamorphic origin) and under each class be sounder in chemical environments.
they may be further sub-divided into groups IS : 2386 (Part IV)-1963 30 prescribes
having certain petrological characteristics in the following three tests for testing the
common. Such a classification adopted in strength of aggregates:
IS : 383-19702'1 is reproduced in Table 6.
1) Crushing strength,
Depending upon the minerals found in ag-
gregates t he mineralogical classificat ion can 2) Crushing value, and
also be rnade. However, such classifications 3) Ten percent fines value.
are not very helpful in predicting the perfor-
mance of the aggregates in concrete. This i~ The tests on crushing strength do not
so, because each rock will probably have a give very reproducible results but
number of minerals present and even among essentially measure the quality of the
the most abundant minerals in a particular parent rock rather than those of the ag-
aggregate it i~ difficult to classify one being gregates derived from it. This test may
universally desirable or otherwise. be useful for assessments of new
sources of aggregates without proven
records.
2.2.2 PROPl:.RTIES OJ- NATURAL AG-
(JRL< ,A Il·~ -
As pointed out earlier, the pro- Among these three, crushing value
perties and performance of concrete are test, which is performed on bulk ag-
dependent to a large extent on the gregates is more popular and results
characteristics and -properties of aggregates are rep rod u ci bIe, 1S : 383- 1970 2~
themselves, and knowledge of the properties specifies limits of crushing value as 45
of aggregates is thus important. In the cases percent for aggregates used for con-
of marginal aggregates the record of perfor- crete other than for wearing surfaces
rnance of concretes made with them may be and 30 percent for concrete for wearing
the best guide. However, tests in the surfaces, such as runway, pavement
laboratory as well as petrographic exarnina- and roads. For weaker aggregates with
tions are used in most general cases. a crushing value of over 25 to 30 per-
cent, crushing value, test is not so
2.2.2. J t\1F< HANICAL PROPERTll ~ - The reliable in the sense that material
significance of the various tests for crushed before the full load having
mechanical properties are discussed below: been applied tends to get compac.. ted
thereby inhibiting crushing at a later
a) Tests on strength of aggregate - The stage and the intrinsic value may not be
strength of aggregates in the conven- measured in such cases. For such situa-
tional sense may appear to be not a tions 'ten percent fines value' test may
criterion in so far as aggregates arc be more reliable which measures the
generally of an order of magnitude load required to produce 10 percent
stronger than the concretes made with fines from 12.5 to 10 mm particles.
them ~nd a notional feeling that There is not much data available cor-
stronger aggregates are better may be relating the 10 percent fines value with
sufficient. However. the localized the crushing value as given in
stresses in an element of concrete may IS : 383-197()29 which does not speci fy
be much higher than the overall any limit for this test. BS : 882:1965 31
strength of concrete due to stress con- prescribes a minimum value of 10
centrations and in case of high strength tonnes for aggregates to be used in
concrete the mechanical strength of ag- wearing surfaces and 5 tonnes when
gregates may itself become critical. used in other concretes.
Moreover, the mechanical strength of
aggregates is important from the point Another related aspect is the
of view of quarrying, stability in the toughness of aggregates which is a
mixer, better resistance to abrasion or measure of the resistance of the
14
SP : 23-1982
material to failure by impact. IS : 2386 and 50 percent for aggregates used for
(Part IV)-1963 30 prescribes a method non-wearing surfaces. Table 7'0 in-
for determining the impact value which dicates the type of relationship that can
is sometimes taken as an alternative to be expected between various tests for
crushing value test. The results also in different rock groups.
general correspond to each other and
the requirements of IS : 383·197()29 are 2.2.2.2 PARTICLE SHAPE AND TEXTURE - The
similar to those for crushing value test. external characteristics of mineral aggregates
This is a convenient test which can be in terms of physical shape, texture and sur-
carried out in the site laboratory. face conditions significantly influence the
b) Hardness and abrasion resistance- mobility of the fresh concrete and the bond
In addition to crushing strength and of aggregates with the mortar phase. Two
toughness resistance, abrasion relatively independent properties, sphericity
resistance is an important considera- and roundness define the particle shape.
tion specially for concretes exposed to Sphericity is defined as a function of the
wearing actions. Concretes made with ratio of the surface area of the particle to its
aggregates having good abrasion volume whereas roundness measures the
resistance are necessary for making relative sharpness or angularity of the edges
concrete which will be subjected to and corners of a particle. To avoid lengthy
abrasion and attrition during service. descriptions of the aggregate shape,
More than that, the abrasion and attri- IS : 383-19702' lists four groups of aggre-
tion resistance of aggregates are also gates in terms of particle shape (see Table 8).
important to assess the likelihood of Well rounded particles require less water and
breakage during handling and stock- less paste volume for a given workability;
piling as well as during mixing in a mix- nevertheless, crushed or uncrushed rounded
er. Recent tests conducted· by gravels generally tend to .have a stronger
NRMCA32 have reported certain fine aggregate-mortar bond and result in
aggregates degrading due to attrition substantially the same compressive strength
during mixing, more so in prolonged for a given cement content. The unit water
mixing in case of ready-mix concrete, content could be reduced by S to 10 percent
with consequent increase in the propor- and sand content by 3 to 5 percent by the use
tion of fines in the combined ag- of rounded gravel. Use of crushed ag-
gregates thereby lowering the gregates, on the other hand, may result 10in
workability. In these tests, the sand to 20 percent higher compressive strength.
samples were considered otherwise For water-cement ratios below 0.4, the use
'satisfactory'. Some typical results as of crushed rock aggregate has resulted in
to the effect of prolonged mixing on strengths up to 38 percent higher than when
fineness modulus of sand and gravel gravel is used II. Elongated and flaky par-
are reproduced in Fig. 9. ticles, having a high ratio of surface area to
volume, lower the workabilijy of the mix
IS : 2386 (Part IV)-1963JO recom- and can also affect adversely the durability
mends Los-Angeles test for the hard- of concrete since they tend to be oriented in
ness and abrasion resistance of one plane with water and air voids
aggregates in addition to scratch test underneath. A flakiness index not greater
essentially for the detection of soft par- than 25 percent is' suggested for coarse
ticles. The Los-Angeles attrition test aggregates.
combines test for attrition and abra-
sion and is .quite popular. This test is Surface texture is the measure of polish or
found to be more representative of the dullness, smoothness or roughness and the
actual performance expected of the type of roughness of the aggregates.
aggregates and results can also be cor- IS : 383-197029 classifies surface charac-
related with other mechanical proper- teristics of the aggregate into five headings
ties of aggregates. IS: 383-1970 29 or groups (see Table 9). The grouping is
requires that a satisfactory aggregate broad and it does not purport to be a precise
should have Los-Angeles abrasion petrographical classification, but is based
value of not more than 30 percent for upon a visual examination of hand speci-
aggregates used for wearing surfaces mens. Rough porous texture is preferred to a
IS
SP : 13·1982
16
SP ; 23-1982
17
SP : 23·1982
18
SP : 23-1982
19
SP : 13·1981
20
SP : 23·1982
2.2.2.6 ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION - This tra cost of using low alkali cement or bring-
reaction takes place between the alkalis in ing aggregates from outside.
the cement and the active siliceous consti-
tuents or carbonates of aggregates. Under Newlon and Sherwood'? suggested the
most conditions, this reaction causes ex- following measures to reduce expansion of
cessive expansion and cracking of concrete. concrete where it is essential to use alkali
reactive carbonate aggregates, for economy:
These deleterious reactions have been en-
countered in many parts of the World and in a) I f the aggregate is of a high degree of
all climatic zones. The reactions are: reactivity, dilution of reactive ag-
a) Alkali-silica reaction, and
gregates with a non-reactive one,
reduction of cement alkalis or both,
b) Alkali-carbonate reaction. are necessary to eliminate cracking and
reduce expansion significantly.
A typical example of the effects of alkali-
b) The limit of 0.60 percent alkali for low-
silica reaction has been provided by the con-
alkali cement does not appear to be low
crete of a military jetty in Cyprus", con-
enough to reduce the reaction with the
structed in 1966. By 1972, widespread crack-
highly reactive carbonate aggregates,
ing and spalling of concrete were noticed and
even with aggregate dilution of 50 per-
parts of the surface concrete crumbled and
cent. To reduce the reaction to an ac-
became friable, in some places to a depth up
ceptable level, the reduction of alkalis
to 15 ern, Damage due to alkali-silica reac-
to 0.40 percent may be necessary. rr
tion had also been noticed in Tuscaloosa
reduction of alkalis to this limit is not
Lock and Dam, USA in 1952 47 • Dry dock in
possible, then corresponding greater
south Carolina also showed alkali-silica
dilution of aggregate is required.
reaction cracking with quartz gravel ag-
gregate in 1969. The reactive material was The reactive forms of silica are opal
metamorphic quartz or metamorphic and (amorphous), chalcedony (crypto crystalline
highly weathered quartz. In the year fibrous) and tridymite (crystalline). The
1965-66, Lachswehr Bridge of northern Ger- chemical composition, physical character
many had severe damage due to this reac- and · the reactive minerals" are given in
tion. The area of major concern in Germany Table 14. The reaction minerals occurring
is in two classes of reactive constituent in in the reactive rocks are given in Table 153J •
aggregates, opaline sandstone and reactive Rocks' containing opal, chalcedony, chert,
flint. volcanic glass, crystobalite , tridyrnite or
fused silica have shown to be reactive in
Certain dolomitic aggregates from
many instances. As little as 0.5 percent of a
Bahr airr" have been found to react defective aggregate is sufficient to cause con-
deleteriously with cement paste. The reac-
siderable damage in concrete. The maximum
tion has been noticed to be promoted by the expansion is produced when reactive
presence of gypsum and excess hydroxyl in
aggregates make up about 4 percent of the
the .mixture and by the marked porosity of
total aggregates and this disadvantageous
theaggregate.
concentration is often referred to as the
In 1956-S7, expansive reactivity of con- pessimum".
crete was noticed at Kingston", Ontario. A
The actual reaction occurs between
close look at culverts and bridges con..
siliceous minerals in aggregates and the
structed only a few months earlier showed
alkaline hydroxides derived from the alkalis
pattern of man cracking. Observations in-
(Na 20 and K20) in the cement. The result of
dicated that dolomitic limestone aggregate
reaction is alkali-silicate gel of 'unlimited
"from local quarries was an essential ingre-
swelling' type, and because the gel is confin-
dient of the affected concrete. By prior
ed by the surrounding cement paste, internal
geological exploration of existing and poten-
pressure causes cracking and disruption.
tial quarry sites and subsequently testing the
different rocks for alkali - carbonate reac- The carbonate in aggregates is generally
tivity, it is possible to select non-reactive ag- argillaceous dolomitic limestone. A wide
gregates. For constructing a major concrete range of carbonate rocks have been reported
highway, this procedure appeared to be as being potentially reactive, ranging from
realistic and economical considering the ex- pure limestone to pure dolomite. The
21
SP : 23 ..1982
presence of clay minerals incorporated in the humidity and noting the amount of expan-
aggregate and the crystalline texture of the sion. Expansion of prisms made of ques-
carbonate rocks influence the reaction. The tionable aggregate are then compared with
reactive carbonate materials are confined to those obtained on companion prisms of
specific ranges of rock composition between known sound limestone",
calcitic dolomites and magnesium
limestones. Dolomites and limestones con- The problem of alkali-aggregate reaction
taining excess Mg or Ca ions in their crystal can be overcome by use of low-alkali cement
structure over the ideal proportions are more (that is, containing less than 0.6 percent
likely to be reactive". The dolomitic rock alkali calculated as Na 20) or by addition of
consists of substantial amounts of dolomite suitable finely ground pozzolana to the con-
and calcite in the carbonate portion, with crete mix _ The pozzolana reacts chemically
significant amounts of acid insoluble residue with the alkalis before they attack the reac-
consisting largely of clay, Dolomitization tive aggregates".
reaction" is believed to be the alkali - car- Air entrainment is also believed to be
bonate reaction producing harmful expan- useful in counter acting alkali-aggregate
sion of concrete. Magnesium hydroxide, reaction. Use of reactive aggregate itself in
brucite [Mg(OH)2] is formed by this reac- finely divided form is also known to inhibit
tion. destructive effects of alkali-aggregate reac-
tion.
One method of determining the potential
alkali-aggregate reactivity is by 'mortar bar' Detailed petrographic examination and
test as given in IS: 2386 (Part VII)- X-ray identification are being used to
196351 _ The method of test covers the deter- examine suspect aggregates. But the conclu-
mination of reactivity by measuring the sions are unreliable and all available past
expansion developed by the cement- evidence must be taken into account when
aggregate combination in mortar bars during evaluating a new aggregate.
storage under prescribed conditions of test. Detailed petrographic, mineralogical and
The test is more conclusive but has the disad.. chemical data compared with similar data
vantage of requiring several months and also already available for reactive aggregates may
requiring that coarse aggregate be crushed provide the most satisfactory means of iden-
rather than tested in its normal state. With tifying potentially reactive aggregates".
larger specimens, however, uncrushed ag-
gregate may be tested". The problem of alkali-aggregate reaction
is not generally encountered with natural ag-
The second method of determining the gregates used in this country. Limited data
potential reactivity of aggregates is the are available on alkali reactivity of natural
'chemical method' as prescribed by IS : 2386 coarse aggregates in India'4.". Gogte"
(Part VII)-1963". This method of test deter- evaluated some common Indian aggregates
mines the reactivity as indicated by the with emphasis on their susceptibility to
amount of reaction of the aggregate with a 1 alkali-aggregate reactions from a study of a
N sodium hydroxide solution under controll- number of samples of rock aggregates
ed test conditions. The method has the ad- belonging to different Indian geological for-
vantage that it can be performed in 3 days, mations, more or less representing those
but for many aggregates the results are not used for concrete constructions all over the
conclusive", However, the illustration of country, trle following conclusions were
division between innocuous and deleterious drawn based on their petrographic
aggregates (based on Mielenz and Witte's characters and mortar-bar expansion tests:
work II) is reproduced from IS: 2386
(Part VII) - 1963'· in Fig- 12. a) Indian rocks vary widely in their
susceptibility to alkali-aggregate reac-
Both the test methods mentioned above do
tions. Even rock aggregates having
not always detect the alkali-carbonate
identical characteristics were found to
reactivity but this may be detected by
differ considerably regarding their
another test. in which concrete prisms made
behaviour with hiah-alkali cements.
with questionable agregates and a hiah
alkali cement are exposed to an environment b) The potential alkali reactivity of
of 23°C and with 100 percent relative crystalline rocks. for example granites.
22
SP : 23-1982
23
SP : 23-1982
c) I f, during mixing the lightweight and normal weight concrete. The effect of
aggregates get crushed, the void struc- shrinkage on deflection arises from the
ture is broken down resulting in a restraint of shrinkage due to steel reinforce-
coarse surface texture which may lower ment. Tests have shown that for usual
the workability. amount of reinforcement, the effect of
d) The modulus of elasticity of concretes shrinkage on deflection is quite small
made with most of the lightweight regardless of the type of concrete. Thus the
aggregates is lower than the normal difference between the shrinkage deflection
weight concrete, may be Y2 to ~. of lightweight and normal weight concrete
Creep and shrinkage of concrete are members of comparable design is quite
also greater (will vary from equal to small".
about double) (Fig. 1358) compared to Bloated clay aggregates are spherical in
those of normal weight concrete, hav- shape, hard, light and porous. The size of
ing the same compressive strength". the particles ranges from 5 to 20 mm. The
These result in higher deflection of the fine aggregate is produced by crushing the
structural members. larger particles. The water absorption of
Because of high absorption, workable bloated clay aggregates is about 8 to 20 per-
concrete mixes become stiff within a few cent. The physical properties of such
minutes of mixing. Therefore, it is necessary aggregates seem to. vary with the bloating
to wet (but not saturate) the aggregates characteristics of the raw material and the
before mixing in the mixer. In the mixing processing equipment used in manufacturing
operation, the required water and aggregate the aggregate. The use of this aggregate i~
are usually premixed prior to addition of advocated in places where the cost of crush-
cement. As a rough guide, the extra water ed stone aggregate is high and suitable clays
needed for lightweight aggregate concrete is especially silts from water works are easily
about 6 kg/rn' of concrete to obtain a change available. Concrete produced from this ag-
in the workability of 2S mm slump. Rich gregate has hulk density of the order of
mixes containing cement about 350 kg/rn' or 1 900 kg/rn '.
more, are usually required to produce The sintered fly ash aggregate is rounded
satisfactory strength of concrete. The con- aggregate with a bulk density of about 1 000
crete cover to reinforcement using light kg/rn'. This type of aggregate is suitable for
weight aggregates in concrete should be ade- making masonry units as well as structural
quate. Usually it is 25 mm more than for concrete. Concrete prepared from this ag-
normal concrete. This increased cover is gregate has unit weight of 1 200 to 1 400
necessary, because of its increased kg/rn'.
permeability and also because concrete car-
bonates rapidly by which the protection to Foamed blast furnace slag aggregate is
the steel by the alkaline lime is lost. produced with a bulk density varying bet-
ween 300 and I 100 kg/rn', depending on the
Deflection calculations considering lower details of the cooling process and to a certain
tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of degree on the particle size and grading. Con-
lightweight concrete, generally result in crete made with this aggregate has a density
higher initial deflection. Tobin'" observed 10 of 950 to 1 750 kg/rri'.
percent more deflection for the lightweight
slab compared to normal weight concrete Vermiculite is another artificial light ..
slab under the same superimposed loading. weight aggregate which when heated to a
Lower tensile strength of lightweight con- temperature of 650 to 1 oooDe expands to as
crete must be taken into account in design many as 30 times its original volume by ex..
for the calculation of allowable cracking foliation of its thin plates. Thus the density
stress for prestressed members or for deflec- of exfoliated vermiculite is only 60 to 130
tion calculation based on a cracked section kg/rn' and the concrete made with it is of
instead of a homogeneous section". low strength and exhibits high shrinkage but
is used as an excellent heat insulator.
The increased creep of lightweight con-
crete does not add to the deflection of struc- 2.3 Water - Compared to other ingre-
tural members. as the ratio of creep strain to dients of concrete. the quality of water
elastic strain is the same for both lightweight usually receives less attention. However,
24
SP : 23-1982
unwanted situations leading to distress of house~, breweries, gas plants, paint and soap
c~n~rete, contributed among others by the factories. The waters found unsuitable for
mlxln~ and cu~ing water being not of the ap- the purpose were acid water, lime soak water
propriate quality has focussed the attention from tannery waste, carbonated mineral
on quality of water as well. water disch~r~ed from galvanizing plants,
Potable water is generally considered water containing over 3 percent of sodium
satisfactory for mixing concrete. Should the chloride or 3.5 percent of sulphates and
suitability of water be in doubt, particularly water containing sugar or similar com-
In remote areas or where water is derived pounds. The lowest content of total dissolv-
from sources not normally utilized for ed solids in these unacceptable waters was
domestic purposes, such water should be over 6 000 ppm except for a highly car-
tested. The permissible limits for solids and bonated mineral water that contained
impurities for mixing and curing water as 2 140 ppm of total solids.
specified in various specifications including
IS : 456-1978' are in excess of the re- From the above, the main reason for
quirements of potable water. Perhaps, the holding potable water (the exception being
most comprehensive investigations on water water containing sugar) as suitable for mak-
for concrete making were carried out by ing concrete would be obvious. as very few
Abrams; these and a few others are sum- municipal waters would contain more than
marized in Ref 61 and the recommendations 2 000 ppm of dissolved solids .and specifica-
in the various codes of practice including tions of potable water would exclude nearly
IS : 456-1978' are largely based on these all of the above mentioned polluted waters.
tests. Abrams": 62 tested 68 different water On the basis of these tests and the work done
samples including sea, alkali, mine, mineral by others, the limits of some impurities in
and bog waters and highly polluted sewerage water for mixing and curing concrete that
and industrial wastes on mortar and concrete can be held to be tolerable arelisted in Table
1663 • Compared to these, the permissible
specimens. The effects were expressed main-
ly in terms of differences in the setting times limits in IS : 456-1978 1 reproduced in Table
17 are on the conservative side. In addition,
of Portland cement mixes containing impure
mixing waters as compared to clean fresh there are additional tests to determine the
waters and concrete strengths from 3 days to alkalinity (as carbonates and bicarbonates)
and the acidity of the water sample in
2 years and 4 months compared with control
specimens prepared with distilled water. A
IS : 456-]978 1• The limit of alkalinity is
guided by the requirement that to neutralize
difference in 28 days compressive strength
200 ml sample of water, using methyl-orange
by maximum 15 percent of control test was
as an indicator, it should not require more
concluded to be the best measure of the
than to ml of 0.1 normal sci. This alkalini-
quality of mixing water. IS : 456-1978' also
ty is equivalent to 265, 420 and 685 ppm of
incorporates a similar provision, except the
carbonates (as Na 2CO) , bicarbonates (as
requirement of compressive strength is to be
~aHCO}) and the sum of the two, respec-
not less than 90 percent. It was also conclud-
tively, and should be seen in the background
ed that the setting time is not a satisfactory
of Abrams' tests which showed that concen-
test for measuring suitability of a water for
trations up to 2 000 ppm were in general
mixing concrete and in most of the cases the
tolerable. Regarding acidity, thepH value of
setting time was found to be the same.
the water is required to be generally not less
IS : 456.1978 1 prescribes a difference in
than 6. However, the pH value may not be a
initial setting time of ± 30 minutes with
satisfactory general measure of the amount
initial setting time not less than 30 minutes,
of acid or basic reaction that might occur
Based on the minimum strength ratio of and the effect of acidity in water is best
85 percent, the following waters were found gauged on the basis of the total acidity 'as
to be suitable for concrete-making: bog and determined by titration?". The limit of total
marsh waters; waters with a maximum con- acidity is guided by the requirement that to
centration of 1 percent SO 4; sea water, but neutralise 200 ml sample of water. using
not for reinforced concrete; alkali water with phenolphthalein as indicator, it should not
a maximum of 0.15 percent Na 2 SO.. or Nacl; require more than 2 ml of 0.1 normal
pumpage water from coal and gypsum NaOH. This acidity is equivalent to 49 ppm
mines: and waste water from slaughter of H 1S0 4 or 36 ppm of HCl.
25
SP : 13·1982
2.3.1 MISCELLANEOUS INORGANIC IM- mineral oil also resulted in strength gain but
PURITIES - Kuhl" made a broad survey of not of the order of 2 percent. In case of
the effects of miscellaneous inorganic salts. diesel oil 8 percent of oil slightly reduced the
The salts chosen constituted a cation series strength, whereas at lower percentages
and an anion series. For the cation series, strength gains were observed. In case of
chlorides were used except that where sunflower oil 8 percent of oil had a detri-
solubility was low nitrates were used. The mental effect to the strength of concrete
anion series comprised sodium salts. The particularly at later ages.
salts of the cation series that caused a mark-
ed reduction in strength of concrete were 2.3.4 SEA WATER - Sea water generally
those of manganese. tin, zinc, copper, and contains 3.5 percent of dissolved solids,
lead (nitrate). The zinc and copper chlorides about 78 percent (that is, 27 000 ppm) of
retarded so much that no strength tests were which is sodium chloride and 15 percent
possible at 2 and 3 days. The action of lead (that is, S 300 ppm) of which is chloride and
nitrate was completely destructive, sulphate of magnesium. Opinions differ
when it comes to categorically classifying sea
Out of anion series. sodium iodate, water as either allowable or not for use for
sodium phosphate, sodium arsenate and making concrete. In so far as the re-
sodium borate reduced the initial strength of quirements of strength are concerned, the
concrete to an extraordinary low degree and early age strength (up to 3 days or so) may
in certain instances to zero. Another salt that indeed be somewhat higher, possibly because
has been found to have detrimental effect on of the accelerating effects of the chlorides
strength development is sodium-sulphide present; but long term strengths may be
and even a sulphide content of 100 ppm somewhat lower. However, the major con-
warrants testing (see Table 16). cern is attributed to the risk of corrosion of
reinforcing steel due to the chloride as well
2.3.2 SILT OR SUSPENDED CLAY PAR. as other problems of durability of concrete
TICLES - Considerable muddiness or tur- associated with sulphates, In general, the
bidity in mix water can be tolerated if it is risk of corrosion of steel is more when the
simply suspended clay or fine rock par.. reinforced concrete member is exposed to air
ticles". IS : 456-1978 1 allows 2 000 mg/I of than when continuously submerged under
suspended matter (Table 17). Muddy water water. including sea water", Based on this
should remain in settling basins before use. the consensus is not to permit the use of sea
Algae - Doe1l 6z . ] 3 has shown that the water for making concrete in reinforced con-
water containing algae has the effect of en- crete constructions": 15. Under unavoidable
, training huge quantities of ail in the concrete circumstances, it may be used for plain con-
thus resulting in lower strength. Algae also crete6 1• 6S. 66 when it is constantly submerged
reduces the bond between aggregates and ce- in water. IS: 456-1978 1 incorporates a
ment paste. The presence of algae to the ex- similar provision but the use of sea water for
tent of 0.1 percent by mass of mixing water prestressed concrete is not permitted in any
entrained 6 to 7 percent of air causing a case.
strength reduction of more than IS percent. 2.3.5 CURING WATER - IS : 4S6-1978-
states that water found satisfactory for mix-
2.3.3 OIL CONTAMINATION - Generally, oil ing concrete can also be used for curing cO,n-
contamination can be removed by floata- crete but it should not produce any objec-
tion. Mineral oils not mixed with anfmal or tionable stain or unsighty deposit on the
vegetable oils are probably the least objec- surface. Iron and organic matter in the
tionable from the standpoint of strength water are chiefly responsible for staining or
development". Davis" carried out tests to in- discolouration and especiafty when concrete
vestigate the effect of oil contamination. is subjected to prolonged wetting. even a
Three different oils were used, namely, a very low concentration of these can cause
mineral oil (SAE 30). a diesel fuel oil and a staining. Accordina to IS: 456-1978', the
vegetable seed oil (sunflower)."The results presence of tannic acid or iron compounds in
were summarized as follows: 2 percent by curing water is objectionable.
mass of cement of mineral oil resulted in
sianificant increases in strenath at aU aaes. 2.4 AdmixtJua - Present day concrete
A4dition of' 4 percent and 8 percent of often incorporates a fourth inaredient called
26
SP : 23·1982
admixtures, in addition to cement, ag- water content in the concrete mix, when the
gregates and water. Admixtures are added to cement content is unaltered, or (c) to effect
the concrete mix immediately before or dur- saving in cement content by reduction in
ing mixing, to modify one or more of the both the cement and water contents in the
specific properties of concrete in the fresh or mix, while maintaining the same workability
harderred states. IS : 9103-197967 lays down and compressive strength as in the reference
the procedures for evaluation of admixtures concrete.
for concrete and the changes in the proper- Although the standard specifications
ties of concrete that should be expected when would define the minimum performance re-
the admixtures are used. quirements of an admixture, in practice, the
The different types of admixtures covered resultant improvements in the characteristics
by the Indian Standard (IS: 9103-197961) are of concrete may be required to be more than
as follows: the minimum specified in these specifica-
tions. For example, a viable water-reducing
a) Accelerating admixtures,
admixture should allow a reduction in the
b) Retarding admixtures, water content between 5 to 12 percent and
c) Water-reducing admixtures, and consequently cause an increase in the 28-day
d) Air-entraining admixtures. compressive strength of concrete by nearly
10 percent?", On the other hand, by modify-
In addition, IS : 456-1978 1 permits the use ing the concrete mix design -in conjunction
of pozzolana like fly ash conforming to with the use of a water-reducing admixture,
IS: 3812 (Part 11)-198168 or burnt-clay con- the economy in the use of cement can be of
forming to IS : 1344-198269 as admixtures the order of 10 percent".
for concrete. They are used mainly to im-
prove the workability of concrete and Concretes made with admixtures when
thereby reduce the water demand for a given compared with identical concrete made
workability. However because of poz-
t
without admixtures should manifest improv-
zolanic reactions taking place, the role of ed physical properties as given in Table 1861 •
such pozzolana as admixture cannot be In case of air-entraining admixtures, a
strictly delineated from that of part replace- reference admixture of approved quality
ment of cement. Moreover, these finely should be used in the controlled concrete to
entrain identical amount of air.
divided mineral additives are usually added
in much larger dosage than chemical admix- The performance of an air-entraining
tures listed above. admixture can be evaluated in accordance
with ASTM C 233-7672 • As stipulated in
Before using an admixture in concrete, the
IS : 9103-197967 , the relative durability fac-
performance of it should be evaluated by
tor of concrete containing admixture under
comparing the properties of concrete with
test should not be less than 80 for specified
the admixture and concrete without any ad-
number of 300 freeze-thaw cycles, the
mixture. Though the admixtures covered in
durability factor being related to the relative
IS : 9103 .. 197967 are intended mainly for
dynamic modulus of elasticity of standard
modifying a single property in concrete,
prism specimens.
some of the admixtures available in the
market are often capable of modifying more Some admixtures are likely to contain
than one property of concrete. For example, water soluble chlorides and sulphates.
water-reducing admixtures can also be set- These. if present' in large quantities, may
retarders and air-entraining admixtures cause damage to the concrete structures dur-
increase the workability of the concrete mix, ing the course of time. The chlorides may
in addition to .providing air-entrainment. cause corrosion to the steel reinforcement
whereas the sulphates may cause disintegra-
In addition, an admixture can improve the tion of concrete by forming sulphoalumi-
desirable properties of concrete in more than nates. IS: 9103-197967 for admixtures for
one way. For example, water-reducing ad- concrete, stipulates that the chloride content
mixtures can be used: (a) to increase the of the admixtures should be declared bv the
workability of concrete with the same water manufacturers.
and cement contents, (b) to increase the
compressive strength of concrete without 2.4.1 ACcElERAnNo ADMIXTURES - These
changing the workability by reduction of the are substances which when added to concrete
27
SP : 23-1982
increase the rate of hydration of cement, However, the effect of sugar depends greatly
shorten the setting time and increase the rate on the chemical composition of cement. The
of strength development. The chemicals that performance of such a retarder should be
accelerate the hardening of concrete mixes determined by trial mixes with the actual ce-
include soluble chlorides, carbonates, sili- ment to be used in construction. A large
cates, fluorosilicates and hydroxides and quantity of sugar (say 0.2 to 1 percent by
also some organic compounds, for example, mass of cement) prevents the setting of
triethanolamine. cement",
The most widely known accelerator is
calcium chloride. The addition of CaCl 2 to 2.4.3 W·ATI:.R-RfDlJCING AOMIXTURf ~ -
the concrete mix increases the rate of The water-reducing admixtures are usually
development of strength. Accelerating ad- based on calcium or sodium salts or
mixtures are used when concrete is to be derivatives of lignosulphonic acids from the
placed at low temperatures. Indian Standard wood pulping industry. Modern admixt ures
recommendations IS : 7861 (Part 11)-1981 73 based on lignosulphonic acid derivatives arc
for cold weather concreting envisages the use formulated from the purified products, after
of CaC12 up to a maximum of 1.5 percent by removing the sugar and other impurities.
mass of cement for plain and reinforced con- Polycarboxylic acids, their salts, modifica-
crete works, in cold weather conditions. tions and derivatives also find some applica-
CaCI 2 , however, is not permitted to be used tion as water-reducing admixtures;'.
in prestressed concrete because of its poten-
tial danger in augmenting stress corrosion. The increase in the workability of concrete
(in terms of compacting factor) using a water-
The increase in the rate of development of reducing admixture 1~ shown in Fig. 1671 •
early strength of concretes containing or- The determination of workability is an
dinary and rapid hardening Portland cement important factor In testing concrete admix-
is shown in Fig. 14 3 3 • At normal tures. Rapid loss of workability occurs dur-
temperatures, addition of 2 percent CaCI 2 = ing the first few minutes after mixing of
(a) accelerates the rate of strength of con- concrete and gradual loss ot workability takes
crete containing ordinary Portland cement at place over a period from 15 to 60 minutes
early ages approximating that of a rapid after mixing". Thus the relative advantage
hardening Portland cement, and (b) in- of water-reducing admixtures decreases with
creases the strength and abrasion resistance time after mixing. Therefore, IS: 9103-
of concrete at all ages up to 1 year". 1979b' stipulates that the workability of fresh
However, addition of calcium chloride ad- concrete containing admixtures should be
mixture may bring about reduction in flex- determined not sooner than 15 minutes nor
ural strength of concrete at ages of 28 days later than 20 minutes after completion of
and beyond. mixing of concrete.
Water-reducing set-retarders belong to the
2.4.2 RETARDING ADMIXTURES - A delay in following two main groups:
the setting of concrete is achieved by the use
of retarding admixtures. Retarding action a) Lignosulphonic acids and their salts,
rs exhibited by sugar, carbohydrate and
derivatives, soluble zinc salts, soluble b) Hydroxylated carboxylic acids and
borates, etc. Retarding admixtures are used their salts.
in hot weather when normal setting time of
cement gets reduced due to high These admixtures increase the setting time
temperature. IS: 7861 (Part 1)-1975 14 en- by about 2 to 6 hours during which concrete
visages the use of such admixtures to offset can be vibrated, revibrated and finished.
This is particularly important in hot weather
the accelerating effects of high temperature.
conditions or where the nature of construe..
The retarding action of a set-retarder to the
penetration resistance of concrete is shown tion demands a time 6~P between the placing
in Fig. 1S7~. of successive layers of concrete. It is possible
to offset the set-retarding property of this
A small quantity of sugar (about o.OS per- kind of admixture, if the situation so
cent by mass of cement) delays the setting demands, bv incorporating an accelerator.
time of concrete by about 4 hours". for example, CaC12 or trtethanolamine".
28
SP : 23-1982
(Clause 2.1)
29
SP : 23·1982
(Clause 2.1)
NOTE - Table 3 i'i from 'The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete (Third Edition J970)' by F. M, lee and Published
by Mis Edward Arnold Ltd, London.
- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - . -------~----------
_ -----------
- " ....-- ... ------ ------ - - - - - -
TAB".: 4 PHYSI<..'AI. AND ('II~:MI('AL REQUIRt:Mi:NTS OF INDIAN STANDARD SPE<":IFI('ATION~
FOR DI.~.~ER.:NT CEMENTS
(Clause 2.1)
CHARA<.- TfRI~TIC ORDINARY RAPID low HEAT HIGH PORTl AND PORTLAND
PORTLAND }-fARDl-NIN(, PORTl AND STRENGTH POZZOI ANA SLAG CEM[N I
C£:.Mf.NT PORTa AND CEMENT PORTLAND CFMENT (IS : 455
(IS : 269- CEM["If (IS : 269- CEMf:Nr (IS : 1484- 1976)
1976) (IS : 8041- 1976) (IS : 8112- . 1976)
1976) 1976)
Physicat Requirements
Fineness:
Specific surface (cm 2/ g) , 2 250 3 250 3 200 3 SOO 3000 2 250
Min
Setung time, vicar:
Initial set t ing time 30 30 60 30 30 30
(minutes), Min
Final selling time (hours), 10 10 10 10 10 10
Max
Soundness:
Le-Chat e li er method, loa, Sb loa: Sb loa, Sb loa, Sb J()4l, Sh loa,Sb
expansion (rnrn), Max
Autoclave expansion" , 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
percent, Max
Heat of hydration (cal/g),
Max:
7 days 65
28 days 75
Compressive sr reng t h
(kgf/cm 2) , Min:
1 day 160
3 days 160 275 100 230 160
7 days 220 160 330 220 220
28 days 3'0 430 310
Dryina shrinkale (percent), O.IS
Max (Conlinu~d)
30
SP t 23-1982
CHARAC TERI~TI< ORDINARY RAPID Low HEAT HIGH PORTLAND PORTI AND
PORTlAND HARDENING PORTLAND STRf:N(,TH POZZOlANA Sl AG CI:ML Nl
CEMENT PORTLAND CEMENT PORTLAND CEMENT (IS : 455~
(IS : 269- CEMENT (IS : 269- CEMENT (IS : 1484- 1976)
1976) (IS: 8041- 1976) (IS : 8112- 1976)
1976) 1976)
Chemical Requirements
Maximum percentage of 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 8.0
M (Magnesia)
S (Total sulphur content 2.75. 3.~ 2.75,3.0' 2.75, 3.D'- 2.75, 3.0<: 2.75,3.OC 3.0
calculated as sulphuric
anhydride. 50 3)
a - Unaerated, b - Ae-rated (required when sample fails in 'a'), C - When C JA >7 percent,
d - Where x is the declared percentage of pozzolana,
e - Air-entr aimng or other agents which have proved not to be harmful,
f - Lime saturation factor =: ~~~O - o. 7~03 • and
2.8 Si0 2 + 1.2 AI20) + '0.65 FC 20 1
x -- Declared percentage of pozzolana In the given Portland pozzolana cement.
31
SP : 13·1911
(Cia... 2.2.1.2)
Durability
Resistance to wetting and drying Pore structure
Modulus of elasticity
Resistance to heating and cooling Coefficient of thermal expansion
Abrasion resistance Hardness
Alkali - aggregate reaction Presence of particular silicious constituents
Resistance to freezing and thawing Soundness
Porosity
Pore structure
Permeability
Degree of saturation
Tensile strength
Texture and structure
Presence of clay
Co-efficient of thermal expansion Co-efficient of thermal expansion
Modulus of elasticity
Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity
Specific heat Speei fie heat
Unit weiaht Specific .ravity
Particle shape
Gradina
Maximum size
Modulus of elasticity Modulus of elasticity
Poisson's ratio
Slipperiness Tendency to polish
Economy Particle shape
Oradina
Maximum size
Amount of processing required
Availability
NOTE - Table S is from 'Selectlon and Usc of Aurea-tes for Concrete' Reported by ACI Committee 621 (ACI
Manual of Concrete Practice, Part I. 1979). American Concrete Institute, USA.
32
SP : 23-1982
tCtause 2.2.1.2)
TABLE 7 EXPECTED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIOUS Tt:STS FOR DI ....'i:R..:NT ROCK GROUPS
(Clouse 2.2.2.1)
NOTE - Table 7 is from 'Properties of Concrete (Second Edition, 1973)' by A. M. Neville and published by
MIs Pitman Publishing Corporation, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons ltd, london.
-------------- ---.-,..... --
33
SP : 23-1982
(Clause 2.2.2.2)
Rounded Fully water worn or completely shaped River or seashore gravels; desert,
by attrition seashore and wind blown sands
I rregular or partly rounded Naturally irregular, or partly shaped by Pit sands and gravels; land or dug
attrition and having rounded edges flints; cuboid rock
Angular Possessing well defined edges formed at
the intersection of roughly planer faces Crushed rocks of all types; talus; screes
Flaky Material, usually angular, Of which the
thickness is small relative to the width Laminated rocks
and/ or length
Coarse
ABSORPTION 0.-
DI.·.·.~R~NT T\ Pt-:S OF ROC'KS
34
SP : 23-1982
3S
SP : 13-1981
---_.~,._--------------
---------- ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - _ . _ -~-.-
~----~----~------------- --------------
TABLE 18 PH"SICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRt:TE ADMIXTURES
(Clause 2.4)
36
SP : 23-1982
~
~- -- ------------
(Clause 2.4.4)
MAXIMUM SIZE OF AGGREGATE OPTIMUM TOTAL AIR CONTl:.NT ApPROXIMATE AMOUNT OF AIR
(rnm) (PERCENT) NATURAL L Y ENTRAPPED
(PERCENT)
10 8.0 3.0
12.5 7.0 2.5
20 6.0 2.0
25 5.0 1.5
40 4.5 1.0
SO 4.0 0.5
70 3.5 0.3
ISO 3.0 0.2
Non - Table 19 is from 'Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal Weight Concrete' Reported
by ACI Committee 211 (ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. Part I. 1979). American Concrete Insutute, USA.
37
SP : 13-1982
1 .0
0-8
n------
C
LU
.....
-4
£t: 0_6 +----- ------ .,- - - - -
C
>
:I:
Z
o
~ 0.4
U
«
et=
u,
0.2
o
10 100 180
NOTE - Figure I is from 'Properties of Concrete (Second Edition, 1973)' by A. M. Neville and published by
Mis Pitman Publishing Corporation. Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd. London.
38
SP : 23-1982
80
70
E 50
E
z
:t: 40
.....
o
z
LaJ
~ 30
V')
lLJ
>
V;
Vl 20
UJ
Q:
o,
~
o 10
u
3
o
7 28 90 ieo 360
AGE, DAYS
41
~------+
-------+
N
E
-e
z ....
:x: 3S
~
o
Z
UJ
a-
t-
V)
lLJ
>
V\ o
V)
UJ 2.
C%
Q.
:l o
0
u
o ~'-DAY~
+ ~ VEAR
21
2SlO 2110
Fig. 3 Relationship Between Strength of Concrete at Different Ages and Fineness of Cement
39
SP : 13-1982
27
24
21
0
u 18
L&J
0:: 15
:::J
t-
<l 12
a:
~ 9
~
W
Jto-
6
0
0 1 2 3 7 28 90
AGE, DAYS
NOTE - Figure 4 IS from 'Concrete Technology (Vol I, Fourth Edition. 1979)' by 0 F Orchard and published by
Applied SCience Publishers Ltd, London
84
I
i 1
I
N 70 - , ~
E HIGH ALUMINA
E
--~-- -T
~~--~
I
--t-----
40
SP : 13·1982
60 60 -~ i-
I
_SO
II
LLJ
I- ~'O ,
4
UJ
~ 50 ~30
U C)
Z 0
0 =20 -
U
LL
ON
J: E
40
-~15
Z
'--~O 0
l-
C> E
z 30
UJ Z
a: ",
to-
V'l -
, u
.... 20
5
0.1 0.2 0.3 O~ Q60..7
--XhlLOG SCALI) ~--e
o.s
UJ
> I 0
Vi
U1
UJ I
Q: 10 -t ~ -
ct. I
~
0
U
0 .....- -......- - - - - - -.......- - - - - - ....._ _...........
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
HYDRATE-SPACE RATIO (Xh)
Fig. 6 Relationship Between Compressive Strength and Hydrate-Space Ratio
6 0 ~-...... ------r------------------....
50
PORTLAND
N BLAST- FURNACE
~
e
z 40
~
.. ORDINARy PORTLAND
...
X
~
Z 30
LU
IX
....
V')
UJ
> 20
i1\
(/)
UJ
~
Q.
~
0 10
U
o 7 28 AGE, DAYS
"
Fig, 7 Strength Development oJ ConcretesMade with Portland Blast-Furnace Cement
(Water-Cement Ratio = 0.6)
NOTE - Figure 7 is reproduced from •Properties of Concrete (Second Edition, 1973Y by A. M. Neville and published
by Mis Pitman Publishing Corporation, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sens Ltd, London.
41
SP : 13·1982
....o::c
z
w
~
....
U)
z
UJ
U 1~-Ha-~---~~------t--------
ex
UJ
e,
21
AGE, DAYS
42
SP : 13·1981
E 6-8
E
\D
t")
N
•
'-'
w
~ 6-6
• •
"
w
~
'"
cJ
c(
(/)
UJ
en
:::> ac
-' :;) SAND GRAVEL
::> 0
u • QUARTZ
c QUART Z
0 e QUARTZ LIMESTONE
:%
x LIMESTONE QUARTZ
~ 0 o LIMESTONE LIMESTONE
UJ
Z
UJ
Z
u..
E
:L
0
....
Ln
•
E 2-0
E
......... ---.. x
.
CD
CW)
N ---
C o
Z
~
en
'·8 0 60 120 180
Fig. 9 Effect of Prolonged Mixing on Fineness Modulus of Sand and Gravel Sizes
43
SP : 23-1982
I
23 --- --1---
I
II
I
22...-------+---~ --- - - - ---+---#-
("'") 21
E
C1'
~
...Z 20
w
....
Z
0
u
C% 19 ----
UJ
.....
-:l
~
C)
Z 18 --- -- -
s
~
-------- ---~
171--------+-~---+_---__4~---__+_----+_---____t----_4
Fig. 10 Influence of Void Content of Sand in a Loose Condition on the Mixing Water
Requirement of Concrete
NOTE - Figure 10 is from 'Properties of Concrete (Second Edition, 1973)' by A. M. Neville and published by Pitman
Publishing Corporation, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd, London.
44
SP : 23·1981
120 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - . . . , . - - - - - . - - - , . . . . - - - - - .
t
%
.....
o
z 100
w
a: a
....
en --.....
w 10 - •
~
CI)
(/)
w
~
Q.
10
~
o
u
~
C
'0
•
I
N
0 . SERIES (AVERAGE OF 6 TESTS /POINT) REL f:=100-'-921·/ CLAY)
20 6 C SERIES (AVERAGE OF 3 TESTS I POINT) CORRELATION -
o E SERIES (AVERAGE OF 3 TESTS IPOINT) COE;FFICIEN =0·19
• B SERIES (AVERAGE OF 6 TESTS /POINT)
O'--_ _J--_ _.....L-_ _....I..-_ _........_ _--'-_ _-....._ _-..-.Io...-._ _......_ - - - '
o 2·0 3·0 e-o
45
SP : 13-1981
700
r
II
600
Jl
- l
I
~-~t
-~._.~
it 0
h--
•
I ~
J , ~
"NOCUOUS
AGGRfGAT!S
• 4
~ ~---. ~
-- -,---1..
~
~-
,
. ,:~
A •
. ::.~\& ,
at!
_.
'00 .. A
",
•• 1I
t _XX XJ .'" DELE fER'OU$
~
, I X X• • AGGREGATE 5
•
••• 0° • :/, I •• X
o , 2-5 5-0 '0 25 SO '00 2S0 SOO 1000 l~ 00
7-5 'IS 750
SILICA DISSOlVED. F"OM 300 TO ,~ MICRONS SIZ[ AGGREGATE
MATERIAL (M'L'WOLES ILITAE) BV 1 N MIOH SOLUTiON (QUANTlT't.Se)
x Aggregat•• for which mortar expansion data are not available but
which are Indicated to be deleterious by petrographic examination
• Aggregat•• for which mortar expansion data are not available but
which are Indicated to be lnnccuous by petrographic examination
46
SP : 13·1982
1200 r--------..,..-------.,.--------~------ ....
LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATE
N -....l
........A- O
-~ l,~ ---.- -7
----
. 19 800
-.- .. - __ -...---·--3
... • ... '8
e,
w
... ..... - ---~
w ~
ex ~ , - __ 4 - - - _. - -
u
NORMAL WEIGHT
400
Fig. 13 Creep of Concrete of Nominal 210 kg//crn 2 Strength Made with Different
Lightweight Aggregates, Loaded at the Age of 7 Days to 42 kg//ern 2
NOTE - Figure 13 IS taken from 'Creep of concrete Plain, Reinforced and Prestressed' (1970) by A M
Neville and published by North-Holland Pubhshmg Company, Amsterdam
70
10---- RAJID I
N
E 60
HARDENING
ce ME NT
(2 ./. CAl(IUfl4 CHLORtDE.? ~
~
,;
E ...... --- ~
~~
<, ~
Z ... >
~ / ",,
.. 50
RAPID ~\~ t>
,.... ,-
~
~ --
~11
J:
to-
o
HARDENINO
CEMENT
~
V ()~~
", V " ()~
<:-:.
,.\ .~
/
.,
~ ~V
Z 40 ,NO ADDITIVEJ
w
a: p(" ~.It.''' ~
-, :/V
~
~- -
~
V)
30 ./
V I-
A..
- ~
NOR ~Al
PORTLANO-
~,.... #fJ
w
> / CEMENT
'-'l
tJ)
~.
---- V ~
~
'" ~ " (NO ADOIYlver-
,UJ 20 --- ~
a:
V ~ ", NORMAL
a
Q. ~ PORllANO
~
0 ~ ,/ CE~E NT
U 10 ~ f'
~
- ~ - .. ( 1 ./. CA l Cl UN CHLO~ toe ~
~ ,. " ~ - f---
I I 1
/'
o
6 12 " 3 4 5 7 10 14 28
- - - __ ~_.--J
"'--
HOURS DAYS
"'-- ~
AGE
Fig. 14 Compressive Strength of Normal and Rapid Hardening Cement with
2 Percent Calcium Chloride Addition
NOTE - Figure 14 I~ from 'Concrete Technology (Fifth Edition, 1977)' by F. S Fulton and pubhshed by
Portland Cement Insntute, Johannesburg
47
SP : 13·1912
0.70
N
E
~
Z
0.60
UJ 050
u
Z
~
.....
U'l 0.40
~
I.&J
Ct
0.30
Z
0
t-
el
tt 0.20
I-
UJ .~~- W/C :O·S'
Z
UJ J. NORMAL DOSE
CL 0.10
0.00
0 2 3 4 5 , 7
• , '0
TIME HOURS
48
0.95
--, ,
"-
"-
"
I
I
""
0.90 " '" "'
~ "-~ r-----..,
0
.....
u
-ex
I" ~~ ......
--... .............
~ ~~ I------¥I I C = O. 60 + AO ...I X TUR E
~ .........
I----L- ________________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-.
o
~ Z
'C
~
U
<l
c, 0.85
~ w/ c = 0.61
0 f
U
.............
Q.8()
3 15 30 60
TIME AFTER THE COMPLETION OF MIXING, min. TJJ
~
J:
.... ot 0.15
o
Z
UJ
...J
1" 0 10
~
LU
C> ... 0.05
Z
cl
J:
U 0
.....•
•
11 0
so
SP : 23-1982
REFERENCES 75-105
24 IJT Prehrmnary report on the Investigations con
IS 456-1978 Code of practice for plain and rein ducted on factory made pozzolana cement Struc
forced COOl-rete (third revisions tural Engmeenng Laboratory, Indian Institute of
2 IS 269-1976 Speoficanon for ordinary and low Technology, Madras, 1976
heat Portland cement (third revtsiom 2~ ACI Committee 201 GUide to durable concrete J
3 I~ 8041 1978 Specifrcanon for rapid hardening Amer Concr Ins! 74, 12, 1977, P 573-609
Portland cement (first revtstoni 26 IS 4031 1968 Methods of physical tests for
4 IS 455-1976 Specification for Portland slag ve hydrauhc cement
ment (third revtstom 27 IS 4032 1968 Method of chermcal analysis of
IS 1489 1976 Specrhcauon for Portland POl hydraulu.. cement
zolana cement (second revtsions 28 AC.l Committee 621 Selection and use of ag
6 IS 8112 1976 Speuncauon for high strength or gregates tor concrete ACI Manual of Concrete
dmary Portland cement Practice, Part L 1974
7 IS 8043 1978 Specification for hydrophobic 29 IS 383 1970 Specifrcanon for coarse and fine ag
Portland cement (flr~t revisions gregates from natural sources for concrete (second
8 IS 6452 1972 Specification for high alumina ce revtstom
ment for structural use 30 IS 2386 (Part IV) 1963 Methods of test for ag
9 IS 6909 1973 Specrfrcauon for supersulphated gregates for concrete Part IV Mecharnsal pro
cement pernes
10 I'S 1343 1980 Code of practice for prestressed 31 as 882 1965 Specrfrcauon for coarse and fine ag
concrete tftrst revu/on) gregate from natural soun..es Bnush Standards
11 NEVILLE (A M) Properties of concrete 1973 Pit Institution
man Pubhshmg 32 NRMC.A Aggregate degradation dunng mixing
12 LEA (F M) The chemistry of cement clod concrete NRM( A Technical Information Letter No 341
1970 Edward Arnold (Pubhsners) Ltd 1978 National Ready Mixed Concrete ASSOCla
13 HIGGINSON (E C) The effect of cement fineness on non
concrete ASTM Special Technical Pubhcauon 33 l-LJI TON (f ~)Concrete Technology 1977 The
473 1970 American Society for Tesnng and Portland Cement Insutute, Johannesburg
Materials l4 I~ 2386 (Part 11) 1963 Methods of test for ag
14 CRJ Cement Standards of the- World, ~P-1-77 gregatex for concrete Part II Esumauon of
Cement Research lnsutuu of lndra, New Deihl deletenous matenal.. and organic impunues
1978 15 BUTH (E), IVEY (D 1 ) and HIRSCH (T J) Dirty ag
IS ORLHARD (D ~) Concrete Technology Vol 1 gregares, what difference does It make? Hlgh\\ay
Thud Edition J973 Applied Science Publishers Revear ch Record No 226 1968 Highw a)
Limited, I ondon Research Board
16 \\'ILlIAM~)N (R B) Sohdifuauon of Portland ce- 36 A~ TM l 33 78 Speuncauon for concrete ag
ment University of Cahforrua Report No U( gregates Amencan Societv tor resting and
SE:SM 70 - 21 Berkeley, 1970 Matenals
17 VI:.RBl:LK (G J) and HELMUTH (R A) Structure and l7 I~ 21R6 <Part VI) 1963 Methods of test tor ag
ph) su.al properties of cement paste Proceedings gregates for concrete Part VI Measuring mortar
oj the Fifth International Symposium on the making proper: IC~ of fine aggregate
Chemistry of Cement, Tokyo 1968 Part III, P 38 HOON (R C) and SHARMA (K R) The selecnon,
1-44 procevsmg and specrtrcanon of aggregate for con
18 MILL'> (R H) Collapse of structure and creep In crete for large dams-e-Effect of employing
concrete Proceedtngs oj the International Con micaceous sand a, fine aggregate fracuon on the
jerence on Structure, Solid Mechanu s and properties of cement mortar and concrete Pro
Engineering Design If' CIvil Engtneenng Materials ceedtngs of the Seventh Congress of the Interna
Southampton, P 751 68 uonal Commission on Large Dams J96J Rome
19 Powr.as (T () Physical properties of cement 19 GOKHAL I- (Y C) Economic aspects of the
paste Proceedings of the Fourth International manufacture of COOl-rete for general construction
Symposium on the Chemistry of Cement, In Kathmandu Valley, Nepal Ind Caner J 36,5,
Washington 1960 Nauonal Bureau of Standards, 1962, 185-89
Monograph 43, VII, Sesvion V, P 577 609 40 HOON (R C), SHARMA (K R) and <;;HARMA (5 ~)
20 POW~RS (T C) and BROWNYARD (F Ll Studies of '-- ernent mortars and concrete mix design, Effect
the physrcal propcrues of hardened Portland of mica contained In sand fracuon on the proper
cement paste PC A Bulletin 22 4947 ties of mortar and concrete J National BUildings
21 Mill ~ (R H) Factors Influencing cessauon of Organtratton 5, 7. 1960, 38-52
hydration In water cured cement pavtes Syrn 41 HOON (R C) and VENKATFSWARlU (V) Benefu ra
posium on Structure of Portland Cement Pavte non of nucaveous sand for use av fine aggregate
and Concrete Highway Research Boai d Special lnd C oncr J 16 7, 1962 256-63
Report 90, 1966, P 406 24 42 II V.l~ (A F G) Sea dreged aggregate for concrete
22 VISV['i\ARA' A (H C) and MULLICK (A K) Relation Proceedings of a S) InpOSIU1n held at Fulmer
between water content in concrete mixes and lorn Grange, BucAlnghamshtre 1968 Sand and Gravel
pr e s srvc strength ~econd l nrc r nat i o na l Asvocranon of Great Bntain
(IB/RIL~M ~ympo"lum on MOisture Problems 41 J~ 2~86 (Part V) 1961 Method, of test for ag
In BUilding The Netherlandv, 1974 gregates for concrete Part V Soundnevs
23 KOJ.URlI (M) J-I~ Avh and I ly Ash Cement Pro 44 AC I 22) R-61 Selecuon and use of aggregate for
ce~dlngs of Iht' fifth Internallonal f)vn,poslufn on concrete A( I Manual of t oncrete Pralth..e, Part
thl' ( hl'1nlHrv of ("'I.~,nenl ToA} 0 I Q68 Part I V P L 1979
51
SP : 13·1982
4S DOLAR - MANTuANI (l) Soundness and pure can at be') peA Research Department Bulk (I
deleterious substances Significance of tests and 119, 1960 Portland Cement Association Resear...
properties of concrete and concrete making and Development Laboratories
matenals, ASTM STP 1698 American Society for 62 Me COy (W J) MIXing and cunng water for con
Tesnng and Materials 1979 P 744-761 crete Ssgmfrcance of tests and properties of con
46 FRENCH (W J) and POOLE (A B) Alkah -aggregate crete and concrete making matenals ASTM
reactions and the MIddle East Concrete 10, I, Special Technical Pubhcauon No 169 A 1966
1976, 18-20 American Society for Testing and Materials
47 MATHER (B) New Concern Over Alkali-Aggregate 63 Requirements of rmxing water for concrete Ind
Reaction NRMCA Pubhcanon No 149 1975 Concr J 3,1963,95, 98 and 113
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association 64 SHALON (R) and RAPHAEL (M) Influence of sea
48 FRENCH (W J) and POOLE (A B) Deleterious reac water on corrosion of remforcement J A mer
lions between dorormtes from bahrain and cement Caner (Prj SS,6, 1959, 1251-68
paste Cern Caner Res 4, 6, 1974, 925-37 65 12-CRC Committee Corrosion of rein forcernent
49 SMITH (P) Learning to hve with a reactive car- and prestressing tendons, A State-of the Art
bonate rock Proceedings of the Symposium on Report Mal Struct 9, 51. 1976, 187-206
Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reacnons Highway 66 GUTT (W H) and HARRISON (W H) Chemical
Research Record No 4.5, 1964 HIghway Research resistance of concrete Concrete 11, S, 1977,
Board 35-37
SO NEWLON (H H) and SHERWOOD (W C) Methods 67 Ie;; 9103 1979 Specifrcanon for admixtures for
for reducing expansion of concrete caused by concrete
alkali-carbonate rock reaction Proceedtngs of the 68 IS 3812 (Part 11)·1981 Specificanon for flyash
Symposium on Alkatt..Carbonate Rock Reactions Part II For use as admixture for concrete (ftrst
HIghway Research Record No 4S, J964 Highway revtsiont
Research Board 69 IS 1344-1982 Specificanon for calcined clay POl
S1 IS 2386 (Part VII)-1963 Methods of test for ag zolana (second revtstom
gregates for concrete Pan VII Alkah aggregate 70 MIELl'NZ (R C) Chemical and air ..entraining ad
reactivity mixtures for concrete National Ready Mixed
S2 SWENSON (E--G) Reactive aggregates undetected by Concrete ASSOCIation Pubhcanon No J 32, 1970
ASTM tests ASTM Bulletin No 226 19S7 P 71 Rrxov (M R) W tiler reducing admixtures for con
48-51 crete Concrete admixtures use and apphcauons
53 WASHA (G W) Volume change Sllnlflcance of 1977 The Construction Press LImited, England
tests and properties of concrete and concrete mak.. 72 ASTM C 233 76 Standard method of tesung air
mg materials ASTM Special Technical Pubhca entraimng admixtures for concrete Arnencan
lion No 169-A 1966 American Society for Society for Testing and Materials
Testing and Materials 71 IS 7861 (Part II) 198J Code of pracnce for ex
.54 JAOUS (P J) and BAWA (N S) Alkali-aggregate treme weather concrenng Part II Recommended
reaction In concrete pa\ ement, Road Research practice for cold weather concreting
Bulletin No 3, 1957, Indian Roads Congress, New 74 IS 7861 (Part I) 1975 Code of practice for ex
Deihl treme weather concreting Part I Recommended
SS GooTE (8 S) An evaluation of some common practice for hot weather concretmg
Indian rocks With special reference of alkali- 7S HEWLETT (P C) An mtroducnon to and a
aggregate reacuons Engg Geology 7, 2, 1973, classifrcanon of cement admixtures Concrete ad
P 13's-153 mixtures use and apphcauons 1971 The Con
,56 IS 9142 1979 Specifrcauon for artrfrcral strucnon Press LImited, England
bghtwetght aggregates for concrete masonry units 76 GHOSH (R K), CHATIFRJEE (M R), BHATIA (M l )
~7 IS 2686-1977 Specmcauon for CInder aggregates and BHATNAGAR (R C) lnvestrgauon on sugar
for use In lime concrete (first reVISion) mixed concrete for pavements Road Research
58 NEVILLE. (A M) Creap of concrete plain, reinforc Bulleun No 17, Indian Roads Congress, 1973
ed and prestressed 1970, North - Holland 77 "LETCHER (K E) and R08ERT~ (M H) Test methods
Pubhshmg Company - Amsterdam to assess the performance of admixtures In con
59 ACI Committee 213 GUide for structural crete Concrete s.s, 1971, J42 48
hahtwelght aggregate concrete ACI Manual of 78 HUSSEll (D J T) Freeze thaw and seating tests on
Concrete Practice, Part I, 1974 SIlicone treated concrete Highway Research
60 TOBIN (R E), HOLM (T A), RASMUSSEN (P and c." Record No 18 1963 Hlghwd)' Research Board
Mc MANUS (R N) Changes In the forthcoming 79 BENNETT (K) AIr entraining adrruxtures for Lon
revised ACI bUilding code relative to structural crete Concrete adrmxtures Use and applicanons
lightweight concrete ACI Pubhcation SP 29 1977 The Construcuon Press Limited, England
Lightweight Concrete 1971 Arnencan Concrete 80 ACI 211 1 71 Recommended prac nee for selecnng
Institute proportions for normal weight concrete Arnencan
61 STEINDUR (H H) Concrete mix water - How rrn Concrete Institute
52
SECTION 3
3.0 Introduction - Concrete has to have determines the ease and homogeneity with
satisfactory properties both in the fresh and which it can be mixed, placed. compacted
hardened states. While workability as defin- and finished ........•. It is also clear that
ed below is the cardinal desirable property of the optimum workability of concrete varies
fresh concrete, strength and durability are from situation to situation and concrete
the most important properties of concrete in which can be termed as workable for pour-
the hardened state. As was brought out in ing into large sections with minimum rein-
Section I, demand of satisfactory properties forcement may not be equally workable for
of concrete in the fresh and hardened states pouring in thin sections with heavier concen-
may often bring conflicting requirements in tration of reinforcement. A concrete may
the material and mix proportions; the aim of not be workable when compacted by hand
the rational mix design is also to reconcile but may be satisfactory when mechanical
these factors. vibration is used.
In this section, these important properties
of concrete, namely, workability, com- 3. J.l DIFFERENT MEASURES OF WORK-
pressive and tensile strengths and durability ABILITY - There are different methods of
are discussed along with the various factors measuring the workability of fresh con-
which influence them. crete. Each of them measures only a par-
ticular aspect of it and there ig. really no uni-
que test which measures workability of con-
3./ Workability ---From the stage of mix- crete in its totality. Although new test
ing till it is transported, placed in the form- methods are being developed frequently,
work and compacted, fresh concrete should IS : 1199-19S92 envisages the following three
satisfy a number of requirements which may methods:
be summarized as follows:
a) Slump test,
a) The mix should be stable, in that it b) Compacting factor test, and
should not segregate during transpor- c) Vee-Bee consistency test.
tation and placing. The tendency of
bleeding should be minimized. Out of these three, the slump test is
perhaps the most widely used, primarily
b) The mix should be cohesive and mobile
because of the simplicity of the apparatus re-
enough to be placed in the form
quired and the test procedure. For such con-
around the reinforcement and should
cretes where slump test is suitable (see
be able to cast into the required shape.
below), the concrete after test slumps evenly
c) The mix should be amenable to proper all round which may be called 'true slump'.
and thorough compaction as possible When the mixes are harsh or in case of very
in the situation of placing and with the lean concrete one half of the cone may slide
facilities of compaction. down the other which is called a 'shear
d) It should be possible to obtain a slump'; or it may even collapse (Fig. 183) .
satisfactory surface finish. Apart from some conclusion being drawn
regarding the harshness or otherwise of the
The diverse requirements of stability t mix, slump test is essentially a measure of
mobility, compactability, placeability and 'consistency' or the 'wetness' of the mix.
finishability of fresh concrete mentioned The test -is suitable only for concretes of
above are collectively referred to as medium to high workabilities (that is, slump
'workability'. The workability of fresh con- 25 to 12S nun). For very stiff mixes having
crete is thus a composite property. It is dif- zero slump, the slump test does not indicate
ficult to precisely define all the aspects in a any difference in concretes of different
sinaJe definition. IS : 6461 (Part VII)-1973 1 workabilities. It has been pointed out that
defines workability as 'that property of different concretes havina the same slump
freshly mixed concrete or mortar which may have indeed different workability under
S5
SP : 23·1982
the site conditions. However, when the between the different measures of workabili-
uniformity among different batches of sup- ty under different conditions, it is recom-
posedly similar concretes under field condi- mended that, for a given concrete, the ap-
tions is to be measured, slump test has been propriate test method be decided beforehand
found to be useful". and workability expressed in terms of such
test only rather than interpreting from the
The compactability, that is, the amount of results of other tests.
work needed to compact a given mass of
concrete, is an important aspect of 3.1.1 FAcrORS AFFECTING WORKABILITY-
workability. Strictly speaking, compacting The workability of fresh concrete depends
factor test measures workability in an in- primarily on the materials and mix propor-
direct manner, that is, the amount of com- tions and also on the environmental
paction achieved for a given amount of conditions. These are discussed in 3.1.2.1
work. This test has been held to be more ac- and 3.1.2.2.
curate than slump test, specially for concrete
mixes of 'medium' and 'low' workabilities 3.1.2.1 INFLUENCE OF MATERIALS AND MIX
(that is. compacting factor of 0.9 to 0.8). Its PROPORTIONS - While a number of relations
use has been more popular in laboratory between the various mix parameters and
conditions. For concrete of very low workability of fresh concrete are available, a
workabilities (that is, compacting factor of rational approach to unify the effects of dif-
0.70 and below which cannot be fully com- ferent mix variables can be sought in the
pacted for comparison, in the manner cement-aggregates-water system. Aggregates
described in the test method) this test is not occupy nearly 70 to 75 percent of the total
suitable. volume of concrete and economy demands
that the volume of aggregates in the concrete
Vee-Bee test is preferable for stiff concrete should be as large as possible. The particle
mixes having 'low' or 'very low' workability. interference as well as the total specific area
Compared to the other two tests, Vee-Bee of the aggregate are to be minimized to the
test has the advantage that the concrete in extent possible by the proper choice of size,
the test receives a similar treatment as it shape and proportion of fine and coarse ag-
would be in actual practice. Since the end gregates. Different size fractions are to be so
point of the test (when the glass plate rider chosen as to minimize the voids content.
completely covers the concrete) is to be Such a dry mixture of aggregates having
ascertained visually, it introduces a source of minimum voids content will not be mobile
error which is more pronounced for concrete and will need water for lubricating effects.
mixes of high workability and consequently The water-cement ratio in itself determines
records low Vee-Bee time. The test is the intrinsic properties of the cement paste
therefore, not suitable for concrete of higher and the requirements of workability are such
workability that is, slump of 75 mm or that there should be enough cement paste to
above. surround the aggregate particles as well as to
Experience has shown that mix propor- fill the voids in the aggregates. On an
tions influence the workability of concrete, engineering scale. the water content of the
and more pertinently, different workability mix is the primary factor governing the
tests to different extent. Therefore, it is workability of the fresh concrete. The
futile to expect a rilid correlation between workability increases with the water content
the workabilities of concrete as measured by as shown in Fig. 20',' and displays a relation-
different methods. Table 20' attempts to ship as follows":
describe different workabilities of concrete y=cwP
in terms of slump, Vee-Bee time and com- where
pacting factor. The table Jives the range of y = specified consistency value
expected values by different test methods for (for example, slump);
comparable concretes may 8iv~ an indication C = term which depends on the
of the correlation between them. Similarly composition of the concrete
FiS. 19' indicates a general pattern of rela- (cement content, air content,
tions between workability tests for concrete aggregate grading, etc) and
mixes hlvins varying _saregate-cement method of measuring con-
ratios. In the absence of definite correlations ~istency;
56
SP : 23-1982
57
SP : 23-1982
therefore, by the ambient temperature. On a may indeed be uneconomical in the long run.
hot day. it becomes necessary to increase the The effectiveness of vibration equipment
water content of the concrete mix in order to available for compaction should also be
maintain the desired workability unless other taken into consideration.
precautions are taken (see 7. J.2). The
amount of mixing water required to bring 3.2 Compressive Strength - The com-
about a certain change in workability also pressive strength of hardened concrete is
increases with temperature. Fig. 22 12 shows considered to be the most important proper-
the effect of concrete temperature on the ty. It can be measured easily on standard siz-
workability of concrete (in terms of slump) ed cube or cylindrical specimens and is often
and the percentage change in water re- taken as an index of the, overall 'quality' of
quirements per 25 mm change in slump, for concrete. Many other desirable properties of
different concrete temperatures. concrete, for example shear and tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, bond, im-
3./.3 REQUIREMENT OF WORKABILITY - In pact, abrasion resistance and durability etc,
addition to the desired compressive strength. are also taken to be related to the com-
the concrete should have workability such pressive strength, at least to a general extent.
that it can be placed in the formwork and
Among the materials and mix variables,
compacted with the minimum effort,
water-cement ratio is the most important
without causing segregation or bleeding The
parameter governing compressive strength.
choice of workability depends upon the type
Besides water-cement ratio, the following
of compacting equipment available, the size
factors also effect the compressive strength
of the section and the concentration of rein-
of concrete:
forcement. For heavily reinforced sections
or when the sections are narrow or contain a) The characteristics of cement,
inaccessible parts or when the spacing of rein- b) The characteristics and proportions of
forcernent makes placing and compaction aggregates,
difficult, concrete should be highly work- c) The degree of compaction,
able for full compaction to be achieved with d) The efficiency of curing,
a reasonable amount of effort. Table 22 13
e) The temperature during the curing
gives range of workabilities required in terms
period,
of slump, compacting factor and V-B time
for concretes depending upon the placing f) The age at the time of testing, and
conditions at site. It may be noted that the g) The conditions of test.
nominal maximum size of aggregates itself The influence of mix proportions, placing.
makes a difference in the degree of compaction, curing and age of testing, on
workability that may be suitable u.ider a par- the compressive strength of concrete are
ticular placing condition. The range of discussed in 3.2./ to 3.2.3.
values indicated are considered suitable for
concretes having aggregates of nominal max.. 3.2. J INFLUENCE OF MIX PROPORTIONS
imum size 20 mm. Generally the value of
workability will increase with the increase in a) Water-cement ratio -- The com-
the size of aggregate and will be somewhat pressive strength of concretes at a given
lower for aggregates of smaller size than in- age and under normal temperature,
dicated. depends primarily on the water-cement
ratio; lower the water-cement ratio,
Notwithstanding the guidance for greater is the compressive strength and
workability given tn Table 22, the situation vice-versa. This was first enunciated by
at hand should be properly assessed to arrive Abrams as:
at the desired workability in each case. The KI
aim should be to have the minimum possible S=-~·_
KWIC
workability consistent with satisfactory plac- 2
ing and compaction of the concrete. It
should be remembered that insufficient where S is the compressive strength and
workability resulting in incomplete compac- w/c represents the water-cement ratio
tion may severely affect the strength, of a fully compacted concrete mix, and
durability and surface finish of concrete and K, and K 2 are empirical constants.
58
SP : 13-1981
In day to day practice, the constants precisely known. It has generally been
XI and K, are not evaluated; instead found that greater the 7-day strength
the relationship between compressive of cement (as given by the standard test
strength and the water-cement ratio are procedure), the greater is the com-
adopted, which are supposed to be pressive strength of concrete at 28 day,
valid for a wide range of conditions. for identical mix proportions (Fig.
These relationships are discussed in 26 16) . However, there may not be a
Section 6. one-to-one correspondence between
7-day strength of cement and 28-day
b) Aggregate-cement ratio - The in-
strength of concrete. Because the
fluence of the physical characteristics
relative increase in strength of cement
of the aggregates on the compressive at 28-day is smaller, the greater the
strength of concrete was discussed
7-day strengrh'"; perhaps 28-day
earlier in Section 2. As long as the strength of cement would give better
workability of concrete is maintained
correlation. As a guide, it has been
at a satisfactory level, the compressive
found that for an increase in 7-day
strength of concrete had been found to
strength of cement of SO kgf'/cm", the
increase, with increase in aggregate-
increase in 28-day strength of concrete
cement ratio, the water-cement ratio
is of the order of 40 to '. SO kgf/cm",
being held constant'. However, in
high-strength concrete mixes of lower d) Effect of age of testing - Concrete is
workability, or in such situations generally tested for its compressive
where due to increase in aggregate- strength at the age of 28 days. Because
cement ratio the workability is reduced of continuing hydration, the later age
to such an extent that concrete cannot strength of concrete would generally be
be properly placed and thoroughly higher than at 28 days; however. the
compacted, Ihe above is not true. In exact increase win depend upon the
high-strength mixes of low workabili- type of cement, mix composition and
ty, a decrease in aggregate-cement ratio the extent of curing. The influence of
may result in small increase in com- the type of cement on the later strength
pressive strength, provided the water of concrete has been discussed in Sec-
content in the mix is also reduced tion 2. From Fig. S (Section 2) it may
proportionately (Fig. 23 14 ) ; be seen that although cements ·of dif-
ferent types result in different rate of
c) Cement content and characteri- gain of initial strength, the strengths at
stics - The water-cement ratio and later ages tend to become similar.
the aggregate-cement ratio together Therefore, a cement type which results
determine the cement content of the in comparatively lower strength at 28
concrete mix. Generally, the cement days would have proportionately
content itself would not have a direct greater increase in strength at later ages
role on the strength of concrete; if ce- and vice-versa. The mix proportions
ment content is required to increase the themselves influence the rate of gain of
workability of concrete mix for a given strength, in that concrete with lower
water-cement ratio, then the com- water-cement ratio tends to attain high
pressive strength may increase with the initial strength and, therefore, further
richness of the mix. However, for a gain in strength at later ages is propor-
particular water-cement ratio there tionately smaller than with higher
would always be an optimum cement water-cement ratio. This is so because
content resulting in 28-day compressive concrete with lower water-cement ratio
strength being the highest (see Fig. would result in a greater gel-space ratio
24 1') . Increasing the cement content during the initial period but the hydra-
above the optimum value may not in- tion product may be laid in a more
crease the strength of concrete specially disorderly fashion thereby impairing
for mixes with low water-cement ratio further hydration to some extent.
and larger maximum size aggregate',
Under general conditions, IS :
The influence of strength of cement 4S6-1978 u allows the strength to be in-
on strength of concrete is not very creased by 10 percent at 3 months.
S9
SP : 13·1982
1S percent at 6 months and 20 percent prevent the loss of water in the concrete
at 12 months over and above the from evaporation as well as to supplement
28-day strength. It is to be noted that water consumed in hydration of cement. In
IS : 456-1978 13 does not permit any concrete mixes with higher water-cement
such increase of strength with age ratio, the hydration can proceed by self-
where high alumina cement is used; the desiccation and prevention of evaporation of
reason being that high alumina cement water (for example, by covering with wet
concretes tend to reach their potential gunny bags, membranes and curing com-
strength much more quickly than other pounds) may be sufficient.
cements ~see Fil. 5 of Section 2).
For high strength concrete with lower
water-cement ratio, the mixing water may
3.2.2 EFFECT OF PLACING, COMPACTION AND not be sufficient for hydration to proceed by
CURING - The concrete should be placed in self-desiccation and mere prevention of
its final position in the formwork as early as evaporation of water will not suffice. In such
possible after the completion of mixing, so situations continuous pending of water will
that there is no drying out of the mix, and be needed more than in case of mixes with
the mix is workable enough to receive com- high water-cement ratio (Fig. 28]).
paction. Dropping of concrete from great
heights may lead to segregation and entrain- Concrete will continue gaining strength
ment of air bubbles, displacement of the with time provided that sufficient moisture is
reinforcement and damage to the concrete available for the hydration of cement which
already placed. If segregation takes place, it can be assured only by proper moist
will result in concrete of poor quality. If, curing, -(Fig. 29 2') shqws the effect of dura-
however, the mix is designed properly and tion of moist curinl on compressive strength
proper precautions are taken to avoid of concrete. On an average, the one year
segregation during placing, pouring of con- strength of continuously moist cured con-
crete from a height of 10 to 1S metres is not crete Is SO percent higher than that of 28-day
uncommon. moist cured concrete, while no moist curing
can lower the strength by about 30 percent.
The necessity for thorough compaction is Moist curing for first 7 to 14 days may result
basic to successful concrete manufacture, in compressive strength being 8S to 92 per-
since the concrete mix is designed on the cent of that of 28 days moist curing".
basis that it may be tltoroughly compacted IS : 456-1978 1] stipulates a minimum of 7
with the available compacting equipment. days moist curing, while IS : 7861 (Part I)·
When the fresh concrete is. compacted by 197512 stipulates a minimum of 10 days
vibration, the particles are set in motion under hot weather conditions.
reducing inter-particle friction so that con-
crete is easily placed. Vibration eliminates
most air pockets on the surface of the 3.2.2.1 STEAM CURING OF CONCRETE - Since
concrete. the chemical reactions of hydration of ce-
ment can be thermally activated, increased
The increase in compressive strenlth by rate of strength development of concrete is
lowering the water-cement ratio may be achieved by resorting to steam curing at at-
restricted if the compaction is insufficient, as mospheric pressure. The primary object of
shown schematically in Fig. 26 J • The steam curing is to develop high early strength
presence 'of even S percent voids .in the of concrete, so that concrete products can be
hardened concrete left due to incomplete removed from the formwork and handled as
compaction may result in a decrease in com- early as possible, and is mainly adopted in
pressive strength by about 35 percent precast concrete works.
(Fig. 27 1') .
A number of considerations govern the
As already point~ out in Section 2, the choice of steam curing cycle namely the
hydration of cement can take- place only precuring period, the rate of increase and
when the capillary pores remain saturated. decrease of temperature and the level and
In addition, additional water available from time of constant temperature. An early rise
outside is needed to fdl the lei-pores, which in temperature at the time of settina of con-
will otherwise make the capillaries empty. crete may be detrimental to concrete
The funetioni of curinl are thus two-fold; to because, the aieen concrete may be too weak
60
SP : 23·1981
to resist the air pressure set up in the pores split tensile) is closely related to compres-
by the increased temperature. Too high a sive strength of concrete, but there
rate of increase or decrease in temperature is no direct proportionality between them,
introduces thermal shocks and the rates the ratio of the two strengths being a func-
should generally not exceed 10 to 20°C per tion of the level of concrete strength. As
hour. The higher the water-cement ratio of compressive strength increases, the tensile
the concrete. the more adverse is the effect strength also increases but at a decreasing
of an early rise in temperature. Therefore, in rate.
order to meet the requirement of com-
IS : 456-1978 13 gives a formula for flex-
pressive strength of concrete, the
temperature and/or time required for curing
ural strength in terms of the characteristic
compressive strength of concrete, as in-
can be reduced by having a lower water-
dicated below:
cement ratio. While in an identical time
cycle, higher the maximum temperature fer = 0.70Jid Nzmm?
greater is the compressive strength. The ad- In order to Obtain a quicker idea of the
vantages of curing above 70°C are negated quality of concrete, IS: 456 .. 1978)) also
by dilational tendencies due to expansion of specifies optional tests (compressive as well
concrete. All the above mentioned factors as flexural strengths at 7 days) for different
lead to the conclusion that for concrete of a grades of concrete. A comparison of the
specified composition and curing period, relationships between compressive strengths
there is one curing temperature which will be and flexural strengths, at 7 and 28 days age
able to produce maximum compressive of concrete is shown in Fig. 32. According to
strength at the end of the curing cycle. PCAI9, the flexural strength is given by:
A typical steam curing cycle is given in
(Fig. 3()22). In the normal steam curing pro-
Fer = K JJ; Nz'mm?
cedure, a presteaming period of 1 to 3 hours where Ie is the cube strength of concrete,
is usual. The rate of initial temperature rise and K has a value of 0.68. In a large number
after the presteaming period is of the order of tests carried out, K varied from 0.73 for
of 10 to 20°C per hour and the maximum erushed quartzite aggregate down to 0.48 for
curing temperature is limited to 8S to 90°C. rounded river pebbles.
Temperature higher than this will not pro- ACI 318-77 2• gives the relationship as:
duce any increase in the strength of concrete fer = 0.63.ji; Nz'mm!
and in fact, as discussed above, a
temperature of 70°C may be sufficient. For where I c is the specified compressive
a particular product, the maximum desired strength of concrete.
temperature raised at a moderate rate and This relationship is also shown in Fig. 32 for
then the steam is cut off, and the product is comparison.
allowed to soak in the residual heat and
moisture of the curing chamber. Due to dif- Numerous factors influence the above
ferences in the product and the methods of relationship of the strengths. Incomplete
manufacture, different curing cycles are to compaction has greater effect on com-
be adopted based on local conditions. By pressive strengths than on flexural strength.
adopting proper steam curing cycle, more The tensile strength of concrete is more
than 70 percent of the 28-day compressive sensitive to inadequate curing than the com-
strength of concrete can be obtained in pressive strength possibly because of the
about 16 to 24 hours>, serious effects of non-uniform shrinkage (of
flexure test beams). Thus air-cured concrete
Recent findings" suggest that the steam has a low tensile to compressive strength
curing of concrete should be followed by value than concrete cured in water and tested
water curing for at least 7 days (Fig. 31). In wet 19. The ratio of two strengths is also
absence of this supplementary wet curing for affected by the grading of the aggregate).
at least 7 days, the later-age strength of This is because of the different magnitude of
steam-cured concrete may be lower by 20 to the wall effect in beams and; the- sur-
40 percent than that of normally-cured face/volume ratios being different with the
concrete. requirement of different quantities of
3.2.3 RELATION WITH TENSILE STRENGTH - mortar for thorough compaction in compres-
The tensile strength (both flexural and sion specimens. The experimental results
61
SP : 23·1982
62
SP : 23-1982
63
SP : 23-1982
64
SP : 13-1981
NOTE 1 - When the maximum water-cement ratio can be strictly controlled, the cement content may be reduced by
10 percent.
NOTE 2 - The minimum cement content is based on 20 mm aggregate. For 40 rom aggregate. it should be reduced by
about 10 percent; for 12.S mm aggregate, it should be increased by about 10 percent.
65
SP : 13-1981
~
AGGREGATES COMPl.YINO
In Soil In Ground WITH IS : 383- J970·
Water ,..-- .....A _
-----"-----\\ (Parts per
"'\
, Tot;1 S03 503 in 2: 1 Minimum Maximum
(percent) water 100 000) Cement Free Water/
extract Content Cement
gil Ratio
·Specification for coarse and fine aurclates from natural sources for concrete (.s«ond revision).
tSpecification for Portland 51.. cement (third revision).
66
SP : 13-1981
Mild - For example, completely protected against weather or aggressive condi- 300 0.65
tions. except for a brief period of exposure to normal weather conditions
during construction
Moderate - For example, sheltered from heavy and wind driven rain and 300 O.SS
against freezing, whilst saturated with water, buried concrete in soil and
concrete continuously under water
severe - For example, exposed to sea water. alternate wetting and drying and 360 0.45
to freezing whilst wet subject to heavy condensation or corrosion fumes
NOTE - The minimum cement content is based on 20 mm nominal maximum size. For 40 mm aggregate. minimum'
cement content should be reduced by about 10 percent under severe exposure condition only, for n.s mm aggregate
the minimum cement content should be increased by about 10 percent under moderate and severe exposure conditions
only.
67
SP : 13-1981
(Clouse 3.3)
kglm 3
NOTE I - This Table applies only to concrete made with 20 mm auregates complying with the requirements of
IS : 383-1970· placed in near-neutral ground waters of pH 6 to 9, containing naturally occuring sulphates but not
contaminants, such as ammonium salts. For 40 mm auregatc the value may be reduced by about 1S percent and for
12.S mm aggregate the value may be increased by about 15 percent. Concrete prepared from ordinary Portland
cement would not be recommended in acidic conditions (pH 6 or less).
NOTE 2 - The cement contents givcq in Class 2 are the minimum recommended. For SO) contents near the upper
limit of Class 2, cement contents above these minimum are advised.
NOTE 3 - Where the total SO) in col 2 exceeds O.S percent, then a 2: 1 water extract may result in a lower site
classification if much of the sulphate is present as low solubility calcium sulphate.
NarE 4 - For severe conditions such as thin sections under hydro-static pressure on one side only and sections partly
immersed. considerations should be liven to a further reduction of water<ement ratio, and if necessary an increase in
the cement to ensure the dearee of workability needed for full compaction and thus minimum permeability.
NOTE 5 - For Class 3 concrete. ordinary Portland cement with t~e additional requirement that C)A content be not
more than 5 percent and 2C 3A + C,AF (or its IOHd solution 4CaO. ~O" Fe20, + 2CaO. Fe'l0~ not more than 20
percent is recommended. If this cement is UJed for CIua 2 concrete, minimum cement cootent may be reduced to 310
kalm 3 •
·Ss*ir'Catlon for COUIe and rme aurepces from natural IINrca of concrete ($tICOnd ,"Ision).
68
SP : 13..1912
CHLORIDE ION.
Sl TYPE OF CONCRETE OR SERVICE PERCENT BV
No MASS Of CEMENT
·If calcium chlonde IS used as an admixure, It IS generally recommended that the hmu be set at 2 percent by mass of
cement for reason other than corrosion
69
SP : 13·1981
.1-,__"
UPTOJJO
,,
125mm , ,
\
A
2V
. \
I
... l
.. \ '\
,
II!.
\ \
.
2
~ \ ,
...v '\ \? \
. '\' ~ '{~ \
-, ~fp \
w
Z
-.
;:
6
~ i\ -, ~'t'
" r-,
2
"~ ~O ........
•
~ r----...
'"
~
...
v .... 21 75
~~
50 100 125
-
~ 25
5LUM~ mm
~~O ~ ~
so
~ I
\ " ....
I
a
::I
100 ~
\
1 12S
tit
Fig. /9 Relationship Between Slump, Compocting Factor and Vft-Bft nmeJor Concrete 01
Different Aggregate-Cement Rllilos
70
110 .
LEGE N D. I I r ~~
~
I
IS" ~~
1 ~ ~ ~ ~
ROUNDED A&GREGAIE lCOOKE) a~ a~ I ~
~
150~
o _
- 0
6O. - -- -
.
-:
I /' I ,./' I , ~ I
/
30
0I5...--....-----......-------~---------------..,
ADMIXTURE B = WATER-REDUCINGADMIXTURE
(NORMAL SETTING GRADE)
C a WATER -REOUCING ADMIXTURE
(ACCELERATING GRADE)
ViI/c.O-15-------4I
...zu
~
a.
-----------...
~ oeot--~..-.ilIIII------_+_--------._ ....... ~ -Ie. o.ao. A
... ---- __ ~A4'xrUR! 8 - - - '
u --- .............. .........
-.
Wlc .0-55
~
'"
!
N
~ a:
w 1&1
A. Q.. 0 ......" '--_......_ - . 1 0_ _"""'-_.-1..._.--.
5 10 20 30 40 .50
CONCRETE TEMPEAATURE,·C
Fig. 22 Effect of Concrete Temperlltu,~ on Slump and on Water Required to elulnge Slump
72
SP : 1]·1911
80,----.----.,-----r---.....,..--........__---.
%
"-N
~ e 60
~ ~ r--r---t-----1~--J~~ __-l
~Z
W '"
. 4 Olll&:.::----~-=--_·..-
> ....
~~
W U
~Z
a.. 0U 20 -- - - - .. - ,. - - _.-
2:
OIL.
UO
3·0 3·5 40 4 5 so 5
NOTE - Figure 23 is from 'Concrete Mix Design (Second Edition, 1966)' by J. D. Mcintosh and published by Cement
and Concrete Association. London.
49
42
235 254
w
> 3S (0-40)
(l)N
(/) E OPTIMUM
CEMENT 254
I
W E CONTENT
0:::--.. (0·41)
o..z 28
~
o ..
u:I:
....
~ 21""---""'+---
~Z
OW
,0:
~ ~ 14t---~-
73
SP : 13-1982'
eu
50 n-a.-+----+--+----t----1~__,
7·DAY CEMENT STRENGTH
440 kg/cm 2 •••••• Curve 'A'
....... 396 " •• 'B'
at
.K 352 " ...... " 'C'
~
308 .. ...... " '0'
264 " ...... ". 'E'
...
%
c.!)
220 " ...... " 'F'
z
W
...
0:
fI)
w
~
fn
UJ
W
~
Q.
2:
o
u
>-
~
o
•
CD
N
Fig. 25 Design Curve for Cement Concrete Mixes in Relation to 7-Day Compressive
Strength of Cement
VIBRATION
...
%:
C)
z HAND COMPACTION
w
~
t-
en
w FULLY COMPACTED
~ CONCRETE
en
en
w
a:
G.
Z
o
u
-------------
WATER-CEMENT RATIO
NOTE - Fi.ure 26 is from 'Properties of Concrete (Second Edition, 1973)' ba A. M. Neville and published by Pitman
• Pubtishina Corporation, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd, London.
74
SP : 23·1981
z
0
t-
U
c(
~~
(/)0
4C{U
...j
X:-' 100
~::>
<,!)LL
Z ....
We( 80
~
...-
(/)c(
...
:t: 60
Wt-
~LL
(1)0
en 4O
Ww
o==<!>
Q.~
2: .... 20
oz
uUJ
0
Q::
w 25 20 15 10 5 0
Q.
PERCENTAGE OF VOIDS
70
AGE AT
N TEST ~
E 60
E 11
Z
SO
:I:
.....
'"
Z
LU
40
a:
.....
Vl
30
UJ
>
\i)
~
UJ 20
0:
c,
~
0 10
U
0
0-28 032 036 040 044
NOTE - Figure 28 is from 'Properties of Concrete (Second Edition, 1973)' by A. M. Neville and published by Pitman
Publishina Corporation, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd, London.
75
SP : 23·1911
~o
. w
~
:'-::)
• (,) 160
~
t;
Zo
~ 140
~
A.
---- ,..........- --0 l - - I-- ....
- ~- - ..
t>
lLI Z W120
~ ... L .. -t-~ ---~- _. - ~-
~c;.
----
~ ~:'00 10--- A - Continuously moist cured
I + ---- - . -
I 8 - Contlnuou81y air cured
w %~ 10
> "'0
en ~ u 60 ,-
cnw
I ~-'~-~- ---- ~i -- C - Moist cured 1 month then air
cured
~
UJ a: 40 D - Moist oured 3 months then air
IX ...
cured
~ en 20 -- - ---
o
u ~ 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
C
cD
N AGE, MONTHS
NOTE - Fi.ure 29 is from 'Concrete TechnoloaY and Practice (Fourth Edition, 1977)' by W _ 1\_ Taylor and
published by Me Oraw-HiU Book Company Australia Pty Limited. Sydney.
100
U
•
C
,
; -.
UJ
CC 10 L
:J
V\
&&J 0
ex .J
::l U
~
Z ~O
4 60
UJ
I
'"
~
I
IJJ
Q. ~
4
~ UJ ~
UJ
~
...
\I)
40
A I
~
:J:
t-
20
i
0
2 , • 10 12 14 16 II
76
SP : 13-1981
..
z
~ 100
cr
;t' 90
80 ...
70 =
~
~ &0 - ~
~ 50
=
=
e
%
~ 90 -
~ 80
..J
~ 70 -
60 -
so
2.00 2.45 4.40 DURATION ,h
77
SP : 13·1981
------r--------r------,....------.
s ....- - - - -......
4 1 - - - - - - -.........--------l.....-------+--~---__,1Ir-------t
N
E
E
z 14
AG (IS: 456 )
I
'4
DAYS AGE ( IS: 456 )
31--------+-----~~~ K-----.......------..-------...,
25
31e -11
2 ......-----~_.----~~------+-------+------- .....
o 10 20 30 40 50
78
SP : 13-1911
N
E
E 70
'Z
""'"'
I
60 -I
...
J:
I
(!)
z 5
w
...en
~
40 I
I
W
I I
> 30 --+-----L-+-- ~-
en I I
en
w 1- t ~- j
0: ~ I I
a.
~ ~
0
2:
u
t
I +-
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH, N/mm 2
J;'ip. 33 Relationship Between Split Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength of Concrete
~6
N
E
E 49
Z
...
:t:
~
42
z
UJ 35
cr
t-
V)
UJ 28
~
Vl
tJ')
UJ 21
~
Q..
~
0 ,I.
0
14 2.1 2 e 15 42 49 56 6.3 70
z
E
,
,
3:
t- 5
C)
... ,
Z
LIJ
a:
1Il
..J 3
<l
~
:l
><
LLJ 2
..J
I.L
o
6 7 e 9
PERMEABILITY
11
( JI 10 mIl)
o
....
4 HIGH WORKABILITY
a:
(100-150mm slump)
o
150 200 alo 300 150 400 450 500 550
80
SP : 13-1911
i
ROCK
25 30 35 40
ce .... ! NT ftAST I! VOLUME • PERcENl CO~,CRETE
Fig. 37 Cement Paste Volume Required in Concrete of Various Water-Cement Ratios for
Marine Durability
81
SP : 13-1982
82
SECTION 4
8~
SP : 23-1982
to different groups and updating the S The value of K is equal to 1.6~ (see
values. Alternatively. the values of S may be IS : 456-1978 1) where not more than 5 per-
quickly arrived at by using a scientific cent of the test results are expected to fall
calculator having standard deviation pro- below the characteristic strength.
gramme.
I. = felt + 1.65 S
Figure 39 indicates the shape of the
distribution curves for different degrees of 4.2 Statistical Concepts in Concrete Mix
control for a typical grade of concrete'. It Design - The design of the concrete mix
may be appreciated that the value of S is shall be so done as to ensure that the target
minimum for very good control and pro- mean strength is realized during preliminary
gressively increases as the level of control trial mix testing stage. The only parameter to
decreases. be defined in arriving at the value of I, is the
value of standard deviation.
The correlation between the characteristic
strength and standard deviation indicates The value of standard deviation for such
that for a given degree of control, the stand- use shall be either an assumed value depend-
ard deviation increases as the specified ing on the degree of control available or a
characteristic strength up to about value based on past data using the same
20 N/mm 2 and remains constant beyond plant, materials and standard of supervision.
this characteristic strength value. However, The later value, if available, Is to be pre-
Table 29 (see IS : 456-19781) gives specific ferred.
values of assumed standard deviation for Where the past data is not available during
various grades of concrete. initial stages of preliminary trials, the values
Coefficient of variation is a non-dimen- given in Table 291 may be used. As soon as
sional parameter and is equal to the standard adequate number of test results (Min 30) are
deviation (5) divided by the mean strength, available, the actual calculated value of
However t its use is not envisaged in standard deviation shall be used for revising
IS : 456-1978 1• the mix design.
4.1.3 CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH - As the 4.J Acceptance Criteria - IS : 456-19781
cube test results follow the Normal distribu- stipulates that random samples from fresh
tion, there is always the probability that concrete shall be taken as specified in
some results may fall below the specified IS : 1199-19594 and cubes shall be made, cur-
strength. Recognising this factor, ed and tested as described in IS : Sl6-19S9'.
IS : 4S6-1978 1 has brought in the concept of If required for some other purposes•. for
characteristic strength, The term example. to estimate the time when the
'characteristic strength' means that value of formwork can be stripped, tests may be con-
the strength of the material below which not ducted at early ages also but the acceptance
more than 5 percent of the test results are or otherwise is always on the basis of 28 days
expected to fall. strength. The average of the strength of
three specimens is the test strength of any
4.1.4 TAROETMEANSTRENOTH - Consider- sample. The acceptance criteria as given in
ina the inherent variability of concrete IS : 456-19781 is reproduced below:
strenath durin, production, it is necessary to
desip the mix to have a target mean strength ns. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
which is areater than the characteristic
strength by a suitable marJin. I j.l The concrete shall be deemed to
comply with the strength requirements if:
fa - Is +K.S a) every sample has a test strenath not
where
I. - tarla mean strenath. less than the characteristic value; or
I. = characteristic strqth, b) the strength of one or more samples
I - a constant, dependina on the thoup less than the characteristic
value. is in each case not less than
definition of characteristic
stren,gth and is derived from the the sreater of:
mathematics of Normal distribu- 1) the characteristic strenath minus
tion (.sw Table 30), and 1.35 times the standard devia-
S • .tandard deviation. tion; and
86
SP : 13-1982
~ ---~
the hardened concrete may be accepted 3
after carryina out suitable remedial
measures to the satisfaction of the · J-J n timesdeviation
6.. the standard
87
SP : 13·1912
88
SP : 13·1911
APPENDIX A
(Clause 4.1.2)
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF STANDARD DEVIATION
The results below represent a series of test results for a given grade of concrete.
(Conlillwd)
89
SP : 13-1981
APPENDIX A - Contd
SAMPLE CONCRETE SAMPlf CON<.:JtETE
NUMBER STRENGTH NUM8~R STRENGTH
(kgf/cm 2) (kgf/cm 2)
S9 330 73 290
60 327 74 313
61 308 75 288
62 339 76 273
63 281 77 322
64 301 78 3~
6~ 276 79 313
66 290 ~o 346
67 288 81 357
68 367 82 313
69 297 83 332
70 276 84 339
71 334 85 351
72 292 86 353
--- ------~- ---
90
SP : 23-1982
x
L..e-----
I
3 • - --T-- - JtJ --- ---
I
9S .4S -t,
'"
UJ
to- I I
u, I
0 1
cr I
UJ I
CD
~ c
:::J I "
Z ,
~
I
1.35 8"
~--VERY GOOD
(,.. 2." N/mm2)
COMPRESSIVE. STRENGTH, N I mm 2
Fig. 39 Typical Normal Frequency Curves for Different Control Ratings
NOTE - Figure 39 is from 'Recommended Practice for Evaluation of Compression Test Results of Field Concrete'
reported by ACI Committee 214 (ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part I. J979). American Concrete Institute,
USA.
91
SP : 13-1912
92
SECTION 5
95
SP : 13·1912
that can be used with the approval of the size of agaregates also influences the com-
Engineer-in-Charge are discussed in 2.1. pressive strength of concrete in that, for a
From among the different types of cements particular volume of aggregate. the com-
available, the Engineer-in-Charge is required pressive strength tends to increase with
to make his choice dependin. upon the re- decrease in the size of coarse aggregate. This
quirements of performance at hand. Where is due to the fact that smaller size agaresates
very high compressive strength is required. present a larger surface area for bonding
for example. in prestressed concrete railway with the mortar matrix; it also results from
sleepers, high strenath ordinary Portland ce- the fact that the stress concentration in the
ment conformlns to IS : 8112·1976' will be mortar-aggregate interfaces increase with in-
found suitable. Where an early strenath crease in the maximum size of aggregatel •
development is required, rapid hardenina There is thus an interaction of the maximum
Portland cement conformin. to IS : 8041- size of auregate as well as the grade of con-
19786 is preferable. On the other hand in crete which determine the 'strength efficien-
situations where heat of hydration has to be cy' of the cement and. therefore, the require-
limited. for example, in mass concrete con- ment of cement for a particular compressive
structions, low heat Portland cement confor- strength is to be specified (Fig. 41'). From
ming to IS: 269-1976' is preferable. Fig. 41' it is seen that for concrete with
Portland pozzolana cement and Portland higher water-cement ratio, larger maximum
slag cement are permitted for use in rein- size of aaregates may be beneficial whereas
forced concrete constructions; while for high strength concretes 10 or 20 mm size
Portland slag cement is also permitted for of aggregates is preferable. It is because of
prestressed concrete constructions. With such reasons that IS: 4S6-1978 3 and
such blended cements, the rate of develop- IS : 1343-19804, while recommending that
ment of early strenath may be somewhat nominal size of coarse aggregates be as large
slower. On the other hand. these blended as possible. also suggest that for reinforced
cements render greater durability to the con.. and prestressed concrete works, aggregates
crete in sulphatic environment and sea having a maximum nominal sizeof 20 mm or
water. The requirements of durability are smaller are generally considered satisfactory.
achieved by limitations in terms of minimum
cement content, the type of cement and the In appropriate circumstances, the maxi-
maximum water-cement ratio, as discussed mum limit of cement content in the concrete
in detail in Section 3. may also have to be specified. This is
because concrete mixes having high cement
The maximum nominal.size of auregates content may give rise to shrinkage, cracking
to be used in concrete is governed by the and creep of concrete also increases with the
cement paste content. In thick concrete sec-
size of the section and spacing of the
reinforcement. Both IS: 456-1978' and tions restrained against movements, high
IS : 1343-198~. specify that the nominal cement content may give rise to excessive
maximum size of coarse auregate should cracking caused by differential thermal
not be greater than one-fourth of the stresses due to hydration of cement in young
minimum thickness of the member. and it concretes. For high strength concretes, in-
should be restricted to S nun less than the creasing cement content beyond a certain
minimum clear distance between the main value, of the order of SSO kg/rn! or so, may
bars or. S nun less than the minimum cover to not increase the compressive strength. Prom
the reinforcement and S nun less' than the these considerations as well as those of
spacioa between the cables, strands or overall economy, the maximum cement con-
sheathing in case of prestressed concrete. tent in the concrete mixes was limited to
Within these limits, the nominal maximum 530 kg/m J for prestressed concrete struc-
size of coarse aureaates may be as large as tures (see IS : 1343-1980') and for reinforced
possible. In general, it is found that lar,er concrete liquid retaining structures [see
the maximum siZe of aure_le, smaller is IS : 3370 (Part 1)-I96~IOJ.
the cement requirement for a particular
water-cement ratio (IH Fi,. 40'). ThIs arises 5.J Outline 01 Mix Design P.ro-
mainly from the fact that workability of con- cedure - The various factors for determin-
crete increases with increue in maximum in, the concrete mix proportions and' the
size of .-repte. However, the maximum step by stlp procedure for concrete mix
96
SP : 23-1982
97
SP : 23.. 1982
----.,.--...,..-----.p--_
700,......-........
i
WATER-CEMENT
RATIO
t"
--.
E
CIt
500
....
Z
W
....Z
0
U
t-
Z
w
2
w
u
4·15 10 20 Je 16
MAXIMUM SIZE OF
AGGREGATE ,mm
Fig. 40 Influence of Maximum Size ofAggregate 0" Cement Requirement of Concrete Mix
NOTE - Figure 40 is from 'Hardened Concrete: Physical and Mechanical Aspects: ACI Monoaraph No.6' by A. M.
Nevilleand published by American Concrete Institute.
98
SP : 23·1982
o·g 0 1-----+-------+
--
.....
z
w
~
w
U 0.10
at
.x
N----
E
u
--- 0.6 0 ...,....~-4___-__.l_....-----~-
>
U
Z
UJ 0.50 t---~~r--__
U
[L
t.L
UJ
:I:
l- 0·" 0 t-+---t--~-+-------+-----~~----+--------t
e>
Z
W
D::
t-
(/)
0·30 -- ~-~--+-------I
4·75 10 20 75 150
99
SP : 13·1982
100
SECTION 6
6.0 Introduction - The mix design the concrete mix is first determined depend-
methods being used in different countries are ing on the maximum size of aggregate and
mostly based on empirical relationships, the grading of fine aggregate, whereas in the
charts and graphs developed from extensive British method), the proportion of fine ag-
experimental investigations. Most of them gregate is determined first depending on the
follow the same basic principles enunciated maximum size of aggregate, the degree of
in Section S and only minor variations exist workability, the grading of fine aggregate
in different mix design methods in the pro- and the water-cement ratio of the concrete
cess of selecting the mix proportions. Some .mix.
of the common mix design methods for
medium and high strength concretes have In USBR method, the proportion of dry-
been discussed in this section. They are: (a) roJded coarse aggregate is determined cor-
The ACI Mix Design Method, (b) The USBR responding to the maximum size of ag-
Mix Design Practice, (c) The British Mix gregate, a fixed fineness modulus of sand
Design Method and (d) The Mix Design and a fixed workability in terms of slump.
Method according to Indian Standard The ACI method also determines the pro-
Recommended Guidelines for Concrete Mix portions of dry-rodded coarse aggregate in
the concrete mix, the rodding being done ac-
Design.
cording to ASTM C 296 for unit weight of
The ACI method I gives mix design for aggregate. It is based on the concept that in
normal and heavy weight concrete (air- dry-rodded void content, the differences in
entrained and non-air-entrained) in the the amount of mortar required for work-
workability range of 25 to 100 mm slump. ability with different aggregates due to dif-
the maximum 28-day cylinder compressive ferences in particle shape and grading are
strength being 450 kgf/cm", There is a automatically compensated for.
separate method- for mix design of 'no
slump' (slump being zero to 25 mm) concrete The latest British mix design method) does
(air-entrained and non-air-entrained) having not consider the combined aggregate grading
maximum 28-day cylinder compressive curves like those used in Reference 4 (for
strength of 475 kgf/cm-, maximum sizes of aggregate of 40 mm and
20 mm) and those developed for 10 mm maxi-
The British method) outlines a procedure mum size of aggregate by Mcintosh and
for design of normal concrete mixes (super- Emtroy". This implies admission to the use
seding Road Note No. 4 method') having of aggregates of any grading as long as they
28-day cube compressive strength as high as are within the grading limits specified by the
7S0 kgf'/cm? for non-air-entrained concrete. appropriate Codes/Specifications.
The workability of concrete is given in terms
In the ACI and USBR methods, the air
of slump and Vee-Bee time.
content of concrete is considered to arrive at
In the USBR method", mix proportioning the absolute volume of the mix ingredients.
is done only for air-entrained concrete, the The batch weight of the materials per unit
maximum 28-day cylinder compressive volume of concrete is calculated from the ab-
strength being 4SS kgf/em I • when water solute volumes. In the British method, the
reducing and set controlling admixtures are quantities of the ingredients are calculated
used. directly from the wet density of concrete
which is dependent on specific gravity of the
In all the four methods. the water-cement combined aggregates (on saturated surface-
ratio is chosen for the target mean strength
dry condition).
from empirical strength - w/c ratio rela-
tionships and water content is chosen for the The 'Indian Standard recommended
required workability for aggregates in guidelines for mix design" includes design
saturated surface dry condition. In so far as of normal concrete mixes (non-air-
the aaarcaate volume is concerned, the entrained), both for medium and high
methods differ to some extent. In the ACI .strength concrete. In this method of mix
method', the volume of coarse aggregate in design, the water content and proportion of
103
SP : 23-1981
fine aggregate corresponding to a maximum tions before they become applicable to In-
size of aggregate are first determined for dian conditions. In its approach, the IS
reference values of workability. water- method is similar to USBR method as well as
cement ratio and grading of fine aggregate. the method specified in IRe: 44-1976 12 mix
The water content and the proportion of fine design for concrete pavements. In the IRe
aggregate are then adjusted for any dif- method, 7 days compressive strength of ce-
ference in workability, water-cement ratio ment has been considered as an additional
and grading of fine aggregate in any par- parameter influencing the relationship bet-
ticular case from the reference values. The ween water-cement ratio and the 28 days
batch weight of materials per unit volume of compressive strength of concrete. The
concrete is finally calculated by the absolute necessary curves are shown in Fig. 2S of
volume method. The specific relationships Section 3.
(Figures and Tables) that are given in this
method of mix design, have been arrived at 6.1
The ACI Mix Design Practice - The
by exhaustive tests at the Cement Research ACI 211.1-77 1 recommends a method of mix
Institute of India"!" as well as on the basis design in which the water content determines
of data on concrete being designed and pro- the workability of the concrete mix for dif..
duced in the country". ferent maximum size of aggregate. The bulk
These guidelines, although based on data volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume
on concrete, majority of which were made of concrete is determined for different maxi-
with ope, are also almost equally applicable mum sizes of aggregate and for different
to concretes made with PPC. The final mix fineness moduli of sand. The water-cement
proportions, selected after trial mixes, may ratio is determined in the usual procedure to
entail some minor changes in each case; such satisfy both strength and durability re-
variations may also be necessary in case of quirements. The volume of fine aggregate is
cements of one type (either ope or PPC) determined for unit volume of concrete,
but from different sources, or aggregates from the difference in volume between the
varying in quality. In so far as selection of concrete and other ingredients. Allowance
water-cement ratio for the target com- for air content in concrete is made prior to
pressive strength at 28-day in concerned, calculating the volume of fine aggregate.
Fig. 46 is applicable for both ordinary The procedure adopted for the selection of
-portland and portland pozzolana cements mix proportions is as follows:
with comparable validity. However, if a a) The water-cement ratio is selected from
more precise estimate is made with the help Table 31 for the target mean 28-day
of Fig. 47 where cements are classified on the compressive strength.
basis of their 28-day strengths, then use of b) The water content is selected from
ope or PPC is not expected to make much Table 32 for the desired workability
difference. and maximum size of aggregate.
Experiences with fly.. ash-cement concretes c) The cement content is calculated from
indicate that in such cases, for comparable the water content and the water-cement
workabilities, the water content can be ratio required for durability or
reduced by about 3 to 5 percent and propor- strength.
tion of fine aggregates reduced by 2 to 4 d) The coarse aggregate content is esti-
percentage points. It is doubtful whether mated from Table 33 for the maxi-
such generalization can be straightway ex- mum size of aggregate and the fine-
tended in case of concretes made with PPC ness modulus of sand.
also. .but any difference that would be e) The fine aggregate content is determin-
necessary can be easily established by trials ed by subtracting the sum of the
with the materials at hand. volumes of coarse aggregate, cement,
water and air content from the unit
On the other hand, the British and
volume of concrete.
American methods mentioned earlier t sound
as they are in principle, are based on the ex- For stiffer concrete mixes •J\CI 211-65 2
perience, materials and construction techni- Recommended practice for selecting propor-
ques prevalent in those countries and the tions for no-slump concrete' is to be follow-
Tables and Charts may need some modifica- ed. This-is an extension of the ACI standard
104
SP : 23·1982
211.1-19771 with two differences: (a) the multiplying the final percentage of
measurement of workability is done by com- sand after adjustment. Either method
pacting factor t Vee-Bee consistency or drop is satisfactory and will produce ap-
table test, instead of slump test, and (b) the proximately the same proportions
coarse aggregate content is higher for more under average conditions.
workable mixes. Thus the tables for water
requirement for different degrees of 6.3 The British Mix Design Method (DOE
workability and coarse aggregate volurne per Method) - The latest method) replaces the
unit volume of concrete are changed. The traditional British mix design method" of
rest of the mix design procedure is unaltered. Road Note No.4. It discards the use of
specific grading curves of the combined ag-
6.2 The USBR Mix Design Practice - In gregates, uses the relationship between
this method of mix design, the water content water-cement ratio and compressive strength
of air-entrained concrete and the propor- of concrete depending on the type of cement
tions of fine and coarse aggregates are deter- and type of aggregates used. It replaces the
mined for a fixed workability and grading of mix design Tables correlating water-cement
fine aggregate. The water content and ratio, aggregate-cement ratio, maximum size
percentages of sand or coarse aggregate are of aggregate, type of aggregate differing in
adjusted for changes in the materials and shapes (rounded and irregular), degree of
mix proportions. The water-cement ratio for workability and overall grading curves of the
compressive strength is determined in the combined aggregates in earlier Road Note
usual procedure. The step-by-step procedure No.4. Instead, water content required to
of mix proportioning is as follows: give various levels of workability is deter-
mined for two types of aggregates, namely J
lOS
SP : 23-1981
106
SP : 23·1982
nominal maximum size of aggregate of the percentage of sand in the total ag-
the 'reference' concrete should be gregate already determined, the coarse
10 mm and fine aggregate should con- and fine aggregates content per unit
form to Zone II of Table 4 of volume of concrete are calculated from
IS : 383-1970 13• Corresponding to this the following equations:
accelerated strength, the water-cement
ratio is determined for the target mean
strength, from Fig. 48. These curves are
based on the relation between 28-day v = [w + ~ + ;. ~:. ]
compressive strength of concrete hav-
ing water-cement ratio of 0.35, which 1
is found to be, on an average, 0.934 (2) and
x 1000
times that of 28-day strength of cement
tested as per IS : 4031-1968 11 , and cor-
relation of accelerated and normal
28-day strength of concrete (see
Section 8 1t ) .
c) The air content (amount of entrapped
air) is estimated from Table 41 for the (3)
x 1000
maximum size of aggregate used.
d) The water content and percentage of
sand in total aggregate by absolute where,
volume are next selected from Tables V = absolute volume of fresh
42 and 43 for medium and high concrete
strength concretes, respectively, for the = gross volume (1 m') minus
following standard reference condi- the volume of entrapped
tions: air,
i) Crushed (angular) coarse ag-
S, = specific gravity of cement,
gregate, W = mass of water (kg) per m' of
ii) Fine aggregate consisting of concrete,
natural sand conforming to C = mass of cement (kg) per m J
grading zone II of Table 4, of concrete,
IS : 383-1970 13, in saturated sur- p = ratio of fine aggregate to
face dry condition, total aggregate by absolute
volume,
iii) Water-cement ratio of 0.60 and
0.3S for medium and high strength
fa' c. = total masses of fine ag-
gregate and coarse ag-
concretes respectively, and
gregate, (kg) per m l of con-
iv) Workability corresponding to crete respectively, and
compacting factor of 0.80. Sra. Sea = specific gravities of
e) For other conditions of workability, saturated surface dry fine
water-cement ratio, grading of fine ag- aggregate and coarse ag-
gregate and for rounded aggregates, gregate respectively.
adjustments in water content and
percentage of sand in total aggregate An illustrative example of mix
are made as per Table 44. design is reproduced from Reference 8.
The actual mix proportions are arrived
f) The cement content is calculated from
at by means of a num!>v of trial mixes.
the water-cement ratio and the final
In order to account for the variability
water content arrived after adjustment.
in results of laboratory trials, it is ad-
The cement content so calculated is
visable to carry out a number of tests
checked against' the minimum cement
with the final mix proportions arrived
content from the requirements of
at after such trial mixes. In addition.
durability (Tables 23 to 26) and the
necessary adjustments in mix propor-·
greater of the two values adopted.
tions should also be carried out depen-
g) With the quantities of water and ce- ding upon the results obtained under
. ment per unit volume of concrete and actual constructlons.
107
SP : 13-1982
108
SP : 13·1981
belonging to Zone III, the following f. = 546 kg/m", and
adjustment is required: C. = 1187 kg/rn!
Change in Condition Adjustment
(see Table 44) Required in The mix proportion then becomes:
, A ,
Water Cement Fine Coarse
Water Percent- Aggregate Aggregate
content age sand
percent in total 191.6 383 kg S46 kg 1187 kg
aggregate litres
For decrease in water- O.SO: 1 1.42: 3.09
cement ratio by (0.60- h) Actual Quantities Required/or the Mix
0.50) that is, 0.1 0 - 2.0 per Bag of Cement - The mix is,
For increase in compac- 0.50: I: 1.42:3.09 (by mass). For SO kg
ting factor (0.9-0.8) of cement, the quantity of materials
that is, 0.10 +3 0 are worked out as below:
For sand conforming to 1) Cement = SO kg
Zone III of Table 4 of 2) Sand = 71.0 kg
IS : 383-197013 0 - 1.S 3) Coarse Aggregate = 154.5 kg
(Fraction I = 92.'( kg,
Total +3 - 3.5 Fraction II = 61.8 kg).
109
SP : 13-1912
110
SP : 23-1982
-- - - - - - - - - - -
TABLE 33 VOLUME OF DRY -RODDED TABI.. E 34 PROBABLE MINIMUM AVERAGE
{~OARS~ AGGREGATE PER UNIT (,'OMPRJ-:SSIVE STRENGTH 0.' ( ONCRl.TE FOR
VOl.. UME OF CONl'Ri..T E v ARIOUS W AT.:R·Ci.-Mf:'lT RATIOS
tClause 6 I) (Clause 6 2)
MAXIMUM Fll'.l \jl-')~ MOOLl r OF S"'~() \\' ATfR CEMENT COMPRESSIVE STREN(JTH
r - - - - ----A.-._ _ _ _ ~
Size OF RATIO BY Al 28 DAYS (kgf/cm 2)
r----~-~-~-~,
AGGREC,ATE 2.40 260 2.80 300 WE=.IGtiT
Au-Entrained Air-Entramed
mm Concrete Concrete Wit h
( I) (2) (3) (4) (5) Water-Reducing.
Set-Controlhng
10 0.50 0.48 0.46 044 Admixtures
12.5 0.59 o 57 o 55 0.S3
(I) (2) (3)
20 066 064 0.62 060
25 071 069 0.67 0.65
0.40 399 4SS
40 0.76 0'74 o 72 0.70
o 45 343 392
~O o 7R o 76 o 74 0.72
O.SO 294 336
o 79 o 77 o 75 0.55 252 294
70 o 81
ISO o 87 o 85 0.83 o 81 0.60 217 252
TABLE 35 APPROXIMA Tf.. AIR AND WATER ('ONTENTS PER ('URIC METt..R Of co-«. RETl
AND THE PROPORTIONS OF FINE AND (-'OARSE AGGRt..GATt..
(Clause 6.2)
NOTE 2 - Table 35 is from 'Concrete Manual', (EIghth Edition Revised Reprint, 1981). Bureau of Reclamation,
United States Department of the Interior, USA.
111
SP : 23-1982
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .._-----
TARLt: .16 ADJUSTMENT OF VALUES OF WATER CONTENT. PERCENT SANl) AND Pt:R<:t:NT
OF DRY-RODDED COARSE AGGREGATE
(Clause 6.2)
1
AGGREGATE
(mm)
(1) (2) (~) (4) (S) (6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (S) (6)
Ordinary
Portland 10 Uncrushed ISO 180 205 225
Uncrushed 18 27 40 48
Cement Crushed 180 205 230 150
or
20 Uncrushed 13S 160 180 t9~
Sulphate
Resisting
Portland
J Crushed 23 33 47 ss 40
Crushed
Uncrushed
170
liS
190
140
210
160
225
17S
Cement Crushed ISS 175 190 20S
Rapid } Uncrushed 25 34 46 S3 NOTE I - When coarse and fine aggregates of different
Hardening types are used. the water content is estimated by the
Portland expression:
Cement Crushed 30 40 60
2/3 W, + 1/3 We
NOTE - Table 37 is from 'Desian of Normal Concrete where
Mixes (1975)' by D. C. Teyehenne, R. E. Franklin and
W,== water content appropriate to type of fine
H. C. Erntroy. Contributed by courtesy of the Director,
aggregate, and
Building Research Establishment and reproduced by the
We = water content appropriate to type of coarse
permission of the Controller of Her Britannic Majesty's
aggregate.
Stationery Office. Crown copyright.
NOTE 2- Table 38 is from 'Design of Normal Con-
crete Mixes (197S)' by D. C. Teychenne, R. E. Franklin
and H. C. Erntroy. Contributed by courtesy of the
Director, Building Research Establishment and
reproduced by the permission of the Controller of Her
Britannic Majesty's Stationery Office. Crown
copyright.
112
SP : 23-1981
- - ~_ _ _ _ ~ ... r _ _ _ _ ... _ _ .... _
GRADE OF S I ANDARD
DfVIA liON "OR DIFI'[RE:NT NO\1INAl MAXIMUM SllE:. ENTRAPPl-O AIR, A5
CONCRETE DElJRl:f 0 .. (~O"'TROI (N/mm 2) 0 .. AGGRf.(,A TE (rnm) PERCEST OF VOL UMf OF-
r---~ ~ - _---A-___
~ CONC"RETE
Very Good Good Fair
(I) (2)
(I) (2) (3) (4) 10 3.0
1'.1 10 2.0 2.3 3.1 20 2.0
M IS 2.5 3.5 4.5 40 1.0
M 20 3.6 4.6 5.6 NOTl- - Table 41 i4i from 'Hardened Concrete;
M 25 4.3 S.3 6.3 Mechanical Aspects: ACI Monograph No.6 (1971)' by
M 30 5.0 6.0 7.0 A. M. Neville with the permission of the American
Concrete Institute, USA.
M 35 5.3 6.3 7.3
M40 5.6 6.6 7.6
M 45 6.0 7.0 8.0
M 50 6.4 7.4 8.4
M 55 6.7 7.7 8.7
M60 6.8 7.8 8.8 TABtE 42 APPROXIMATE SAND AND WATER
(~ONTENTS PI':R ClJBIC METR.: OF CONCRETF:
- ~ -----
(Clause 6.4)
W/(' =0.60
Workability = 0.80 CF
(Applicable for concrete up to grade ~ 35)
113
51» : 23·1982
~---------_._---~._-----.-
114
LIABlllT V TO
CHEMICAL ATTACK OR
SIZE OF CONeRE TE
MASS
r
I
MAXIMUM TYPE AND GRADING OF REQUIRED
SIZE OF SHAPE OF FINE
AGGREGATE COARSE AGGREGATE WORKABILITY
AGGREGATE
i I
WATE R - T
.... CEMENT
\A RATIO
1
1 I
1
1 CAPACITY OF 1
CONe RE TE t-1IX CONCRETE ,..IXER I
PROPORTIONS
I
] rIJ
~
WEIGHT OF
N
INGREDIENTS e.-
PER BATCH ....•
Fig. 42 Procedure of Concrete Mix Design w
=
SP : 13-1982
I
70
N
E 60
--
z
E
~
J:
.- 50 ... -~--
~
z
UJ
Ct
t-
V)
UJ 40
>
In
V)
w
a:
0-
~
0 30
u
10
Ol..----~---~----
0.3 0·5 0·6 0·7
. . . .----------...----..,I
0·8 0-9
WATER I CEMENT RATIO
NOTE - Figure 43 is reproduced from •Design of Normal Concrete Mixes (197Sr by D. C. Teychenne, R. E. Franklin
and H. C. Erntroy. Contributed by courtesy of the Director, Building Research Establishment and reproduced by the
permission of the Controller of Her Britannic Majesty's Stationery Office. Crown Copyright.
116
&P : 23·1982
2700
RELATrVE DENSIT
OF COMBINED
2600 AGGREGATE (ON
('I') SATURATED AND
e SURFACE DRY
0- BASIS)
~
~
--.. 2500 ---
~
LtJ
....
UI
29
Cl
u 2400
2 8
~
u
u,
0 2 7
>-
t: 2300
V)
z 2 &
UI
0
.-
w I 2 5
~
2200 -t
2 4
2 100 ~ ~ _ _- - I . " " ' -_ _" - " ' ..L- ~ ."'--_ _--...I
NOTE - Figure 44 l~ reproduced from 'Design of Normal Concrete MIXe'i (197.5)' by D C Tcychenne, R E franklin
and H C Erntroy Contnbuted by courtesy of the Director. BUIlding Research Estabhshment and reproduced by the
permission of the Controller ot Her Bntannu Majesty's Stationery Office. Crown Copynght
117
SP : 13·1981
70 I--~.---+---~-+-~
60 t - - - - - - + - - - - - + - - - t - - - 1
50 ~---4-----+--- "'-
to- 30
z
UJ
u
ct
~ 20
60
50"---+-
30
1 0 "'-----...---------
0·2 0·4 ().& 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0-6 0.8 0.6 0.8
FREE-WATER/CEMENT RATIO
I J8
SP : 23-1982
60-0
N
E
E
<,
z "-.
... 50·0
'<r-,
UJ
~
L&J
~
U
Z
o
u '0-0 .. ----
LL
o '<,
~,
:J:
~
C>
Z
~ 30·0
~
(J)
"'" <,
LLI
> ~~
en
CI)
LIJ
20-0 ~ .............. ........ -_.--
~
0-
~
o
u
~ 10·0
ot
co
N
o
0-30 0·35 0·'0 0·50 0-55 0-60 0-65
WATER-CEMENT RAflO
119
SP : 23·1982
70-0,....-----,---..-.or-----r----...,..---"""P-'----....-----.
60·0 --~~--+-----
F
I
E I
50· -f--- -
N I
E 0
E I
---.
z C I
~ '0·0
C)
z 8
--1---
UJ
Q:
.... A
en
~ 30-0
w
0::
U
Z
0
U
>
-c(
20·0
0
I
CD
N
10·0
WATER-CEMENT RATIO
fig. 47 Relationship Between Free Water-Cement Ratio and Concrete Strength for Different
Cement Strengths
120
SP : 23-1982
10· 0 r-----r----,.....---,.....---or----~---...----
N
E 60·0
e F
z'"
W-
~ E
LcJ
~ 50-0
u
z 0
0
u
u.. C
0
:r: '0-0
to-
<-'
a
z
l&J
Q:
~ A
(/)
LIJ 30·0
>
(J)
(/')
LIJ
a:
CL
~ 20·0
u
>-
c{
0 ,
GO
N
10-0 -
Oa.....----t..----~---'-----"-----~---""---- 0·65
0·30 0-35 O·LS 0·50 0·55 0·60
.....
WA1ER-CEMENT RATIO
Fig, 48 Retationsbip Between Free Water-Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength (~I
Concrete for Different Cement Strengths Determined on Reference Concrete .\fl\e\
(Accelerated Test - BOiling Water Me/hod)
121
SP : 23-1982
122
SECTION 7
7.0 What has been discussed so far in weather concreting: Part 1 Recommended
earlier sections refer to properties of con- practice for hot weather concreting' and
crete for practice of concreting under 'nor- 'IS: 7861 (Part 11)-1981 Code of practice for
mal' conditions of temperature and humidi- extreme weather concreting: Part II Recom-
ty. Nevertheless, there can be situations mended practice for cold weather con-
where the temperature of concrete at the creting' .
time of placing and the environmental
temperature during concreting and its subse- 7. J Hot Weather Concreting - Any
quent curing periods may be different from operation of concreting done at atmospheric
those of normal conditions that is, either the temperature above 40°C or any operation of
temperature is higher or lower. The situation concreting (other than steam curing) where
may become further aggravated by decrease the temperature of concrete at the time of its
of the humidity in the atmosphere, increase placement is expected to be beyond 40°C
of wind or combinations of these. In such may be put under hot weather concreting.
situations the properties and performance of Concrete is not recommended to be placed at
concrete are likely to be affected unless due a temperature above 40°C without proper
precautions are taken. precautions. The climatic factors affecting
concrete in hot weather are high ambient
The problems of extreme weather con- temperature and reduced relative humidity,
creting stem mainly from the fact that the effects of which may be more pronounc-
kinetics of hydration of cement, so essential ed with increase in wind velocity. The effects
for the development of strength and other of hot weather are most critical during
intrinsic properties of concrete, are altered. periods of rising temperature and falling
In general, an increase in temperature will relative humidity or both. There are some
accelerate the rate of hydration and decrease special problems involved in concreting in
in temperature will decelerate it. Therefore, hot weather, arising both from temperature
the initial rate of development of strength rise of the concrete and consequential
can be expected to be faster in hot weather increase in rate of evaporation from the
and slower in cold weather. Coupled with fresh concrete mix. These problems concern
this is the problem of loss of water due to the mixing, placing and curing of the con-
evaporation, which may affect the crete.
workability of fresh concrete and plastic
shrinkage that accompany the rapid drying 7.1.1 EFFECTS OF HOT Wl-ATHER ON CON
due to consequential loss of water from the CRETe - In the absence of special precau-
fresh concrete. Yet another aspect is the type tions, the effects of hot weather may be
of microstructure of cement paste that is described as follows:
formed during such accelerated or
a) Accelerated setting - A higher
decelerated hydration; a higher temperature
temperature of the fresh concrete
may lead to an accelerated growth of
results in a more rapid hydration and
hydrates which may not be as orderly or as
leads to accelerated setting. This
compact as can be expected, if the reactions
reduces the handling time of concrete
were to proceed at normal rate. In cold
and also lowers the strength of harden-
weather, although the initial strength may be
ed concrete. Quick stiffening may
reduced, the miscrostructure formed is
necessitate undesirable retempering by
perhaps more orderly and compact.
addition of water. Added water
A comprehensive study on the effects of without proper adjustments in mix
mixing and curing temperature on the proportions will adversely affect the
various properties of concrete like com- ultimate quality of concrete in place,
pressive strength, flexural strength, and may adversely influence place..
workability, air entrainment, etc, was car- ment, consolidation and finishing.
ried out by the Portland Cement Associa- With the increase in concrete
tion, which has formed the basis of cIS: 7861 temperature, the slump (workability)
(Part 1)-1975 Code of practice for extreme decreases and hence the water demand
125
SP : 23·1982
126
SP : 23-1982
Aggregates may be kept shaded from direct lowest practical levels so that the
sun rays. They may be sprinkled with water temperature of concrete is below 40°C at the
or may be cooled by methods, such as inun- time of placement. The temperature of the
dating them in cold water or by circulating concrete at the tirne of leaving the mixer or
refrigerated air through pipes or other batching plant should be measured with
suitable methods. Mixing water has the suitable metal-clad thermometer. In the
greatest effect on lowering the temperature absence of such measurement. the
of concrete, because the specific heat of temperature may be calculated from the
water (1.0) is nearly 5 times that of common following formula:
aggregates (0.22). The temperature of water
is easier to control than that of other ingre- a) Cold water as mixing water (without
dients. The use of cold mixing water will ice)
affect a moderate reduction in concrete plac- S(Ta Wa + T4: W , ) + (Tw Ww + Twa Wwa)
ing temperature. Under certain cir- T =
cumstances, reduction in water temperature S(W.+ We) + WWWWI
may be most economically accomplished by b) With ice added to mixing water
mechanical refrigerator or mixing with
crushed ice. To take advantage of the latent
heat of fusion, the ice shall be incorporated T =
directly into the concrete as a part of mixing S(W. + We) + WYf + WI + JYwa
water. Conditions shall be such that the ice is
(Ww - W)Tw + Wwa Twa- 79. 6 W.
completely melted by the time mixing is com-
pleted.
+ S(Wa + We) + W w + W,+ W wa
where
Investigations were carried out on the
T temperature of freshly mix-
effects of temperature of cement on the
ed concrete (Oe);
strength of concrete. Cements having
temperatures of 23°C, 64°C and 80°C were Ta , t; T;. Twa = temperature of aggregate,
used in preparing concretes, each at the cement, added mixing
temperature at the end of mixing period of water, and free water on ag-
24 °C and 40°C, the final concrete gregate, respectively (Oe);
temperature being attained by adjusting the
temperature of concrete ingredients (see we' WWW}--f
Wa , W mass 0 aggregate, cement,
Fig. SO). Tests showed that so long as the wa', added mixing water free
t
The temperature (in °C) of fresh con- (not dripping) gunny bags, hessian. cloth,
crete as mixed with these ingredients etc. Once the concrete has attained some
will be: degree of hardening sufficient to withstand
0.22(45 x 1 850 + 35 x 336) surface damage (approximately 12 hours
+ lOx 170 after mixing), moist curing shall commence.
T = O.22(1 850 + 336) + 170 The actual duration of curing shall depend
upon the mix proportions, size of the
= 39.9°C member as well as the environmental condi-
Suppose, the mixing water is added at tions; however, in any case it shall not be less
SoC, then the temperature of concrete than 10 days. Continuous curing is impor-
(in °C) as mixed will be: tant, because the volume changes due to
0.22(45 x I 850 + 35 x 336) alternate wetting and drying promote the
+ 5 x 170 development of surface cracking. On expos-
T = ed unformed concrete surfaces, such as
0.22(1850+336)+ 170 pavement slabs, wind is an important factor
= 33.4°C in the drying rate of concrete. Hence, wind
Hence, reduction in concrete breakers shall be provided as far as possible.
temperature is: On the hardened concrete and on flat sur-
(39.9- 33.4)OC = 6.5°C faces in particular, curing water shall not be
much cooler than the concrete because of the
b) With ice added to the mixing water possibilities of thermal stressess and resul-
in the example under (a), suppose 50 tant cracking.
percent of the mixing water (that is,
85 kg) is replaced by ice. 7.2 Cold Weather Concreting - As was
Then the temperature of fresh concrete pointed out before, the production of con-
as mixed is given by: crete in cold weather introduces special
x
0.22(45 1 850 + 35 x 336) problems which do not arise while con-
+ (170 - 85) x 30 - 79.6 x 85 creting at normal temperatures. The pro-
T blems are mainly due to slower development
0.22(1850+336)+85+85
of concrete strength. the damage that can
= 25.6°C
happen if concrete in the plastic state is ex-
Hence, reduction in concrete temp.. posed to low temperature which cause ice
erature is: lenses to form and expansion to occur within
(39.9 - 25.6)OC = 14.3°C the pore structure, and subsequent damage
due to alternate freezing and thawing when
The period between mixing and delivery
the concrete has hardened. From the tests
shall be kept to an absolute minimum. At-
carried out at peA laboratories! referred to
tention shall be given to coordinate the
earlier it was found that, there is a
delivery of concrete with the rate of place..
temperature during the early life of concrete
ment of concrete.
which could be considered optimum with
regard to its satisfactory performance at
7.1.2.4 PLACEMENT, PROTECTION AND CUR·
later stages. Mainly on the basis of these
ING - Formwork reinforcement and
t
tests most of the codes do not advocate con-
subgrade shall be sprinkled with cool water creting to be done at an atmospheric
just prior to placement of concrete. The area
temperature below SoC. Accordingly, any
around the work shall be kept wet to the
concreting operation done at a temperature
extent possible to cool the surrounding air
below SoC is termed as cold weather con-
and increase its humidity. Speed of place-
creting.
ment and finishing helps to minimize pro-
blems in hot weather concreting. Sufficient
men and machinery shall be employed to 7.2. J EFFECTS OF COLD WEATHER ON CON.
handle and place the concrete immediately CRETING - In the absence of special precau-
on delivery. tions, effects of cold weather concreting may
Immediately after consolidation and sur- be described as follows:
face finish, concrete shall be protected from a) Delayed setting - When the
evaporation of moisture without letting temperature is falling to about SoC or
ingress of external water, by means of wet below, the development of concrete
128
SP : 23-1982
strength is retarded compared with the rials within the concrete member may
strength development at normal promote cracking and has a harmful
temperatures. The hardening period effect on the durability. Such differen-
necessary before removal of formwork tials are likely to occur in cold weather
is thus increased and the experience at the time of removal of formwork.
from concreting at normal temperature
cannot be used directly. Effects of 7.2.2 RECO~1MENDl-,D PRACflCf-
temperature of concrete on the
strength development can be expressed 7.2.2./ TEMPERATURE: (ON fROL or· C()NCRf:l r
as in Fig. 51). Although the initial AGGREGATES - The most direct approach to
strengths of concrete are lower, it has keep concrete temperature above the per-
now been found that the long-term missible minimum is by controlling the
strength of concrete will not be severely temperature of the ingredients. All available
affected provided that the concrete has means shall be used for maintaining these
been prevented from freezing during its materials at as high a temperature as prac-
early life lsee 7.2.1(b) below]. The ticable. Heating of the aggregates shall be
combined effects of time and such that frozen lumps, lee and snow are
temperature as expressed in terms of eliminated and at the same time overheating
'maturity' of concrete was discussed is avoided. The average temperature of an
earlier (see Section 3). However, such aggregate for an individual', batch shall not
concept has not been found to be strict- exceed 65°C. The mixing water shall be
ly applicable for winter concreting heated under such a 'control and in sufficient
under actual site conditions", One of quality as to avoid appreciable fluctuation in
the reasons may be that the actual temperature from batch to batch. The re-
temperatures of concrete, which could quired temperature of mixing water to pro-
indeed be different from the ambient duce specified concrete can be obtained from
temperature; were not taken into ac- Fig. 531 which are also included in IS : 7861
count in such comparisons. (Part 11)-1981 7 • The heated water shall come
b) Freezing of concrete at early
in direct contact with aggregate first and not
stages - The permanent damage that in contact with cement. Water having
can be expected when the concrete still temperature up to the boiling point may be
in fresh stage is exposed to freezing used provided the aggregate i~ cold enough
temparature can be seen from Fig. 525 . to reduce the temperature.
It is generally felt that if concrete is
7. 2 . 2 . 2
USE 0 F ll'~ ~ U L A r I N (j f () R M .
allowed to freeze before a certain 'pre-
hardening period' concrete may suffer WORK -Sufficient amount of heat is
irrepairable loss in its properties so generated during hydration of cement. Such
heat can be gainfully conserved by having in-
much so that even one cycle of freezing
and thawing during the pre-hardening sulating formwork covers which may main-
period may reduce the compressive tain the concrete temperature above the
strength to 50 percent of what could be desirable limits up to the first 3 days and
(may be even up to 7 days), even when the
expected for normal temperature con-
crete. Opinions differ as to the length ambient temperatures are lower. The form-
work covers can be of timber, clean straw,
of such 'pre-hardening period' which
blankets, sacking, tarpaulins, plast ic
indeed depends upon the type of
sheeting, etc, in conjunction with air gap as
cement and the environmental condi-
insulation, efficiency of which depends upon
tions. While some specify it in terms of
the thermal conductivity of the medium as
the time required to attain a com-
well as on the ambient temperature condi-
pressive strength of the order of 3S to
tions. Tests on 90 em concrete cubes made
70 kgf'/crn", others have specified it in
with ordinary Portland cement (310 kg/rn ')
terms of a period varying from 24
and insulated either with 50 rnrn lumber or
hours to even 3 days depending upon
20 mm plywood showed that the concrete
the degree of saturation and water-
temperatures were nearly 30 to 40°C above
cement ratio.
the air temperature (see Fig. 54'). For
c) Stresses due to temperature differen- moderately cold weather timber formworks
t
tials - Large temperature differen- alone are sufficient and are preferable to
129
SP : 23-1982
steel forrnworks. The following comparison concrete from damage during the pre-
of different insulating materials, taken from hardening period'. In any case, calcium
ACI 306-19661 indicates how the efficiency chloride shall not be used in prestressed
of different combination varies due to their concrete construction.
coefficient of thermal conductivity; the
insulating values are indicated with reference 7.2.2.4 Pl.ACEMENT. PRorECTION AND CUR·
to 25 rnm commercial blankets as reference: ING - Before any concrete is placed, all ice,
snow and frost shall be completely removed.
Insulating Material Equivalent It should be remembered that no amount of
Thickness insulation can supply heat at below freezing
mm temperature. Care should be taken to see
25 mm commercial blanket 2S that the surface on which the concrete is to
2S mm loose-fill insulation of 25 be placed and the steel and all eminent parts
fibrous type are sufficiently warm. It will be wrong to ex-
25 mm insulating board 20 pect that the heat from the fresh concrete
will thaw a frozen surface or mould inside
25 mm saw dust 15
the formwork without damaging the con-
25 mm timber 8 crete. Whenever it is proposed to place
25 mm damp sand 0.6 concrete at or below 2°C, it is essential to
In addition to insulated formworks, the know that the time taken for the concrete
concreting operations may sometimes re- temperature to fall to freezing point is at
quire to be carried out in heated enclosures. least equal to the minimum prehardening
The size of the section should be taken into period. For weather conditions below
account while using insulated formworks - lOC t the temperature of the concrete as
because of the thermal gradient that may mixed should be IS.SoC and as placed IOoe.
result across the cross-section; usually the During periods of freezing or near-freezing
temperature at the centre of such massive conditions, water curing is not necessary.
section will be somewhat higher than near 7.2.2.5 DEL.AYED REMOVAL OF FORM
the formwork and the temperature around WORK - Because of slower rate of gain of
the corner are usually the lowest. strength during the cold weather, the form-
7.2.2.3 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE INGRE- work and props have to be kept in place for
DIENTS - Since the quantity of cement in the longer time than in usual concreting prac-
mix affects the rate of increase in tice. The appropriate time for removal of
temperature, additional quantity of ordinary formwork may be ascertained from the
Portland cement, rapid hardening Portland strength of test cubes left at site under the
cement or accelerating admixtures used with same conditions of temperature and humidi-
proper precaution can help in getting the re- ty as the structural element concerned. The
quired strength in a shorter period. Air- time of removal of formwork thus arrived
entraining agents are generally recommend- should not be less than the duration of
ed for use in cold weather. Air-entrainment necessary protection afforded by the form-
increases the resistance of hardened concrete work (see 7.2.2.2). As a general guidance,
to freezing and thawing and normally at the the minimum time limits for stripping of
same time improves the workability of fresh formwork of members (carrying only its own
concrete. In cold weather concrete construc- weight), and at air temperature about 3°e as
tions, calcium chloride has been used as an given in Reference 7 is reproduced below:
accelerating admixture. However the matter
is a subject of big controversy in so far as With With
incidence of corrosion of reinforcing steel is ope RHC
considered. The winter condition as expected .pays Days
in India may not be as severe as elsewhere, Beam sides, walls, columns 5 3
where the successful use of calcium chloride
Slabs (props left under) 7 4
is cited. In a study to stimulate the strength
development of concrete under wintry condi- Beams soffits (props left 14 8
tion as in India, it was found that perhaps air under)
entrained concrete with insulated formwork Removal of props to slabs 14 8
is sufficient to ensure the minimum concrete Removal of props to 28 16
temperature as well as to prevent the fresh beams
130
SP : 23·1982
200,----,----r------r-------,..---------r------~
0
w
.....
4
~ 160
0
z
UJ
C)
~
.....
4
:I:
~ 120 ~--- .- - -- .- - - • ------ -- - - ------ --.:.I11III-_ _- _ ~ -
z 13·e
w
a: It·C
~
(J)
o ~--- -_4·C
UJ
23 C - --
~ ~7.......,...-~~-_++-----_32·C
(/)
en J.O·C
LlJ
Q: 49·C
0- 80
~
a
u.
u
0
C"")
C't
LA.-
o
UJ
C> 40
~
.....
z
UJ
u
a:
UJ
Q..
0
1 3 7 28 90 365
AGE OF TEST DAYS (lOG SCALE)
131
SP : 23-1982
N
E
E
-...
z
w
.
.-
W
0: 60,...----..,.....-----r-------,..----r-----..------r-----r-------r-----,
U
Z
o ,
U
I I
LL
o so --+0---------11-- --~ - ~ ----r' . -
I I
J:
..... 1 I
o
z
w
~
....(/)
40 - --
1----- _ _ _1--0---
0-- ---0
w
> 0-
~ 30-
w
a:: LEGEND
n,
~N
o E 20 CONCRETE TEMPERATURE 2' ·C, CURED
u .......
E AT 23 ·C, , 0 0 PE R C EN' A H
~
u
~ 5 ---- -
U
I
u, I
I
o I
I 0--
~ ~ t
C>
Z
W
I
I
~
t-
(/) 3 --- 1
...J
<{
Q:
:::>
I
I
xw2'---
I
..:-- -A.- -....;.. ---a. "'""-- ~ ~ ---"- _
.J
U.
0 10 20 30 so 60 70 80 90
'132
SP : 23.J982
%
t; .00
~
z
LLI
~ 90 ~
en
Q
a ~
~
~ 80
~ 0
u
> 70 -_.- A -
x ~
...c
-'
60 ./
V - -
Z
~ SO Y -~----
LEGEND
CEMENT CONTENT
~
9 40
/ a
OF THE Mrx (kg/m 3)
-- 200 - - - -
f: V 0
D -- 270
~ 30
~I/ X -- 340 --
1&1
....~Z 20 ---- - -~ - -
&IJ 10 ~---
u
~.
III
Q.. 0
-10 -5 o 5 10 15 21
TEMPERATURE. ·c
:r. 110-------------...----------------------
~
"a:
~100~--
:)
U
... 70 .......---+-----+------+------+-----+------+---~ ,---06-----------01
en
s~ 601-----+-----.........----t------+----.. . . . .----+--~-4- ------I
C
~
c 50.......-----ot------..-.-....---~ ------6----- - - ----
Q
Z
~ 40 ....-."--...-.'-~....._"II'__-wl--~~
_ _~-~---~~---~+----.----+-
'"
III
......z
C)
/ /
~ 1 OI-----+-----+-----~~~r....-.,~~--hL-~~----,~+--+---~~-~-...,'-
cz
III
G.. 0, 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 2S
NUMBER OF CYCLES OF FREEZING AND THAWING
Fig. 52 Effect of Cycles of Freezing and Thawing of Fresh Concrete During Prehardentng
on Compressive Strength
133
SP : 23-1982
" 8 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - ; - -.........--..--.....-......
z
)C
i 60
lL
o.u ~
wa:
Q: w40
:J~
~~ CEMENT
~ CONT ENT: JOO kg/m
w 20
~--r· ~i-
Q.
2:
UJ
to-
o 5 10 1S 20 25
TEMPERATURE OF CONCRETE;C
8 Qr-----.,..----.....---...--r-----,........---.
MOISTURE CONTENT OF
AGGREGATE
DAMP (4% IN FINE, 1 % IN
o 15 20 2S COARSE)
OF CONCRETE,-C WET (8% IN FINE, 2 % IN
COARSE)
TEMPERATURE OF AG
C) &0 r-----.------.----,~-_ _-____. GREGATE AND CONTAIN
z ED MOISTURE = 1-C
~
TEMPERATURE OF
CEMENT =SoC
o 1S 20 25
OF CONCRETE,~
134
SP : 23·1911
t
I I
~- ~ I~
I
-\-
-,,(-1- -,~::::::.. ... - --
-
'--'1
-: - -- ! - -
rr--:---.J_--
t~rp~ulin
+-'- ~: ~~- -.::.
Cement I 3 I 120mm plywood I
content:310kg/m I I
I
__tAi~ t«!"p«~.tu~~.
I I I
135
SP : 13-1982
RLFl:RFN(:ES S. MUSTARD (J N). Winter curing of concrete as related
Kl.IEG[k (P). Effect of mixing and curing to the New Canadian standard. ACI Publication SP
temperature on concrete strength. Bulletin 103. 39: Behaviour of Concrete Under Temperature
Research and Development Laboratories of the Extremes. Paper SP 39-4; 1973. P 59-78.
Portland Cement Association. Chicago, 1958. 6. PINK (A). Winter concreting. Cement and Concrete
2. IS: 7861 (Part 1)-1975 Code of practice for extreme Association, London, 1974. P 1-24.
weather concreting: Part I Recommended practice 7. IS: 7861 (Part 11)-1981 Code of practice for
for hot weather concreting. extreme weather concreting: Part II Recommended
.'. (JR' INWAI n (E). Cold weather concreting with high- practice for cold weather concreting .
early strength cement. Proceedings; RILEM Sympo- 8. ACI 306-1966 Recommended practice for cold
viurn: Winter Concreting Session B 1 • Copenhagen. weather concreting. ACI Manual of Concrete Prac-
1956. tice. Part I; 1974. P 306-1-19.
4. MALHOTRA (V M) and BERWANGER (C). Effect of 9. V1SVESVARAVA (H C) and MULL1CK (A K).
below freezing temperatures on strength develop- Compressive strength of concrete in winter - A
ment of concrete. ACI Publication SP 39: Behaviour probabilistic simulation. 2nd International
of Concrete Under Temperature Extremes. Paper symposium in winter concreting, ~lLEM, Moscow,
~r 39-1; 1971. P 37-58. October 1975. Proc Vol 2. P 83-103.
136
SECTION 8
139
SP : 13-1982
140
SP : 13-1982
141
SP : 13-1982
indicate the actual compressive strength of of equivalent cube strength for acceptance
concrete in the structures. This is because of purposes. For this purpose. the strength of
a number of intrinsic and environmental 1SO nun diameter and 300 mm high core
parameters which are different in case of specimens can be taken to be 0.8 times that
concrete in the cube specimens and in the of 1SO mm cube specimens.
structures. It is held that the most reliable
measure of the actual strength of concrete in Apart from those factors intrinsic
the structures can be obtained by testing differences in the qualities of concrete in the
specimens of hardened concrete obtained structure from which core specimens are
from the structure by core drilling l 3 • The obtained and that in the companion cube
procedure of obtaining cored samples from specimens, exist because of differences in the
hardened concrete is described in manner of placing, compaction and curing.
" IS: 1199-1959 1 and method of their testing As a result, the strength of hardened con-
in IS : 516-1959 7 • Such core testing is usual- crete in the structure is expected to be within
ly resorted to when the 28-day cube results a range of 55 to 80 percent of the cube
do not meet the specified acceptance criteria, strength 13. IS : 456-1978 2 stipulates that for
when the cube tests had not been taken or acceptance purposes, the average equivalent
the results are disputed, or when the design cube strength of three core samples shall be
load on the structure is to be enhanced at least 85 percent of the characteristic
sometimes during its service life to accom- strength for the grade of concrete at the
modate some modifications in the usage and corresponding age.
occupancy of the structure than originally The above discussion pertains to com-
proposed for. pressive strength of concrete. In some
instances, tensile strength of concrete is also
There are a number of factors which required to be measured. The tensile strength
influence the measured strength of core is determined either by flexure test (see
specimens, which have been discussed in IS : S 16-19597 ) or split cylinder test (see
detail in Reference 13. Cored samples are IS : 5816-1970 14 ) . Their relationships with
generally cylinderical in shape. with 1SO mm compressive strength. of concrete has been
diameter; alternatively 100 mm diameter is discussed earlier in Section 3.
also permitted, but the diameter should not
be less than three times the nominal 8.8 Analysis of Hardened Concrete-
maximum size of aggregates. The length to Analysis of cement content in hardened
diameter (L/D) ratio is required to be 2. For concrete is frequently required, whenever
the ratio less than 2 but not less than 0.95 concrete has either exhibited low strength or
(this being permitted), the indicated strength any other inadequate performance. Al-
increases and necessary correction factors though different methods like microscopic,
are to be applied to express the indicat- petrographic and even nucleonic are
ed strength to that of L/D = 2. Such a set available and new methods are being
of correction factors -are given in developed, only chemical methods are
IS : SI6-1959. The influence of the size of recognized in the national standards of most
the specimens having identical L/D ratio on countries, including IS : 1199-1959 1•
the compressive strength is not very clear;
In all methods of analysis of hardened
generally smaller diameter specimens are
concrete, sample selection plays an impor-
expected to indicate higher strength. The
tant part. Since only a small quantity goes in
earlier version of the code for plain and rein-
the analysis, it should be as representative of
forced concrete (IS : 4S6-1964) stated that
the concrete in question as possible. For this
compressive strength of 100 mm cubes was
reason, several samples of 4-S kg are taken
expected to be 10 percent higher than those
and the representative sample is obtained by
of 1SO mm cubes; but in case of core
repeated quartering. Samples of cement and
specimens, no correction due to size of core
aggregate used in the constructions, if
is envisaged in IS : .516-1959 7• Direction of
available. aid in the analysis and yield more
drilling. presence of reinforcement and age
accurate results.
of concrete all influence the indicated
strength but precise estimation of these ef- The procedure prescribed in IS: 1199-
fects is difficult to make. The core strength is 19S91 involves determination of soluble silica
ultimately required to be expressed in terms (SiOz) in the mortar fraction which is
142
SP : 23·1982
supposed to be resulting from cement alone. First method assumes the relative contents of
The sample is broken up, crushed and then silica and lime in the cement which vary
reduced to a fineness of IS Sieve of aperture considerably between cements: secondly the
size 106 micron to 75 micron and soluble methods assume that aggregates do not con..
silica content determined by treating it with tain soluble silica (on silica basis) or soluble
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide lime (lime basis). If the samples of cement
solutions. Assuming that the soluble silica and aggregates are available, both these
content in the cement to be 21.40 percent assumptions can be checked and necessary
by mass, the quantity of cement is cal .. corrections applied which improve the
culated. accuracy. In the absence of these, the
estimated cement content may be in error by
The relevant AST~1 method C8S 15 also
10 to 20 percent from the true cement con-
permits determination of soluble lime
tent. These methods are applicable only in
(calcium oxide) by leaching with acid solu-
case of ordinary Portland cement and are
tions and the cement content being determin-
not applicable to Portland slag cement or
ed on the assumption that cement contains
Portland pozzolana cement, unless blank
lime ro the extent of 63.S percent. In addi-
samples of such blended cements actually
tion, soluble silica basis as above is also
used are available at the time of analysis.
permitted,
This is because slags and some reactive
The above methods involve two assump- pozzolana can release silica, some other fly
tions. none of which may be strictly correct. ashes can release lime.
143
SP : 13·1982
\
144