Calculus Reference Sheet

Factorizations: Linear Forms:

Difference of Squares: 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) Standard Form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
Perfect Squares: (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 Intercept Form: + =1
𝑎 𝑏
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 Point-Slope Form: 𝑦 − 𝑘 = 𝑚(𝑥 − ℎ)
3 3 2 2
Difference of Cubes: 𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 ) Circles:
Sum of Cubes: 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
Circle: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟
→SOAP: Same, Opposite, Always Positive
4𝜋𝑟 3
Cube of a Sum: Sphere: 𝑉= 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
3

(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 General Form: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

Cube of a Difference: Center-Radius Form: (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2

(𝑎 − 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 3 Misc.:

Second Degree Polynomials: Cylinder: 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
𝑥 2 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) Cone:
1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟𝑙
3

Ellipse General Form: 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 + 𝐸 = 0

Quadratics: (𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Ellipse Standard Form: + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
Standard Form:
Conics:
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑐 is the y-intercept
Quadratic Equation in Vertex Form:
Vertex Form:
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 (ℎ, 𝑘) is the vertex
Sideways: 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + ℎ
Factored Form:
Quadratic Equation in Conics Form:
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) 𝑥1 & 𝑥2 are the x-
intercepts (also called zeros, values, solutions, roots) 4𝑝(𝑦 − 𝑘) = (𝑥 − ℎ)2

Finding the Vertex Form from the Standard Form: Sideways: 4𝑝(𝑥 − ℎ) = (𝑦 − 𝑘)2

𝑏 𝑏 →Where:
(𝑥 = − , 𝑦 = 𝑓(− ))
2𝑎 2𝑎 1
4𝑝 =
𝑎
Finding the Roots from the Standard Form:
ℎ always stays with 𝑥
2 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑓 (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐) > 0
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2
− 4𝑎𝑐
{ 1 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑓 (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐) = 0 𝑘 always stays with 𝑦
2𝑎
𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑓 (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐) < 0 𝑝 always on the unsquared variable

𝑝 is the distance from vertex to focus and

also from vertex to directrix

©Francis Picotte 2016 — Not to be distributed without written permission

This document is a work in progress. Errors or comments? Please write to fpicotte10@gmail.com
Last revision: 2016-09-05.
 Trigonometry:
Angles (pattern): Sine and Cosine laws (applies to ANY triangle, where 𝑎 is
opposite to 𝐴)
𝜃 0 𝜋/6 𝜋/4 𝜋/3 𝜋/2
√0⁄ = 0 √1⁄ √2⁄ √3⁄ √4⁄ = 1 sin(𝐴) sin(𝐵) sin(𝐶)
sin 𝜃 = =
2 2 2 2 2 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
cos 𝜃 √4⁄ = 1 √3⁄ √2⁄ √1⁄ √0⁄ = 0
2 2 2 2 2 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos(𝐴)
0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
Double-Angle Identities:

Pythagoream Theorem: 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 ⟺ 𝐴𝑑𝑗 2 + 𝑂𝑝𝑝2 = 𝐻𝑦𝑝 2 sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

Basic SOH CAH TOA: cos 2𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥

𝑂𝑝𝑝 1 𝐻𝑦𝑝 cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1

sin 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑂𝑝𝑝
𝐴𝑑𝑗 1 𝐻𝑦𝑝
cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥
cos 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝐴𝑑𝑗
Half-Angle Identities:
sin 𝜃 𝑂𝑝𝑝 1 𝐴𝑑𝑗
tan 𝜃 = = cot 𝜃 = =
cos 𝜃 𝐴𝑑𝑗 tan 𝜃 𝑂𝑝𝑝 1 − cos 2𝑥
sin2 𝑥 =
2
sin(−𝑥) = −sin(𝑥) csc(−𝑥) = −csc(𝑥) 1 + cos 2𝑥
cos(−𝑥) = cos(𝑥) sec(−𝑥) = sec(𝑥) cos 2 𝑥 =
2
tan(−𝑥) = −tan(𝑥) cot(−𝑥) = −cot(𝑥)
Angle-Sum Identities:

sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1 sin(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦

2
÷ cos 𝑥 ⇒ tan2 𝑥 + 1 = sec 2 𝑥 cos(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ∓ sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦
÷ sin2 𝑥 ⇒ 1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥

Hyperbolic functions
→Watch out for the signs, they are not always the same as cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1
regular trig identities!!! 2
÷ cosh 𝑥 ⇒ 1 − tanh2 𝑥 = sech2 𝑥
1 1 ÷ sinh2 𝑥 ⇒ coth2 𝑥 − 1 = csch2 𝑥
sinh 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) csch 𝑥 = 2
2 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
1 1 Angle-Sum Identities:
cosh 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) sech 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 −𝑥
2 𝑒 +𝑒 sinh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = = coth 𝑥 = = cosh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
(Odd)
sinh(𝑥) = − sinh(−x)
cosh(x) = cosh(−x) (Even)

Laws of Logarithms
log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦 log𝑛 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Change of Base: log 𝑎 𝑥 = =
log𝑛 𝑎 ln 𝑎
𝑥
log 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 > 0
𝑦
log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟 log 𝑎 𝑥 1
log 𝑎 𝑥 =
log 𝑥 𝑎
log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥

©Francis Picotte 2016 — Not to be distributed without written permission

This document is a work in progress. Errors or comments? Please write to fpicotte10@gmail.com
Last revision: 2016-09-05.
 Common Derivatives:
Logarithmic: Other Common Derivatives & Integrals:
𝑑 1
𝑑 1 𝑑 ln|𝑥| =
ln|𝑥| = 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
log 𝑎 𝑥 =
𝑢 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎
ln 𝑢 = ⋅ 𝑒 =𝑒 ⋅
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln|𝑎|
𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 ⋅ ln(𝑎)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln(𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 = ln 𝑎

Trigonometric: 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛: ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑝(𝑥) − 𝑝′ (𝑥) +

𝑝′′ (𝑥) − 𝑝′′′ (𝑥) + ⋯ + (−1)𝑛 𝑝(𝑛) (𝑥)]𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑 𝑑
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 csc 𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥|
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|

tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 cot 𝑥 = − csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2+𝑎2 = 𝑎 tan−1 (𝑎)

Inverse Trigonometric: 1
∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 (𝑥 − sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥)
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 1
sin−1 𝑥 = csc −1 𝑥 = − ∫ cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 (𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

𝑑 1 𝑑 1
cos −1 𝑥 = − sec −1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

𝑑 1 𝑑 1
tan−1 𝑥 = cot −1 𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2

Hyperbolic (watch the signs!!!):

𝑑 𝑑
sinh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 csch 𝑥 = − csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
cosh 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 sech 𝑥 = − sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
tanh 𝑥 = sech2 𝑥 coth 𝑥 = − csch2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Inverse Hyperbolic
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
sinh−1 𝑥 = csch−1 𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥 √1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 +1

𝑑 1 𝑑 1
cosh−1 𝑥 = sech−1 𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1−𝑥 2

𝑑 1 𝑑 1
tanh−1 𝑥 = coth−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2

©Francis Picotte 2016 — Not to be distributed without written permission

This document is a work in progress. Errors or comments? Please write to fpicotte10@gmail.com
Last revision: 2016-09-05.
Definition of the derivative: Definition of the definite integral:
𝑛
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑏
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥𝑖
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 max ∆𝑥𝑖 →0
𝑎 𝑖=1

Summations: Average value of 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑛 𝑏
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 1
∑𝑖 = 𝑓[𝑎,𝑏] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥𝑑𝑥)
2 𝑏−𝑎 𝑎
𝑖=1
𝑛 Odd & Even Functions:
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
2
∑𝑖 = Lemma:
6
𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
3
∑𝑖 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ∗ 𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
4
𝑖=1
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 + 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ∗ 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
𝑜𝑑𝑑 ∗ 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑
1. The derivative undoes the integral:
Theorem:
𝑑 𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑜𝑑𝑑: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
−𝑎
2. The integral undoes the derivative:
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛: ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) −𝑎 0
𝑎

Integration by parts:

∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

Trigonometric Substitutions:

Form Substitution
2 2
𝑎 −𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃
𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃

©Francis Picotte 2016 — Not to be distributed without written permission

This document is a work in progress. Errors or comments? Please write to fpicotte10@gmail.com
Last revision: 2016-09-05.
 Differential Equations
D.E. Order: 𝑑 2 𝑦, 𝑑 3 𝑦, etc. Bernoulli D.E.:
𝑑𝑦 2  Of form
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑥) ∙ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑦 𝑛 1
D.E. Degree: 𝑦 2 , ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 Simplify to linear…
Linear:
 Step 1: Let 𝑊 = 𝑦1−𝑛 2 │𝑛 ≠ 0,1
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑦
 Of form 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥) + 𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 (𝑥) +  Step 2: Differentiate for = (1 − 𝑛)𝑦 −𝑛 ∙ 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎0 (𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)  Step 3: Substitute 2 and 3 into 1 and solve
 Dependent variable y and all its derivatives are of 1st
Linear Homogeneous D.E. with Constant Coefficients
degree
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦
 Each coefficient depends on only one variable 𝑑𝑦
 Of form 𝑐𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑐𝑛−1 𝑛−1 +. . . +𝑐1 + 𝑐0 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
First-Order Linear D.E.:  Transform 1 to polynomial of 𝑚 , i.e. 𝑐𝑛 𝑚𝑛 +
𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑛−1 𝑚𝑛−1 +. . . +𝑐1 𝑚 + 𝑐0 = 0
 Of form 𝑎1 (𝑥) + 𝑎0 (𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥  Factor (always!!!) and find all solutions to 𝑚𝑖
𝒅𝒚
 Simplify to + 𝑷(𝒙) ∙ 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) o Real solutions: 𝒎𝒊 ⟶ 𝒄𝒊 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒙
𝒅𝒙
 Multiply by integration factor 𝜇 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 o Imaginary solutions, where 𝒎𝟏 = 𝜶 ± 𝜷𝒊 ⟶
𝒅 𝒆𝜶𝒙 (𝒄𝒊𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷𝒙 + 𝒄𝒊𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷𝒙)
 Results in (𝒚 ∙ 𝒆∫ 𝑷(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 ) = 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒆∫ 𝑷(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
 If two or more components of same form, multiply by
 Notice (𝑦 ∙ 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ) = [ ] ∙ 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 ∙ successive powers of 𝒙, e.g. case 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
[𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑃(𝑥)] ⋯ ⇛ 𝑚𝑚 ⟶ 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 , 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 , 𝑐3 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 , …
 Integrate and solve for 𝑦  The general solution to 1 is the sum of all components
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚1𝑥 + ⋯
Exact D.E.:
 IVP: Find the 𝑛th derivatives of 𝑦𝑐 , and solve the system
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
 Of form 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 1 │ = of equations through RREF matrix
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 General solution is a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶 Linear Non-Homogeneous D.E. with Constant Coefficients:
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
 Where = 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 2 and = 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 3 𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Of form 𝑐𝑛 + 𝑐𝑛−1 +. . . +𝑐1 + 𝑐0 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
 Partial integration of 2 results in 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) +
𝑔(𝑥) 1
𝜙(𝑦)
 Step 1: Find 𝑦𝑐 for the homogeneous case 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
 Substitute 2 in 3 to find 𝜙(𝑦)
 Step 2: Find 𝑦𝑝 , where its components depend on the
 Rewrite 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶 to solve 1
form of 𝑔(𝑥)
Homogeneous D.E.:
Case 𝒈(𝒙) is… Component is…
 Defined as 𝑓(𝑡𝑥, 𝑡𝑦) = 𝑡 𝑛 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) Constant 𝐴
 And said homogeneous of degree 𝑛 Polynomial of degree 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝐴𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝐴1 𝑥
𝑛 + 𝐴0
 If form 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 1 but NOT Exact,
Exponential 𝑒 𝛽𝑥 𝐴𝑒 𝛽𝑥
can be solve like homogeneous if both 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) and
sin 𝛽𝑥 or cos 𝛽𝑥 𝐴 sin 𝛽𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝛽𝑥
𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) are homogeneous of same degree
Combination of Same combination of above
 To solve, let 𝑦 = 𝑢(𝑥) ∙ 𝑥 2 above
𝑑 𝑑
 Step 1: Differentiate 𝑦= 𝑢 ∙ 𝑥 = [𝑢]′ 𝑥 + 𝑢[𝑥]′ ,  Same rule if components in either 𝑦𝑐 or 𝑦𝑝 are of same
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 form
thus =𝑥 +𝑢 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦  Find the 𝑛th derivatives of 𝑦𝑐 , and substitute them in 1
 Step 2: Rearrange 1 to form = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) 4
𝑑𝑥 to solve for 𝐴, 𝐵, …
 Step 3: Substitute 2 and 3 into 4 and solve for 𝑢(𝑥)  The general solution to 1 is the sum of all components
and 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
 Step 4: Substitute back 𝑦 to solve 1

©Francis Picotte 2016 — Not to be distributed without written permission

This document is a work in progress. Errors or comments? Please write to fpicotte10@gmail.com
Last revision: 2016-09-05.
Variation of Parameters, i.e. regardless if 𝑔(𝑥) is one of the 𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 Of form 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 +. . . +𝑎1 𝑥 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
previous forms:
𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) 1
 Step 1: 𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 where 𝑐𝑖 are constants  Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑚 , with its 𝑛 derivatives 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚𝑥 𝑚−1 , 𝑦 ′′ =
 Step 2: 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑣1 𝑦1 + 𝑣2 𝑦2 where 𝑣𝑖 are variables 𝑚(𝑚 − 1)𝑥 𝑚−2 , …
o 𝑣𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣𝑖′ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
𝑊𝑖
𝑑𝑥 , i.e. Cramer’s Rule  Substitute 𝑦, 𝑦 ′ , 𝑦 ′′ , … into 1 to get a polynomial of 𝑚
𝑊
using the Wronkian 𝑊 of 𝑦𝑖 𝑥 𝑚 (𝑃(𝑚))
0 𝑦2 𝑦 0  Find 𝑦𝑐 for the homogeneous case 𝑃(𝑚) = 0
o i.e. 𝑊1 = | | , 𝑊2 = | 1′ |,𝑊 =
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑦2′ 𝑦1 𝑔(𝑥) o Factor (always!!!) and find all solutions to 𝑚𝑖
𝑦1 𝑦2 o Real solutions: 𝒎𝒊 ⟶ 𝒄𝒊 𝒙𝒎𝒊
|𝑦 ′ 𝑦 ′ |
1 2 o Imaginary solutions, where 𝒎𝟏 = 𝜶 ± 𝜷𝒊 ⟶
 Same rule if components in either 𝑦𝑐 or 𝑦𝑝 are of same
𝒙𝜶 (𝒄𝒊𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜷 𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝒄𝒊𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜷 𝐥𝐧 𝒙))
form
 Find 𝑦𝑝 using variation of parameters 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑣1 𝑦1 + 𝑣2 𝑦2
 The general solution to 1 is the sum of all components
 If two or more components of same form, multiply by
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
successive powers of 𝐥𝐧 𝒙, i.e. case 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 =
Cauchy-Euler Equations: Linear Non-Homogeneous D.E. with ⋯ ⇛ 𝑚𝑚 ⟶ 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐2 𝑥 𝑚𝑚 ln 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑥 𝑚𝑚 (ln 𝑥)2 , …
Non-Constant Coefficients:

Laplace Transforms
Laplace Transforms: Translation Theorem:
∞
 ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)  ℒ{𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑐)
 For 𝑓(𝑡)│𝑡 ≥ 0 provided the integral converges  ℒ −1 {𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑐)} = 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)
 Invertible: ℒ{𝑦} = 𝑌 ⟺ ℒ −1 {𝑌} = 𝑦 Unit Step Functions:
 In general, integral properties hold e.g. ℒ{𝑐1 𝑓(𝑥) + 0 0≤𝑡<𝑎
𝑐2 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝑐1 ℒ{𝑓(𝑥)} + 𝑐2 ℒ{𝑔(𝑥)}  𝒰(𝑡 − 𝑎) = {
1 𝑡≥𝑎
Laplace Transforms and Differential Equations:  ℒ{𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝒰(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 ℒ{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)
 ℒ −1 {𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)} = 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝒰(𝑡 − 𝑎)
 Applies only to initial value problems
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 Note: translation vs. unit step function
 ℒ { 𝑛 } = 𝑠 𝑛 𝑌 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑦(0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑦 ′ (0) −
𝑑𝑥
Translation: ℒ{𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} ⟼ 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑐)
𝑠 𝑛−3 𝑦 ′′ (0) − ⋯ − 𝑠 0 𝑦 (𝑛−1) (0)
Unit Step Function: ℒ{𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝒰(𝑡 − 𝑎)} ⟻ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)

See table for actual Transforms

©Francis Picotte 2016 — Not to be distributed without written permission

This document is a work in progress. Errors or comments? Please write to fpicotte10@gmail.com
Last revision: 2016-09-05.