AXIAL STRAIN

 Strain - is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body.

 Two types of Strain

 Normal Strain (axial deformation) - which characterizes dimensional

changes

 Shear Strain - which describes distortion

 Normal Strain

We begin by considering the elongation of a prismatic bar of length L.

Upon the application of force or through thermal expansion, an axial strain is
formed.

The normal strain (axial strain) is the increase (or decrease) in length
resulting from a stress acting parallel to the longitudinal axis of the specimen. It is
an extension (or reduction) per unit length.



L
Where:
  strain
  change in length
L  original length
 Tension Test

During tension test, a specimen is subjected to tension by a testing machine

and elongates it in a slow, constant rate until rupture occurs.

As the tensile testing progresses, it has been observed that the stress of the
specimen is directly proportional to the strain at certain range of the strain. By
plotting the stress against strain, we have this stress-strain diagram

 Proportional Limit and Hookes Law

 The stress-strain diagram is a straight line from the origin O to a point

called the proportional limit. This plot is a manifestation of Hooke’s law
 Hooke’s Law state that within the proportional limit of the material, the
stress is directly proportional to the strain.

  k
 Young’s Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity)

 All materials have a stiffness associated with them and the stiffness is
measured using young modulus
 Young modulus is defined as the ratio of axial stress to the axial strain of
the material. Thus,


E

 Modulus of Elasticity of varios materials

 Aluminum - 69 GPa, 10  106 psi

 Steel - 200 GPa, 29  106 psi
 Brass - 102 GPa - 125 GPa
 Wrought iron - 190 GPa - 210 GPa
 Titanium - 110 GPa
 Tin - 47 GPa
 Zinc - 83 GPa
 Silver - 72 GPa
 Platinum - 147 GPa
 Nickel - 170 GPa
 Molebdynum - 329 GPa
 Lead - 14 GPa
 Iron - 196 GPa
 Gold - 74 GPa
 Copper - 117 GPa
 Bronze - 96 - 120 GPa

 Elastic Limit

 The elastic limit is, as its name implies, the stress beyond which the
material is no longer elastic. The permanent deformation that remains
after the removal of the load is called the permanent set. The elastic limit
is slightly larger than the proportional limit.

 Yield Point

 The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal is

called the yield point, and the corresponding stress is known as the yield
stress or yield strength. Beyond the yield point there is an appreciable
elongation, or yielding, of the material without a corresponding increase in
load.
 Ultimate Stress

 The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is the highest

stress on the stress-strain curve.

 Rupture Stress

 The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which failure occurs.

 Working Stress and Factor of Safety

 The working stress  w  , also called the allowable stress, is the maximum
safe axial stress used in design. In most designs, the working stress
should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit so that the
stresses remain in the elastic range
 However, because the proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately,
it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress  y  or
the ultimate stress  u  , divided by a suitable number N, called the factor
of safety. Thus,
y u
w  or  w 
N N

 Axially Loaded Bars

Within the proportional limit, the modulus of elasticity is obtained from

dividing the axial stress by the axial strain, thus;
 
E

By further expansion of the equation, we have:

P
E A  PL
 A
L
Therefore, the deformation can be obtain as:

PL

AE

This formula is only applicable if the strain is uniform at any point

along the length of the specimen. In case where the strain varies within
the length, the formula for deformation shall be:

L P
  dx
o EA