STATISTIC TERMS AND NOTES YAYAYAYAY
(almost breaaak)
SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS
- we use sample data to be able to
estimate the characteristics (mean, sd,
variance, etc.) of a population
- inferential statistics
- using info from a sample to
reach conclusions about the
pop.
- examines how sample means and
proportions from a pop. will tend to be
distributed
SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS
- the probability distribution of the
sample
STANDARD ERROR
- standard deviation of the
sample
- any mean based on the sample drawn
from a population is expected to be of
diff. values, meaning that the sample
mean is a random variable
- sampling distribution of the sample
means is the probability distribution of
the sample means
- population mean (𝜇 ) = sample mean
- standard error < standard deviation ( 𝜎)
- finite population correction factor
(fps)
- used when the population is
finite
- when the pop is infinite or too
large, the fps is equal to 1 (kaya
you don’t multiply it na to the
standard error kung ganun)
- if the orig pop is normal, the standard
error will be smaller (bakit? kasi kada
sample mean is the avg of ilang values
galing sa population, and then yang
masyadong maliit or malaki kay masali
man sa ibang values na tama tama
lang)
- if the orig pop is normal, the sampling
distribution will also be normal
- if di siya normal then the sampling
distribution will be approx. normal kung
minimum of 30 ang sample size (why?
Kasi accdg to the Central Limit
Theorem, the sample will approach
normality the greater the size)
STANDARDIZATION
- like normal standardization but
use standard error instead of
deviation (don’t forget the fps if
finite)
SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION OF PROPORTION
- sample proportion is the proportion of
successes in a sample consistion of n
trials
- so that’s number of successes over
number of trials
- 𝜌is sample proportion, 𝜋is the
population proportion
- hi this is ur reminder to not forget to use
the correction factor kahit sa proportion
basta finite pop - but also remember na
dapat at least 5% of the sample is as
large as the pop when using this
- before using the z-score to find
probabilty, make sure na both n𝜋 and
n(1-𝜋) are ≥5
ESTIMATION OF PARAMETERS
- OKAY THIS IS WHERE THREE
DIFFERENT FORMULAS COME IN
- why do we do this? Impractical kasi to
collect data from the population
STATISTICAL INFERENCE
- process by which conclusions
about parameters (pop.
characteristics) are made based
on sample data
- two areas: estimation and
hypothesis testing
POINT AND CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
ESTIMATION
- estimate
 - value or a range of
values that approximate
a parameter
- based on sample
statistics computed from
sample data
- point estimate
- single number that
estimates the exact
value of the pop
parameter of interest
- interval estimate
- range of possible values
that are likely to include
the actual pop
parameter
- confidence interval
- when the interval
estimate is associated
with a degree of
confidence that it
actually includes the
pop parameter
- unbiased estimate
- estimates from many
samples are equal to
the true pop parameter
- biased estimate
- sample statistic departs
from the true pop value
POINT ESTIMATES
population unbiased
parameter estimator
mean, 𝜇 𝑥 - for the mean: 𝜎 unknown
variance, 𝜎2 s2
proportion, 𝜋 p - it also assumes na the
INTERVAL ESTIMATES
- interval estimates
- interval limits
- lower and upper values
of the interval estimate
- confidence interval
- confidence coefficient
- the proportion of such
intervals that would
include the pop
parameter if the process
leading to the interval
were repeated a great
many times
- confidence level
- expresses the degree of
certainty that an interval
will include the actual
value of the pop
parameter
- accuracy
- difference between the
observed sample
statistic and the actual
value
- a.k.a. estimation or
sampling error
- if sigma is known, use z-score
and standard dev. if not, use t-
value and sample standard
deviation. if it’s pop proportion,
use the proportion formula
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL ESTIMATES
- for the mean: 𝜎 known
- assumes that the pop is
normal
- either that or the sample
size is at least 30
- range of confidence
interval is defined by the
sample statistic
±margin of error
- n should be at least 30
parin
sample is random and
that the population is
normally distributed if
ever n is less than 30
- student’s t
distribution
- degree of
freedom is (n-1)
 - for the population proportion
- uses the normal
distribution as an
approximation to the
binomial distribution
whenever np and n(1-p)
are both n≥5
- better for large values of
n and whenever it is
close to 0.5
- the midpoint of the
confidence interval is
the sample proportion
SAMPLE SIZE ESTIMATION
- margin of error
- maximum difference
between the observed
sample mean and true
value
- since the value of 𝜎 is unknown,
it can be estimated na the
standard dev na s is from a prior
sample na
- ALWAYS ROUND UP THE
VALUE OF N OKAY BES?
ESTIMATING THE POP PROPORTION
- if 𝜋is known, you can use this in
the formula
- if no approximation is known,
use p=0.5 nalang (the value will
result in a sample size large
enough to predict the actual
size)
- if the proportion is within a
range, look at the upper and
lower limit and choose the one
closest to 0.5
CORRELATION AND REGRESSION
ANALYSIS
- LAST NA TOOO
CORRELATION ANALYSIS
- measure of association between
two continuous variables
- estimates a sample correlation
coefficient, more specifically the
Pearson Product Moment
correlation coefficient,
denoted as r
- value varies from -1 to +1
quantifying the direction and
strength
- the correlation coefficient
measures the strength of the
relationship between variables
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
- simple regression is used to
examine the relationship
between one dependent and
one independent variable
- criterion variable = dependent
variable
- predictor variable =
independent variable
- can be used to predict the
dependent variable when the
independent variable is known
- regression line
- a.k.a. the least squares
line
- plot of the expected
value of the dependent
variable for all values of
the independent
variable
- line that minimizes the
squared residuals, best
fitting the data sa
scatterplot
SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
- most widely used statistical
technique, describing
relationships with a straight line
- y+a+bx
- coefficient of determination,
r2
- determines how good
the estimated reg. eq. Is
CORRELATION ≠CAUSATION