ALSTOM TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION Protection & Control Course PC3, Dubai Application of Protective Relaying to = Distribution and Sub-Transmission Systems 25" - 29! March 2000 Fault Calculations and Power System Analysis (Lecture) Presented by J.W. Wright~ POWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS ALL PROTECTION ENGINEERS SHOULD HAVE AN UNDERSTANDING TO: ‘Ap00500 Calculate Power System Currents and Voltages during Fault Conditions Check that Breaking Capacity of Switchgear is Not Exceeded Determine the Quantities which can be used by Relays to Distinguish Between Healthy (i.e. Loaded) and Fault Conditions Appreciate the Effect of the Method of Earthing on the Detection of Earth Faults Select the Best Relay Characteristics for Fault Detection Ensure that Load and Short Circuit Ratings of Plant are Not Exceeded Select Relay Settings for Fault Detection and Discrimination Understand Principles of Relay Operation Conduct Post Fault AnalysisPOWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS ALSO USED TO :- * Consider Stability Conditions - Required Fault Clearance Times - Need for 1 Phase or 3 Phase Auto- RecloseTYPES OF FAULT DIE a noo Hi Hl r QIGIE -“g¢ $F c———_ 1 ' 1 1 OPEN 9 1 i ‘ a b — i ‘om : ' akwits Fe t : : i : ! — 1 i 1 1 \ i—— -~ c C : 1 OPEN —_— q FAULT eager b BETWEEN + © ADJACENT pie PARALLEL CHANGING FAULT IN CABLEMAXIMUM FAULT LEVEL TH! EF, I-(max) = VA Faultlevel / (V3 x Line voltage) (MVA x 1000) / (V3 x kV) Typical Maximum Fault Levels: System Voltage (kV) | MVA Fault Level | Max. Fault Current (kA) 400 35 000 50 132 5 000 22 33 1.000 17.5 11 250 13.1 400V 25 55 SINGLE PHASE FAULT LEVEL : « Can be higher than 3® fault level on solidly-earthed systems; Check that switchgear breaking capacity > maximum fault level for all fault types. APO3T63BALANCED (36) FAULTS * RARE = Majority of Faults are Unbalanced. x CAUSES :- 1. Energisation with Maintenance Ea+thing Clamps. 2. 16 Faults developing into 34 Faults * 3Q FAULTS MAY BE REPRESENTED BY I¢ CIRCUIT Valid because system is maintained in a BALANCED stote during the fault . Voltages equal + 120° apart Cutrents equal @ 120° apart System Plant Symmetrical Phase Impedances Identical Equal Mutual Z's ( te E) (pte) Equal Shunt Admittances .GENERATOR TRANSFORMER LINE ‘x’ LINE ‘Y’ LOADS 3@ FAULT / y Tor POSITIVE SEQUENCE (SINGLE PHASE) CIRCUIT:- Ee Zo1 or 2x Fy 2x2 (Sa in. Ny ‘APODSO3- VECTORS Rotating Vectors can be used to represent Sinusoidal Electrical Quantities. Vector Notation can be used to represent Phase Relationship between Electrical Quantities. Zz Vsinwt = V 20° / I VECTOR MULTIPLICATION = AZ0,.BZ0q A. Bont 65 6, + 0p ie VECTOR DIVISION > wo " A _ AZOn B BZ6g EXAMPLE z-V¥ 2 VO LY gy = 20 1 ize 1 ‘APO3853LET V = Vsinwt = v/or Infinity .«. Represented by an Open Circuit Zr, = Zp+Zgs = Positive Sequence Impedance P, 211 = Zp+ Zs Ss, —e—_§|__ y+ ZpandZ, both expressed on same voltage N, base. AAPO25503 WINDING TRANSFORMERS P Ss T Pp 2p Zs gs Zu ar Ny Zp, Zs, Zt = Leakage reactances of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Windings Zy = Magnetising Impedance = Large -. Ignored Pp 2p Zs Zr N, Zp.s = Zp+Zs = Impedance between Primary (P) and Secondary (S) where Zp & Zs are both expressed on same voltage base Similarly Zp = Zp +Zy and Zg7 = Zg+Zy PORES!AUTO- TRANSFORMERS ~ + Equivalent Citcust is similar to thet of a 3 winding, Hansforner a Za Zoot Ho Zu Zuoou — — —— Bn + Bn + Zum UL} L_{}__— N Ni Ziur = Zant Zi, (beth teferted +o same voltage base) Zan tZmeBe Oe 8 tt) Zur, * Zun+dm C ~ D - sor)GENERATOR SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT THE AC SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT VARIES WITH TIME DUE TO EFFECT OF ARMATURE REACTION. TIME MAGNITUDE (RMS) OF CURRENT AT ANY TIME t AFTER INSTANT OF SHORT CIRCUIT : lag = (I - KetT4" 4 - pet!T4’ +1 Where : I" = INITIAL SYMMETRICAL S/C CURRENT OR SUBTRANSIENT CURRENT = E/Xd" I’ = SYMMETRICAL CURRENT A FEW CYCLES LATER OR TRANSIENT CURRENT = E/Xd’ I = SYMMETRICAL STEADY STATE CURRENT = E/Xd ‘Poo 14SIMPLE GENERATOR MODELS GENERATOR MODEL TO CALCULATE THE INITIAL SYMMETRICAL S/C CURRENT OR SUBTRANSIENT CURRENT |_______o GENERATOR MODEL TO OBTAIN THE S/C CURRENT A FEW CYCLES LATER, IE; THE TRANSIENT CURRENT ixd' GENERATOR MODEL TO OBTAIN THE STEADY STATE CURRENT APO0s15= OVERCURRENT RELAY GRADING 23 MVA 23 MVA X'd = 40% X'd= 40% A 1200/5 ft 115 MVA (32) x 11kV T KF} 450/5 450/5 - 0.2 Ohms 0.2 Ohms 41kV 4 ’ 450/5 450/5 x x —x— x x 105 MVA (38) 41k Tt rol vy - 4 3.3kV HRC FUSE (M) ’ Pons 04GRADING DIAGRAM FAULT CURRENT (AMPS) 3.3kV BASE -AP0O505BASE QUANTITIES AND PER UNIT VALUES 11 kV 11/132 kV 132/33 kV 20 MVA SOMVA Oniye SOMVA recor : Ze = 0.3 p.u. Z, = 40Q Z =82 } Zr = 10% Zr = 10% * PARTICULARLY USEFUL WHEN ANALYSING LARGE SYSTEMS WITH SEVERAL VOLTAGE LEVELS * ALL SYSTEM PARAMETERS REFERRED TO COMMON BASE QUANTITIES * BASE QUANTITIES FIXED IN ONE PART OF SYSTEM * BASE QUANTITIES AT OTHER PARTS AT DIFFERENT VOLTAGE LEVELS DEPEND ON RATIO OF INTERVENING TRANSFORMERS BASE QUANTITIES NORMALLY USED :- BASE MVA = MVAb = 30MVA Constant at all voltage levels Value ~ MVA rating of largest item of plant or 100MVA BASE VOLTAGE KVb = @/@voltage in kV Fixed in one part of system This value is referred through transformers to obtain base voltages on other parts of system. Base voltages on each side of transformer are in same ratio as voltage ratio. AP o0s08OTHER BASE QUANTITIES :- Co a BASE IMPEDANCE = Z, = (%b) in ons MVAp BASE CURRENT = 1, = —MVAb_ inka V3. kVp ACTUAL VALUE PER UNIT VALUES a BASE VALUE PER UNIT MVA = MVApy = MWAa MV, = = KVa PERUNITVOLTAGE = kVpy = Sa kVp PER UNITIMPEDANCE = Zpy = 22 = Z,. MVAb 2p (kVp) Ta Ip PER UNIT CURRENT a ‘AP0O507- TRANSFORMER PER UNIT IMPEDANCE T (RATED) KVgia(test) ~ Z PER UNIT = Zpu. Zpercentace = 100xZp.u. Zp.u. = ZalZp = Zactuat! Zoase kV za = ‘Vom crest) V3 . 1 (RATED) - kV, - kV, 2 Zp = —SI@IRATED) = ____“S@/@ (RATED) MVA (RATED) 3. KVg10 (RATED) « | (RATED) = Vo1@ (RATED) V3. I (RATED) kV, Zp.u. = Za > veces b BI (RATED) ‘AP OO511TRANSFORMER PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE (RATED) SIC Vp SECONDARY Increase Vp until I (RATED) flows in secondary. Vi Z (PERCENTAGE) = Yo P— x 100% (RATED) Ve Z = ——P _ a V (RATED) “If Z7 = 5% With Secondary S/C 5% V (RATED) Produces I (RATED) in Secondary. ~. V (RATED) Produces 2 x (RATED) = 20x (RATED) If Source Impedance Zg = 0 Fault Current = 20 x1 (RATED) Fault Power = 20x kVA (RATED) Zy is based on I (RATED) & V (RATED) i.e, based on MVA (RaTeD) & KV (RATED) . is same value viewed from either side of transformer. ‘APOOS12~ EXAMPLE: APons3 PER UNIT IMPEDANCE OF TRANSFORMER IS SAME ON EACH SIDE OF THE TRANSFORMER CONSIDER TRANSFORMER OF RATIO kV / kV2 @ ® kVp = kV CO) kVp = KV2 ACTUAL IMPEDANCE OF TRANSFORMER VIEWED FROM SIDE1 = Zaj1 ACTUAL IMPEDANCE OF TRANSFORMER VIEWED FROMSIDE2 = Za2 Zpur = Zt = Zar x Mun Zpu2 on = Zao x we BUT Zaz = Zai x wa Zpu2 = Za x a we = Zari x we ZputCONVERSION OF PER UNIT VALUES FROM ONE SET OF QUANTITIES TO ANOTHER Zb1 Zb2 MVAb1 MVAb2 kVb1 kVb2 Actual Z = Za Zp.ut = Za 2b1 Zpu2 = Za = Zpur x Zb1 Zb2 Zb2 = Zp.u.. x (kVb1)? x MVAb2 MVAb1 (kVb2)? = Zp.u1 %* MVAb2 x — (kVb1)? MVAb1 (kVb2)? ‘xP0050820 :0-1p.y, 349 14kv 14/132 kV 132/33 kV 20 MVA 50 MVA 50 MVA . Fo% 402 o% oo ac I ' ' FAULT 1 1 ' 132 ' 33 i t ' ' i i i 50 \ 50 1 50 1 1 i | 2.422 ' 3492 ' 21.82 i i I { i ' i t I 1 2625A 219A 874A \ i 1 1 1 1 ' oot, '03x 50: 40. = 0.115 p, i 1 44 kV = 0.698 xIp = 0.698 x 2 Ty32 kV= 0.698 x 219 = 153 A Tgg kv = 0.698 x 874 = 610A Ip=_4_ =0.698p.u. 625 = 1833 ACIRCUIT LAWS THREE LAWS FROM WHICH ALL CIRCUIT THEOREMS HAVE BEEN DERIVED:- OHMS LAW KIRCHOFF’S JUNCTION LAW iy Iz —«— T=0 I3 Iy +12 +13=0 KIRCHOFF’S MESH LAW 22 0 (©) Ja (@) Ole ig ROUND ANY MESH SE = IZ eg. Ey = i4Z1 + i4Z3 - igZ3 etc. pongTHEVENIN’S THEOREM USEFUL FOR REPLACING PART OF A SYSTEM WHICH IS NOT OF PARTICULAR INTEREST BY A SINGLE EQUIVALENT VOLTAGE AND SERIES IMPEDANCE. FOR EXAMPLE :- REPLACEMENT OF POWER SYSTEM SUPPLYING AN INDUSTRIAL NETWORK BG =e: = Open Circuit Voltage = Z3 .E4 24+Z3 —+— Z'= Impedance with 23) E, SIC = 21 Z3 Z1+Z3 Zz Z PootTUTORIAL : BALANCED FAULTS * 11 kV, 250 MVA xX 5MVA 8% 3@ FAULT 11 kV, 250 MVA =r Calculate the fault MVA for a 39 fault on the secondary side of the 5 MVA transformer i) Take into account the source impedance at the 11 kV busbars ii) Ignore the effect of source impedance x 3 core underground cable R=0.252Q xX X= 0.08172 Calculate the fault MVA for a 3© fault at F x x i) With bus section c.b. closed 500 kVA 11 kV/ ii) With bus section c.b. 415V 5% open X BUS SECTION X C.B. 2s F | y 3@ FAULT P00591. | x 11 kV; 250 MVA 2 x zee ito 250 5 MVA 8% BASE VOLTAGE BASE MVA " BASE IMPEDANCE ire 5 5 Zspu. = tox = S pu = oop, Spu ~ 360% 492 ~ 250 P4 pu Z, = 8% = 0-08p.u Tpu. 92 08 Ipu 4 KVpu2 2 MVApy. = PS = = = gt = a = 10 Pu PU PU. MVAFaULT = MVApy. XMVAbase = Whvase = 5x10 = SOMVA pu. (2 IF SOURCE IGNORED:- MVAfauit_ = a x5 = 62.5MVA CIRCUIT BREAKER RATING USED IF FAULT LEVEL AT INCOMING BUSBARS NOT KNOWN ‘AP005202. Let MVAbase = 05 (= 500 kVA) Source Impedance = 0-5. = 0-002 p.u. 250 Zoase = _KV’pase = 11? MVAbase 0" -. Cable resistance = 0-252 = 0-252x0-5 = 0-001 p.u. Zoase 11? Cable reactance = 0-082 = 0-082x0-5 = 0-00034 p.u. Zpase 11? Transformer reactance = 5% = 0-05 p.u. i) | With Bus Section Closed : 0.001 + "ey jo.o02 j 0.00034 {205 j0.05 ] Nt Fault Level = 1__ x 500 = 18,300 kVA 0-0273 ji) With Bus Section Open : 0.001 + | 0.001 + 1p. jo.002 jo.00036 , (29% ¢, 1 P"j0.0523 -, ll Na Na Fault Level = __1__ x 500 = 9,570KVA 0.0523 ie. Fault level is reduced by less than 50% due to the effect of the source impedance ‘APo0s21STAR/DELTA & DELTA/STAR TRANSFORM THEOREM USEFUL WHEN REDUCING OVERALL SYSTEM EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE TO A SINGLE VALUE 1 1 iZ ° = 2 212 Z30 Z20 3 2 3 2 Zy -Z. 2 - Z. 2, = —2a-2u Zn = Ly tZy + ZeZa "Za + Zag + Zay eee Dy Z,y - Z, Zo - Z. Z, = ——Za:2n = Lg +Zy + ZeZe * 2+ Zn + Zy fo © Zn 20 * 7,4 Zr - Zs Zu = 25 v7 Zr a o = 5S Zn + Zr + Zy post| 3¢ FAULT 6 | v elo \ ose si e{g-85a ConveRt A IMPEDANCES AO, 80 +N,O To EQuivALENT Q \mMPEDANCES. Zan, * Zao +Zno+ Zao-Znho Ze0 7 OTS +1885 + O7Sx188S 2 SIR, 0-45 A Tse 8 ber ied Zag = (222ode is foo ye BY THEVENINS THEOREM THE NETWORK CAN BE REPRESENTED 6Y :-bone REDUCING THE NETWeRK To A SINGLE VOLTAGE AND IMPEDANCE A 0-822 —— Ne 1 jusea [em besa b2is nr osez al Nee \UNBALANCED FAULTS In three phase fault calculations, a single phase representation is adopted. 3 phase faults are rare. Majority of faults are unbalanced faults. UNBALANCED FAULTS may be classified into SHUNT FAULTS and SERIES FAULTS. SHUNT FAULTS: Line to Ground Line to Line Line to Line to Ground SERIES FAULTS: Single Phase Open Circuit Double Phase Open Circuit APO1162UNBALANCED FAULTS: LINE TO GROUND LINE TO LINE LINE TO LINE TO GROUND Causes : 1) Insulation Breakdown 2) Lightning Discharges and other Overvoltages 3) Mechanical Damage OPEN CIRCUIT OR SERIES FAULTS Causes : 1) Broken Conductor 2) Operation of Fuses 3) Maloperation of Single Phase Circuit Breakers DURING UNBALANCED FAULTS, SYMMETRY OF SYSTEM IS LOST -. SINGLE PHASE REPRESENTATION IS NO LONGER VALID Apoco49UNBALANCED FAULTS Analysed using :- * SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS * — EQUIVALENT SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF POWER SYSTEM * CONNECTION OF SEQUENCE NETWORKS APPROPRIATE TO TYPE OF FAULT ‘APO0526a=1 2120° Rotates vectors by 120° anti-clockwise Used extensively in "Symmetrical Component Analysis" a = 12120° = 14,8 2 °2 a? = 12240° = -— -j 2 Balanced 3@ Voltages:- a+a+1=0 ‘AP 00526SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS Va Vat Va2 Vao Vbo Veo = \ + Jy + Vv V2, ° Vet Vet 2 Vb Vot = a’ Vai; Vb2 = Vaz ; Veo = Vao => Vet = aVa1 ; Ve2 = a Va2 ; Veo = Vao Vao Var “Na Vat Va = Vat + Vaz + Vao A Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Voo = a Vat + aVa2 + Vao Ve = Ve1 + Ve2 + Veo = aVat + a Va2 + Vao > a’Ve Vat = 13{ Va + aVb + a°Vc} An 3Vat Va2 = 13{ Va + a’ Vb + aVe} Veo = 13{ Vat Vo+ Vo} Va Vat ~ ‘ap00627Va Vp Ve AP00628 In Ip Ic Tat Tao a2 Va Vat aVai a? a 113 113 113 113, 113 113 Ia Tat Tat {Va {Va {Va {Iq {Ia {Ia Ina alpo ‘AZ alg B Ig + Tao Tao Tao a? Vo } aVc } Vc } a Ig } alc} Io }Sometimes it is convenient to delete subscript ‘A’ from the symmetrical components :- Va = V4 + V2 + Vo Ve = a@Vy + avo + Vo Ve = av, + aVp + Vo IA = y + Ig + Ip Ip = aly + alp + Ip Ic = aly + aIp + Io Vi = 3 {Va + aVg + a*Vo} Vo = 13 {Va +a®@Vgp + aVo} Vo = U3 {Va + VB + Vo } ly = 13 {Ip + alg + aig} a4 2 Ip 3 {I, +a Ip + alco} Ip = 13 {Ip + Ip + Ic } Ao«028RESIDUAL CURRENT Used to detect earth faults Tresipuat is Zero for :- Tresipuac iS present for :- ‘apo4o29 Tresipuat = Ia + Ip + Ic = 3lp Balanced Load 3@ Faults SIS Faults @IE Faults ISIE Faults Open circuits (with current in remaining phases)RESIDUAL VOLTAGE Used to detect earth faults { { t VresipuaL = Vat Vet Vo Residual voltage is measured from “Open Delta” or “Broken ~ Delta” VT secondary windings. Vresipua is zero for:- Healthy unfaulted systems 3 Faults SIS Faults Vresipuat is present for:- O@/E Faults DIDIE Faults Open Circuits (on supply side of VT) ~ ‘Apo«030SEQUENCE COMPONENTS ~ ANY 3 PHASE SYSTEM OF VECTORS MAY BE REPRESENTED AS THE SUM OF 3 SETS OF SYMMETRICAL VECTORS :- EQUIVALENT SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS. 3PHASE _ [POSITIVE PHASE [NEGATIVE PHASE | ZERO PHASE VECTORS _ |SEQUENCE (PPS)|SEQUENCE (NPS) | SEQUENCE hy Lb lo Ta Tat Io. Ip Tey Tp1 BALANCED LOAD OR 3-PHASE FAULT hair p=0 p= 0 Mal = Mpf = Nigh = Ie {* Tat | Ing Te Te2 tl Ip1 | Ipz PHASE-PHASE ye b= E = _EAULT /Iy/=Mlo! = Te V3 28 =0 Ta Tay Ino Ipolgolco PHASE-EARTH FAULTS We | b= El Ip = El Mgf OR Iic/ = Ip 31 3! ap00529PHASE SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE NEGATIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE FOR STATIC NON-ROTATING PLANT :- Zp = 2} FOR ROTATING PLANT :- APONT8SZERO SEQUENCE DIAGRAM ~ For “In Phase” (Zero Phase Sequence) currents to flow in each phase of the system, there must be a fourth connection (this is typically the neutral or earth connection). N Tao Tao + IBo + Ico = Slao Resistance Earthed System :- N ~ 3Ip0 R Zero sequence voltage between N & E given by Vo = 3lgo.R E> Zero sequence impedance of neutral to earth path Zo = Vo = 3R Tao APOU187ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE P0189GENERAL ZERO SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER PRIMARY SECONDARY TERMINAL ‘a! 2T0 tai TERMINAL e_© oe ON APPROPRIATE SIDE OF TRANSFORMER :- EARTHED STAR WINDING - CLOSE LINK ‘a’ OPEN LINK 'b' DELTA WINDING I OPEN LINK ‘a’ CLOSE LINE ‘b'ZERO SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS — Pi a Zr a. So b b No PoP P Ss Po_ja ZTo as b No : —¢o— Po a Zto a. So b b APo0s33~ TYPICAL TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCES 2 WINDING TRANSFORMERS 1MVA 4.75 —e 5 MVA 6 10 MVA 9 15 MVA 10 — 30, 45, 60 MVA 100 90 MVA 15 120 MVA 15 210, 425 MVA 17% 600 MVA 40 800 MVA 40 6% 7.5% 11% 15% 12.5% 22.5% 20% 17% 16% AUTO-TRANSFORMERS WITH DELTA TERTIARIES Ap O1428 120 MVA; 275/132 kV 500 MVA; 400/132 kV 1000 MVA; 400/275 kV Zu 17.5% 20% 21% Zz Zr -2.5% 20.5% 8% 60% 5% 89%OVERHEAD LINE IMPEDANCES Positive SEQUENCE Ta Zp + Ty 2m + Tei Zm = Ta {Zp- 2m} 2 + Ea 2 Zp- Em ta ZERO SEQUENCE E = L2p + 222m = Tf2p+2emy SINGLE cikewrr. Zo = E+ Fe+2em. =I = Zo = Ept+2im+ Zom y Dougie citcurr une (Sine eur)TYPICAL OVERHEAD LINE IMPEDANCES Rftera KV Conburtok Z3. Zo Zom SIZE 33 IS mm 0:36 4j0-44 — OSGe5 1-02 : 33 17S mont. ONS 40:37 0-35 +)0-97 - 132 17S mm* O17 O-40L —O-34S4,1022 9-178; 0-50 ns 2x 400 mm* 0:038430°32 0-147450-839 01094 0-45 400 2x4000m* 0-0344j0-32F 0:1464,0-88| 0-1074;0-405 400 4x 40008" 0-0194,0:277 — 0-1084,0-79 0-084; 0-425 CHARGING CURLENTS i 132 KV ro 0-22 A/tem. 278 KV i 0-52 A/cm 400 kv 08S A/kem (2x46~) 400kV t- 0-98 A/icm. (4x 4e0)SUMMARY OF SEQUENCE DIAGRAMS -~ GENERATOR TRANSFORMER LINE Ey Ny Zo1 Zn Zu i Fy POSITIVE SEQUENCE (Ni) No Zo2 Zr2 Z12 Ip Fp ty NEGATIVE SEQUENCE (No) No Zc0 Zt0 2.0 Ip Fo 3R Av, ZERO SEQUENCE Eo(No. AP OO5S4‘APOO530 SEQUENCE NETWORKS +VE, -VE AND ZERO SEQUENCE NETWORKS are drawn for a'REFERENCE' PHASE. This is usually taken as the 'A’ PHASE. FAULTS are selected to be ‘BALANCED relative to the REFERENCE 'A' PHASE. EG: For @/E FAULTS consider an A - E FAULT For 1 @ FAULTS consider a B - C FAULT SEQUENCE NETWORK INTERCONNECTION is the simplest for the REFERENCE PHASE.SEQUENCE NETWORKS = Int Iptic = 3lao = -InZn = 3lao- Zn = “lao {32} < z N 2 Sz uo Vat = Ea-lai 24 -In2 22 Vao = VYn-laoZo = “lao {Zo - 32} 2 Py Z P2 Zo Po Tat Taz Tao <= {Ves {ec 32 Nao Ny No No = " -AP02250~ Ap03855 THREE PHASE FAULT Z Va In AT THE FAULT : Va = Ve = Vo and In + Ip + Ig = 0 \ J Var and Vaz = 0 Ing = 0 As Igo = 0 ; Vag must equal 0 As Vaz = 0; — Iag must equal 0 In = Tat + Inz + Tao = Ia SEQUENCE NETWORK CONNECTIONS ONLY INVOLVE THE POSITIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK 2 Py IaPHASE TO EARTH FAULT Zz Va Ip At the fault :- Va = In Zp Ip = 0 Ic =0 I = W3{IatIgptIc} = 1/3Iq lat = 13{Iq+ algt+ alc} = 1/3 Iq Ing = U3{Iq+ aigt alo} = 1/3 Iq lao = Tat = Ian = 1/3Iq Va = InZe Vat + Vaz + Vao =IaZe = Io (3Zp) Sequence networks must be connected in series APO05364 WIRE REPRESENTATION oF IE FAULT CONSIDER AN EARTHED source TOTAL SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES To FaucT = Z, » 22 »Zo LE. SouRee +tin€ Ea -_Z,,2a,.Z0 SEQUENCE NETWORKS E Zo, E = Z,(21*Z2+Zo) I,= T,+1,+1,=31, o. E = Tyg (2:+22+Z0) 3 I, (221+ Ze) 3 Iy(z,+ 2222!) 4 WIRE EQUIVALENT cikeurr <. Ta *_E IN] lo a n “ Z+ Ea Z (~) — Ip=Iq = _£ (~) 3 Z,+Zn @) ay “ Zy* Zo-2,EXAMPLE: PHASE TO EARTH FAULT SOURCE LINE F ~ A-G \) 133 kv ZL1= 100 Bi pat Zig = 352 1 2000 MVA Lo= 36 ~ Z81= 8.79 Zs0= 8.72 132000 3 87 10 14 Fy yt a > Na 8.7 10 I2 Fo i} ——t > No * 8.7 35 Ig Fo > No oe. Total Impedance = 81-12 bh = bk = Io = 132000 = 940Amps ¥3x 81-1 Ir = In = + Bb + Ip = 3lp = 2820 Amps ‘APO0537PHASE TO PHASE FAULT z Va Ia AT THE FAULT: Ig = 0 Ip = Ic Vp-Vo = Ip Zp Igo = 1/3{I, + Ip + Ig} = 0 Tat = 1/3 {Iqt algt a'Ic}= 1/3 {alg - alg} = 1/3Ig{a-a°} Ino = 13 {Iqt a’lgt alg}= 1/3{a'lg - alg} = 1/3 1g {a?-a} “ Tat = -Tp2 Also Ig = ala, + algo tipo = fa’-a} las Va = a'Var + aVaz + Veo Ve = aVar + aVa2 + Vao . Vg - Vo = (a?-a) Var + (a- a) Vag 2 Ve - Ve = Ip Zp = (a°-a) Iai Zp Var -Va2 = Tar Zr :. Sequence networks are connected as shown: Ny Zi P, APO0S8EXAMPLE: PHASE TO PHASE FAULT SOURCE LINE F ) PAUL 132 kV ZL1= 212 = 100 we FAULT | 2000 mva = Zg1=2Zg2 = 8.72 132000 % 87 10 14 Fy toy _1—_ — > Na 8.7 10 Ig Fo Lt Lt > + Na Ey, Total Impedance = 37-42 ly = _132000 = 2037 Amps V3x 37-4 In -2037 Amps Ig = a%ly+ alg " a’ly- aly (a - ably (i) . V3. x 2037 = 3529 Amps.EARTH FAULT WITH FAULT RESISTANCE Ee AMET RESISTANCE AT FAULT PoInT Va=InZe ; Igz7O ;Ic+0 To = %3 (Ia+Ig+Ic) = 4In Ti = % (LatalIg+ le) = “Ala Ti= “% (CIata*Ig+ ale) = YsIy 9 Since Va = IgZe = V+Va+Vo = (L,+I2+L)Ze- = 31.Ze ia M+Va+Ve = 3IoZe @) hr +VvE SEQ iw -vE SEQ niw 3Zp E Eko seq NiwPHASE TO PHASE FAVLT WITH RESISTANCE AT FAULT POINT :- Iq=O 3 IgeI,+0 ; Ve-Ve -Tale I, + 'Ma(In+Ia+Ie) +0 I, %a(In+alg+ atl.) = '& (a-o%) Ig I. + (IgtoIgeal.) +-'8(a-a) Ig © I,-L Ig + a*I,+oI,+I, = (a'-a)I, Ve-Ve = (a*V+aVi+Ve) - (aV, +a*V, + VQ) = Cat-a)V, - Cat-a) Ve QUT Vee = IgZe = (at-a)I,Z, 2. (aa) I,Z—e = (a*%a)V, -(at-a)Vy Te Pe = o tea, Vet wwPHASE TO PHASE TO EARTH FAULT = B-C-E me ee ea HOE AT FAULT PoiNT :- VerO 3; Ve: 0 ; Ip= 0 Mit (Va +0 Ve +a™Ve) = 73 Va Va + ¥3(Vatatvg+aVe) = ¥3 Va Vo > ¥3( Va + Ve + Ve) = 3 Va x: ——» FROM EQUATIONS (1) + (2) THE SEQUENCE NETWORKS ARE CONNECTED IN PACALLELPHASE TO PHASE TO EARTH FAULT B-C-E ~ WITH RESISTANCE AT FAULT PONT Ta=O 5 Ve =Ve = (Ig+l Zp Ta= — Ze = ¥3(IqtIg+Ie) = % (Ie+Ie) -. IgtIe = BIg ~ V,=Y3(Vqt aVgra*Ve)= Ys[Va+(a*+a)Ve]= Y4(Va-Va) V2 = ¥8(Vat o°Ve+ aVe)= ¥3[Vat(a*+aVa]= Ya(Va-Va) . (2) Ve = 4(VatVet+Ve) = ¥a(Vat2Ve) Ve-Vi = Y8(Vat2Va)- 4(Va-Va) =Ve = (Tetie)Ze = 320Z6 Wa -2Gz] ——e))y SYSTEM EARTHING EARTH FAULTS : 70 + 90% of ALL FAULTS. E b EARTHING METHOD DETERMINES :- x FAULT CURRENT IT, * DAMAGE CAUSED * STEADY STATE OVERVOLTAGES * TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES « INSULATION REQUIREMENTS *“ QUANTITIES AVAILABLE To DETECT FAULTS « TYPE OF PROTECTION.EARTHING METHOD ~ SouD /Low z HIGH Z. ie HIGH Low OVERVOLTAGES Low HIGH IN SOUND PHASES DAMAGE HIGH Low COosT OF Low HIGH INSULATION LOW VOLTAGE FOR SAFETY SYSTEMS MEDIUM VOLTAGE TO LIMIT CURRENT SYSTEMS COST OF INSULATION AccEPTABLE > HIGH VOLTAGE To umiT cosT + OF INSULATION EnV SYSTEMS™ METHODS OF EARTHING IN COMMON USE 4 Solid oF Ditect Earthing * Resistance Earthing x = Reactance Earthing * Resonant ot Petersen Coil Eatthing * Insulated Earth.SYSTEM EARTHING SOLID REACTANCE PETERSEN COIL £ Tuned RESISTANCE } APo0s44 ( Lowest System Zo Ir High - Damage - Easy E/F Protn. No Arcing Grounds Ir >> IcHaRGE \ Lowest Overvoltages (Lower Ir Higher Transient Overvoltages Cheaper than Resistance at High Volts Overvoltages during E/Fs 0.8 > 1 x Vaig \_Not Often Used Except as Tuned Reactor Xe = L XcHARGING ( Arcing Faults Self Extinguishing - Good for Transient Faults Xe Needs Changing if Xc Alters Overvoltage during E/Fs > Vgig Insulation Important ‘Restricts Use of Auto-Transformers Discriminative E/F Protection Difficult r Reduced Ir Reduced Transient Overvoltages Not Self Extinguishing but E/Fs Easier to DetectUNEARTHED Insulated Ir Capacitive Can be Self Extinguishing if Ir Small Overvoltages during E/Fs = Vag Arcing Faults Likely - High Transient Overvoltages Insulation Important~ > 660V Solid - Safety Insulated - Special Cases where Continuity of Supply Required 660 V+ 33kV__ Resistance or Reactance Normally Used Solid - When Ir is Low Resistance - Ir Limited to Ir Reactance - Trem) Limited to Ira) Petersen Coil - Overhead Lines. Lightning > 33 kV Solid Overvoltages More Important (Insulation) Directly Coupled Resistance - Most Common Generators Solid and - Not Recommended Reactance (High Ir) Generator-Transformer Units ~ —SYYN___ LY YYV____ LYN __ Ip~10>15A 4 Ip~ 200 300A E P0646~ DISPLACEMENT OF NEUTRAL FROM EARTH DURING AN EARTH FAULT z If Val - Ve Vb Z z 7 Ze Va Is Ve Vb Pos40SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES Generator ise il Transformer Transmission Line Generator Fault Capacitance of the transmission system POSITIVE PHASE-SEQUENCE NETWORK :- x 261 Zn 1 Zu NEGATIVE PHASE-SEQUENCE NETWORK :- 2c2 Zr % 22 Apooss1L1nv4 HLYVA OL SSWHd YO4 SNOILOANNOO SONANDASSTEADY STATE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS DURING E/Fs Phase to Earth Fault (a - e) i —3 sy - 1+ Ky +Ko | 38 Ib 0 Tc 0 Tres Equal to Ia Va 0 a? + aK, + K, Vi Ep - ———"2 2 E. ® e+ Ky +K, a+ aK, + K, V, ~a% aks F Ko ° Ee Te K,+Ky Vab Equal to -Vp K,-1 Voc Ebc + T*K,*Ko Ebe Vea Equal to Ve -3 Ko Vres T#k)+K Z Zo K, = =22;kK, = = 2 iz 0 Z, Where: Z1, Z2 and ZO are total system sequence impedances in fault path. POSSD.C. TRANSIENTS & OFFSETS - ZO R + jwh Vm sin (wt + a) FAULT APPLIED ip “ | ~ ip = lac. + lac. = WMsinga- oy eR + “te sin (wt + @ - 2) + L D.C. Transient Component Symmetrical A.C. Component + Max. value when (a - @) = a or = ~ If S = 90°, this occurs when « = 0 or 180°, i.e. when the fault occurs at voltage zero. ‘A 00817