*URXSHV 

&RPSÄWHQFHV
PM +?2`+?2` /Mb +2 +?TBi`2 ¨ ,
 apQB` miBHBb2` 2i K2ii`2 2M ƾmp`2 H2b MQiBQMb ;ûMû`H2b /2 ;`QmT2- bQmb@
;`QmT2- 2i+X
1t2`+B+2b R ¨ R3X
 apQB` i`pBHH2` p2+ /2b KQ`T?BbK2b /2 ;`QmT2bX
1t2`+B+2b 8 ¨ RyX
 apQB` `2+QMMŗi`2 2i /û+`B`2 H2b bQmb@;`QmT2 2M;2M/`û T` mM ûHûK2Mi- B/2M@
iB}2` H2b ;`QmT2b KQMQ;ĕM2b- 2M T`iB+mHB2` H2b ;`QmT2b +v+HB[m2bX
1t2`+B+2b R8 ¨ R3X
 apQB` +H+mH2` Qm 2tTHQBi2` HǶQ`/`2 /ǶmM ûHûK2Mi /QMMû /ǶmM ;`QmT2X
1t2`+B+2b j- 9- RR ¨ R9X

&RXS GoyLO VXU OH FKDSLWUH

AH 7mi HB`2 ii2MiBp2K2Mi H2b ûMQM+ûbX lM ;`QmT2 Ŀ ;ûMû`H ŀ MǶ2bi- 2M 2z2i- MB
+QKKmiiB7- MB }MBX

SQm` mM ;`QmT2- H2 7Bi /Ƕāi`2 }MB U+b /2b 2t2`+B+2b RR ¨ R9V 2bi mM2 T`QT`Bûiû
BKTQ`iMi2X 1HH2 2Mi`ŗM2 2M T`iB+mHB2` [m2 iQmi ûHûK2Mi  mM Q`/`2 }MB- [mB /BpBb2
H2 +`/BMH /m ;`QmT2X

lM KQi bm` H T`QT`Bûiû /2 +QKKmiiBpBiû- [mB +QM+2`M2 H2b MQiiBQMb , HǶ2KTHQB /2

H MQiiBQM //BiBp2 2bi `ûb2`pû mt ;`QmT2b +QKKmiiB7bX GǶmb;2 /2 H MQiiBQM
//BiBp2 2bi iQmi ¨ 7Bi KBMQ`BiB`2 /Mb H2 T`ûb2Mi +?TBi`2X


  r *URXSHV

*2`iBMb ;`QmT2b +QKKmiiB7b H2 bQMi +` BHb bQMi 2M;2M/`ûb T` mM ûHûK2Mi , QM /Bi
HQ`b [mǶBHb bQMi KQMQ;ĕM2bX LQiQMb [m2 /Mb +2 +b BH MǶv  Tb- 2M ;ûMû`H- mMB+Biû
/ǶmM i2H ûHûK2Mi ;ûMû`i2m` /m ;`QmT2X AH 7mi mbbB Q#b2`p2` [m2 H `û+BT`Q[m2 2bi
7mbb2 , BH 2tBbi2 /2b ;`QmT2b +QKKmiiB7b MQM KQMQ;ĕM2b UT2Mb2`- T` 2t2KTH2-
m ;`QmT2 //BiB7 /ǶmM 2bT+2 p2+iQ`B2H `û2H /2 /BK2MbBQM 2VX

lM ;`QmT2 ¨ H 7QBb KQMQ;ĕM2 2i }MB 2bi /Bi +v+HB[m2X lM ;`QmT2 /2 +`/BMH n

2bi +v+HB[m2 bB- 2i b2mH2K2Mi bB- BH 2bi BbQKQ`T?2 m ;`QmT2 (Z/nZ, +) , +Ƕ2bi mM
`ûbmHii BKTQ`iMi- [mB b2`i bQmp2Mi- T`+2 [m2 Z/nZ 2bi mM Q#D2i #B2M +QMMm- M2
b2`Bi@+2 [m2 T`+2 [mǶBH TT`iB2Mi- mbbB- ¨ HǶ`Bi?KûiB[m2X

/H VDYLH]YRXV "
SHmbB2m`b #`M+?2b /2b Ki?ûKiB[m2b 7QMi TT2H ¨ H MQiBQM /2 ;`QmT2X m /û#mi
/m tøt2 bBĕ+H2- :HQBb HǶmiBHBb2 TQm` ûi#HB` H MQM `ûbQHm#BHBiû /2 +2`iBM2b û[miBQMb
H;û#`B[m2b c 2M R3dk- EH2BM HM+2 mM T`Q;`KK2 pBbMi ¨ +HbbB}2` H2b ;ûQKûi`B2b
;`+2 mt ;`QmT2bX G2 +QM+2Ti ;ûMû`H /2 ;`QmT2 #bi`Bi }MBi T` ûK2`;2` ¨ H }M
/m tøt2 bBĕ+H2X
1M RNej- 62Bi 2i h?QKTbQM Tm#HB2Mi H /ûKQMbi`iBQM /2 H2m` +ûHĕ#`2 i?ûQ`ĕK2
[mB /Bi [m2 iQmi ;`QmT2 }MB /2 +`/BMH BKTB` 2bi `ûbQHm#H2X *2HH2@+B Q++mT2 THmb
/2 k8y T;2b /Mb H2 S+B}+ CQm`MH Q7 Ji?2KiB+bXXX


 ¤QRQFÄV GHV H[HUFLFHV

¤QRQFÄV GHV H[HUFLFHV

am7 K2MiBQM 2tT`2bb2 /m +QMi`B`2- mM ;`QmT2 G 2bi MQiû KmHiBTHB+iBp2K2Mi 2i
bQM M2mi`2 2bi MQiû eX

*ÄQÄUDOLWÄV
1t2`+B+2 RX
JQMi`2` [m2 TQm` iQmi ;`QmT2 G-
−1
∀n ∈ N∗ , ∀(x1 , ..., xn ) ∈ Gn , (x1 ...xn )−1 = x−1
n . . . x1 X

1t2`+B+2 kX
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 KmHiBTHB+iB7 2i H mM2 T`iB2 }MB2 /2 G MQM pB/2- bi#H2 T`
KmHiBTHB+iBQMX JQMi`2` [m2 H 2bi mM bQmb@;`QmT2 /2 GX

1t2`+B+2 jX
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2X aQBi (a, b) ∈ G2 X JQMi`2` [m2 bB a, b 2i ab bQMi /ǶQ`/`2 2- HQ`b
ab = baX

1t2`+B+2 9X
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 KmHiBTHB+iB7X aQBi g ∈ G mM ûHûK2Mi /ǶQ`/`2 pq p2+ p ∧ q = 1X
JQMi`2` [mǶBH 2tBbi2 mM mMB[m2 +QmTH2 (x, y) /ǶûHûK2Mib /2 G i2H [m2 , x 2bi /ǶQ`/`2
p- y 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 q 2i g = xy = yxX

0RUSKLVPHV GH JURXSHV

1t2`+B+2 8X
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 //BiB7 2i f : G → G mM KQ`T?BbK2 /2 ;`QmT2bX
RX JQMi`2` [m2- TQm` iQmi bQmb@;`QmT2 H /2 G- QM  , f −1 (f (H)) = H + E2` f X
kX JQMi`2` [m2 TQm` iQmi bQmb@;`QmT2 H  /2 G QM  , f (f −1 (H  )) = H  ∩ AK f X

1t2`+B+2 eX UV
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2X PM MQi2 Z(G) = {a ∈ G / ∀b ∈ G, ab = ba}X PM bmTTQb2 [m2
x −→ xn 2bi mM miQKQ`T?BbK2 /2 GX JQMi`2` [m2 ,
TQm` iQmi x ∈ G, xn−1 ∈ Z(G)X

1t2`+B+2 dX
JQMi`2` [m2 iQmi ?QKQKQ`T?BbK2 /2 ;`QmT2b /2 (Q, +) p2`b (Z, +) 2bi B/2MiB[m2@
K2Mi MmHX


  r *URXSHV

1t2`+B+2 3X UV
aQBi f mM KQ`T?BbK2 /2 ;`QmT2b /2 (R, +) /Mb (C∗ , ×)- +Ƕ2bi@¨@/B`2 mM2 TTHB+@
iBQM /2 R /Mb C∗ i2HH2 [m2 ,
∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , f (x + y) = f (x)f (y)X
RX aB f 2bi /û`Bp#H2- KQMi`2` [mǶBH 2tBbi2 λ ∈ C i2H [m2 , ∀x ∈ R, f (x) = eλx X
kX úi#HB` H2 KāK2 `ûbmHii bB f 2bi b2mH2K2Mi bmTTQbû2 +QMiBMm2X

1t2`+B+2 NX UV
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 }MB- G mM ;`QmT2- f mM KQ`T?bBK2 /2 G /Mb G X JQMi`2` [m2 ,
+`/(E2` f ) +`/(AK f ) = +`/(G)X

1t2`+B+2 RyX
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 }MB- H 2i K /2mt bQmb@;`QmT2b /2 GX PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 HǶTTHB+iBQM ,
φ : H × K → G, (h, k) → hkX
RX .QMM2` mM2 +QM/BiBQM Mû+2bbB`2 2i bm{bMi2 TQ`iMi bm` H 2i K TQm` [m2 φ
bQBi mM KQ`T?BbK2 /2 ;`QmT2bX
kX PM MQi2 HK = φ(H × K)X aQBi g0 ∈ HKX AH 2tBbi2 (h0 , k0 ) ∈ H × K i2H [m2
g0 = h0 k0 X JQMi`2` [m2 H2b Miû+û/2Mib /2 g0 T` φ bQMi H2b +QmTH2b (h0 x, x−1 k0 )-
x ∈ H ∩ KX
jX 1M /û/mB`2 [m2 , +`/(HK) +`/(H ∩ K) = +`/(H) +`/(K)X
9X JQMi`2` [m2 H2b +QM/BiBQMb bmBpMi2b bQMi û[mBpH2Mi2b ,
V HK 2bi mM bQmb@;`QmT2 /2 G c
#V HK ⊆ KH c
+V HK = KHX

*URXSHV ILQLV

1t2`+B+2 RRX
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 }MBX JQMi`2` [mǶBH 2tBbi2 mM 2MiB2` N i2H [m2 xN = e TQm` iQmi
x /Mb GX

1t2`+B+2 RkX

RX aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 }MB /2 +`/BMH BKTB`X JQMi`2` [m2 TQm` +?[m2 a ∈ G- BH

2tBbi2 mM mMB[m2 b ∈ G i2H [m2 b2 = aX
kX aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 }MB 2i m mM 2MiB2` T`2KB2` p2+ +`/(G)X JQMi`2` [m2 ,
∀x ∈ G, ∃! y ∈ G i[ x = y m X


 ¤QRQFÄV GHV H[HUFLFHV

1t2`+B+2 RjX

RX aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 }MB /2 +`/BMH BKTB`X JQMi`2` [m2 HǶTTHB+iBQM x −→ x2

2bi #BD2+iBp2X
kX aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 }MBX PM MQi2 A HǶ2Mb2K#H2 /2b ûHûK2Mib /ǶQ`/`2 BKTB` /2 GX
JQMi`2` [m2 HǶTTHB+iBQM x −→ x2 2bi mM2 T2`KmiiBQM /2 AX

1t2`+B+2 R9X
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 +QKKmiiB7 }MB /2 +`/BMH n = ab p2+ a ∧ b = 1X
PM TQb2 A = {x ∈ G / xa = e} 2i B = {x ∈ G / xb = e}X
RX JQMi`2` [m2 A 2i B bQMi /2b bQmb@;`QmT2b /2 GX
kX JQMi`2` [m2 A ∩ B = {e} 2i AB = GX

*URXSHV F\FOLTXHV

1t2`+B+2 R8X
lM ;`QmT2 G 2bi +v+HB[m2 HQ`b[m2 G 2bi }MB 2i BH 2tBbi2 mM ûHûK2Mi a /2 G i2H [m2
∀x ∈ G, ∃k ∈ N / x = ak X
JQMi`2` [mǶmM bQmb@;`QmT2 /ǶmM ;`QmT2 +v+HB[m2 2bi HmB@KāK2 +v+HB[m2X

1t2`+B+2 ReX
aQBi G mM ;`QmT2 MQM `û/mBi ¨ {e} MǶvMi Tb /2 bQmb@;`QmT2 MQM i`BpBHX JQMi`2`
[m2 G 2bi KQMQ;ĕM2- }MB- 2i [m2 +`/(G) 2bi mM MQK#`2 T`2KB2`X

1t2`+B+2 RdX UV :`QmT2b #ûHB2Mb bBKTH2b

aQBi (G, +) mM ;`QmT2 #ûHB2MX PM /Bi [m2 G 2bi bBKTH2 HQ`b[m2 G MǶ2bi Tb `û/mBi
¨ {0} 2i G M2 TQbbĕ/2 m+mM mi`2 bQmb@;`QmT2 [m2 {0} 2i GX
RX JQMi`2` [m2 bB p 2bi T`2KB2`- (Z/pZ, +) 2bi bBKTH2X
kX JQMi`2` [m2 H2b /2mt +QM/BiBQMb bmBpMi2b bQMi û[mBpH2Mi2b ,
V G 2bi #ûHB2M 2i bBKTH2 c
#V G 2bi +v+HB[m2 /2 +`/BMH T`2KB2`X

1t2`+B+2 R3X
aQBi n ∈ N∗ \ {1}X PM +QMbB/ĕ`2 H2 ;`QmT2 Z/nZ //BiB7X aQBi k ∈ Z 2i d = k ∧ nX
RX .ûi2`KBM2` HǶQ`/`2 /2 k /Mb Z/nZX
kX JQMi`2` [m2 k 2i d 2M;2M/`2Mi H2 KāK2 bQmb@;`QmT2 /2 Z/nZX
jX Zm2Hb bQMi H2b bQmb@;`QmT2b /2 Z/nZ \


  r *URXSHV

8Q SHWLW FRXS GH SRXFH

1tX RX PM TQm`` T`Q+û/2` T` `û+m``2M+2 bm` nX
1tX kX αx : N∗ → G, k → xk MǶ2bi Tb BMD2+iBp2X
1tX jX *QMbB/û`2` (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 X
1tX 9X liBHBb2` H2 i?ûQ`ĕK2 /2 "2xQmiX
1tX 8X PM `TT2HH2 [m2- TQm` Y ∈ P(G )- f −1 (Y ) = {x ∈ G f (x) ∈ Y }X
1tX eX P#b2`p2` [m2 (xy)n 2bi û;H ¨ x(yx)n−1 yX
1tX dX P#b2`p2` [m2 , ∀q ∈ N∗ , ∀r ∈ Q, f (qr) = qf (r)X
1tX 3X kX aB f 2bi b2mH2K2Mi bmTTQbû2 +QMiBMm2- T`2M/`2 mM2 T`BKBiBp2- F - /2 f -
2i KQMi`2` [m2 F 2bi /2 +Hbb2 C 1 X
1tX NX SQm` +?[m2y ∈ G - +QMbB/û`2` f −1 (y) = {x ∈ G / f (x) = y}X P#b2`p2`
[m2 f −1 (y) y∈G 2bi mM2 T`iBiBQM /2 G- 2i [m2 TQm` y ∈ AK f - f −1 (y)
2bi 2M #BD2+iBQM p2+ E2` f X
1tX RyX RX φ 2bi mM KQ`T?BbK2 /2 ;`QmT2b bB- 2i b2mH2K2Mi bB- iQmi ûHûK2Mi /2
H +QKKmi2 p2+ iQmi ûHûK2Mi /2 KX
 
jX P#b2`p2` [m2 φ−1 (g) g∈G 2bi mM2 T`iBiBQM /2 H × K
9X PM TQm`` ûi#HB` , +V ⇒ V- V ⇒ #V- #V ⇒ +VX
1tX RRX JQMi`2` /Ƕ#Q`/ [m2 TQm` +?[m2 gi ∈ G- BH 2tBbi2 ki ∈ N∗ i2H [m2
giki = e- 2M Q#b2`pMi [m2 HǶTTHB+iBQM /2 Z /Mb G [mB ¨ k bbQ+B2 gik
MǶ2bi Tb BMD2+iBp2X
1tX RkX _2K`[m2` [m2 b2mH2 H b2+QM/2 [m2biBQM 2bi ¨ i`Bi2`X PM TQm`` miBHBb2`
H2 i?ûQ`ĕK2 /2 "2xQmiX
1tX RjX RX hQmi ûHûK2Mi /ǶmM ;`QmT2 }MB 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 }MB 2i bQM Q`/`2 /BpBb2 H2
+`/BMH /m ;`QmT2X
kX PM TQm`` KQMi`2` [m2 x → x2 2bi mM2 TTHB+iBQM /2 A /Mb A- 2i
[mǶ2HH2 2bi bm`D2+iBp2X
1tX R9X kX PM TQm`` miBHBb2` H2 i?ûQ`ĕK2 /2 "2xQmiX *2HmB@+B KQMi`2 [mǶBH 2tBbi2
(u, v) ∈ Z2 i2H [m2 ua + vb = 1X
1tX R8X LQiMi n = +`/(G)- QM KQMi`2` /Ƕ#Q`/ [m2 TQm` +?[m2 x ∈ G- BH
2tBbi2 mM mMB[m2 k ∈ [[1, n]] i2H [m2 x = ak X aB H 2bi mM bQmb@;`QmT2
/2 G- QM TQm`` +QMbB/û`2` KBM {i ∈ [[1, n]] / ai ∈ H} X
1tX ReX *QMbB/û`2` H2 bQmb@;`QmT2 2M;2M/`û T` mM ûHûK2Mi /Bzû`2Mi /m M2mi`2X
1tX RdX kX SQm` T`Qmp2` V ⇒ #V- QM TQm`` miBHBb2` H [m2biBQM T`û+û/2Mi2 c 2i
TQm` KQMi`2` #V ⇒ V- QM TQm`` miBHBb2` HǶ2t2`+B+2 T`û+û/2MiX


 6ROXWLRQV

1tX R3X RX *QMbB/û`2` H2b [mQiB2Mib `2bT2+iB7b n 2i k  /2 n 2i k T` dX GǶQ`/`2

+?2`+?û 2bi n X
kX PM TQm`` T`Q+û/2` T` /Qm#H2 BM+HmbBQMX
jX *2 bQMi H2b
d- TQm` d /BpBb2m` /2 nX

6ROXWLRQV
1t2`+B+2 RX
aQBi (a, b) ∈ G2 X
HQ`b- T` bbQ+BiBpBiû-
 
(b−1 a−1 )(ab) = b−1 a−1 a b = b−1 eb = b−1 b = eX
.QM+ , (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 X
1M miBHBbMi +2ii2 T`QT`Bûiû 2i HǶbbQ+BiBpBiû- QM KQMi`2 BbûK2Mi T` `û+m``2M+2
bm` n ∈ N∗ H T`QT`Bûiû
−1
I(n)4(∀(x1 , ..., xn ) ∈ Gn , (x1 ...xn )−1 = x−1
n ...x1 )X

1t2`+B+2 kX
aQBi x ∈ HX
*QMbB/û`QMb HǶTTHB+iBQM αx /2 N∗ /Mb G /û}MB2 T` ,
∀k ∈ N∗ , αx (k) = xk X
*QKK2 H 2bi bi#H2- mM2 `û+m``2M+2 Bbû2 T`Qmp2 [m2 ,
TQm` iQmi k ∈ N∗ , αx (k) ∈ HX
.QM+ αx (N∗ ) 2bi BM+Hmb /Mb H- /QM+- +QKK2 H 2bi }MB- HǶTTHB+iBQM αx MǶ2bi Tb
BMD2+iBp2- 2i BH 2tBbi2 /2mt 2MiB2`b Mim`2Hb MQM MmHb p 2i q i2Hb [m2 ,
p < q 2i αx (p) = αx (q) bQBi xp = xq X
−1
AH pB2Mi , e = xq (xp ) = xq−p - /QM+ x−1 = xq−p−1 X
aB q = p + 1 HQ`b x = e- /QM+ x−1 = e = xX
aB q > p + 1- HQ`b q − p − 1 ∈ N∗ - /QM+ xq−p−1 = αx (q − p − 1) ∈ HX
.Mb H2b /2mt +b- x−1 ∈ HX
BMbB , TQm` iQmi x ∈ H- x−1 ∈ HX
S`2MQMb mM ûHûK2Mi }tû h /2 H- HQ`b h−1 ∈ H pm +2 [mB T`û+ĕ/2- /QM+- +QKK2
H 2bi bi#H2- e = hh−1 ∈ HX
_û+TBimHQMb , H +QMiB2Mi e- 2bi bi#H2 2i pû`B}2 , TQm` iQmi x ∈ H- x−1 ∈ HX
BMbB H 2bi mM bQmb@;`QmT2 /2 GX

1t2`+B+2 jX
_TT2HQMb [m2 bB mM ûHûK2Mi x 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 2- HQ`b BH pû`B}2 , x2 = e- bQBi , x = x−1 X
AH pB2Mi , ab = (ab)−1 - a = a−1 2i b = b−1 X
P` , (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 X
.QM+ , ab = (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 = baX


  r *URXSHV

1t2`+B+2 9X
p 2i q bQMi T`2KB2`b 2Mi`2 2mt /QM+- /ǶT`ĕb H2 i?ûQ`ĕK2 /2 "2xQmi- BH 2tBbi2
(u, v) ∈ Z2 i2H [m2 pu + qv = 1X
• lMB+Biû , amTTQbQMb [m2 (x, y) ∈ G2 pû`B}2 , x 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 p- y 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 q- 2i
g = xy = yxX
*QKK2 x 2i y +QKKmi2Mi 2Mi`2 2mt- QM  , TQm` iQmi k ∈ Z, g k = xk y k X
HQ`b , g p = (xy)p = xp y p = ey p = y p X
SmBb , g pu = (g p )u = (y p )u = y pu = y 1−qv X
−v
P` y 1−qv = y(y q ) = ye−v = y = yX
.QM+ y = g X pu

.2 KāK2- û+?M;2Mi H2b `ƬH2b /2 (x, p, u) 2i (y, q, v)- QM Q#iB2Mi , x = g qv X

• 1tBbi2M+2 , SQbQMb x = g qv 2i y = g pu X
HQ`b xy = yx = g pu+qv = g 1 = g- 2i ,
k
TQm` iQmi k ∈ Z, xk = (g qv ) = g qvk -
/QM+- TmBb[m2 g 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 pq ,
xk = e ⇔ g qvk = e ⇔ pq|qvk ⇔ p|vkX
P`- +QKK2 pu + qv = 1- p 2i v bQMi T`2KB2`b 2Mi`2 2mt- /QM+ , p /BpBb2 vk bB- 2i
b2mH2K2Mi bB- p /BpBb2 kX
BMbB , xk = e ⇔ p|kX .QM+ x 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 pX
.2 KāK2- û+?M;2Mi H2b `ƬH2b /2 (x, p, u) 2i (y, q, v)- QM pQBi [m2 y 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 qX
1M +QM+HmbBQM- BH 2tBbi2 mM mMB[m2 (x, y) ∈ G2 i2H [m2 x 2bi /ǶQ`/`2 p- y 2bi /ǶQ`/`2
q- 2i g = xy = yxX

1t2`+B+2 8X
RX aQBi H mM bQmb@;`QmT2 /2 GX HQ`b- TQm` x ∈ G ,
x ∈ f −1 (f (H)) ⇔ f (x) ∈ H ⇔ (∃h ∈ H / f (x) = f (h))
⇔ (∃h ∈ H / f (x − h) = eG ) ⇔ (∃h ∈ H / x − h ∈ E2` f )
⇔ x ∈ H + E2` f .
kX aQBi H  mM bQmb@;`QmT2 /2 G X
Ĝ úpB/2KK2Mi f (f −1 (H  )) 2bi BM+Hmb /Mb f (G) = AK f X
S` /û}MBiBQM- f −1 (H  ) = {x ∈ G / f (x) ∈ H  }- /QM+ f (f −1 (H  )) 2bi BM+Hmb
/Mb H  X
BMbB f (f −1 (H  )) ⊆ H  ∩ AK f X
Ĝ _û+BT`Q[m2K2Mi bQBi y ∈ H  ∩ AK f X
HQ`b +QKK2 y ∈ AK f - BH 2tBbi2 x ∈ G i2H [m2 y = f (x)X *2i ûHûK2Mi x pû`B}2
f (x) = y ∈ H  - /QM+ , x ∈ f −1 (H  )X .QM+ y ∈ f (f −1 (H  ))X
1M +QM+HmbBQM , f (f −1 (H  )) = H  ∩ AK f X

1t2`+B+2 eX
aQBi (x, y) ∈ G2 X
_2K`[mQMb [m2 (xy)n 2bi û;H ¨ x(yx)n−1 yX
P` HǶ?vTQi?ĕb2 7Bi2 2Mi`ŗM2 , xn y n = (xy)n X