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Fatigue (Material)
Fatigue (Material)
In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive and localized
structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such
damage may be much less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress
limit.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic
cracks will begin to form at the stress concentrators such as the surface, persistent slip bands (PSBs), interfaces of constituents in the
case of composites, and grain interfaces in the case of metals.[1] Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, the crack will propagate
suddenly, and the structure will fracture. The shape of the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp
corners will lead to elevated local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets will
increase the fatigue strength of the structure.
Contents
Fatigue life
Characteristics of fatigue
Timeline of fatigue research history
High-cycle fatigue
Stress-cycle (S-N) curve
Probabilistic nature of fatigue
Complex loadings
For multiaxial loading
Miner's Rule
Constant Fatigue Life (CFL) diagram and Goodman relation
Paris' Law
Strain-cycle (ε-N) curve
Low-cycle fatigue
Fatigue Fracture Mechanics
Crack Initiation
Design against fatigue
Stopping fatigue
Material change
Peening treatment of welds and metal components
High frequency mechanical impact (HFMI) treatment of welds
Deep Cryogenic treatment
Engineers have used any of three methods to determine the fatigue life of a material: the stress-life method, the strain-life method,
and the linear-elastic fracture mechanics method.[4] One method to predict fatigue life of materials is the Uniform Material Law
(UML).[5] UML was developed for fatigue life prediction of aluminium and titanium alloys by the end of 20th century and extended
to high-strength steels,[6] and cast iron.[7]
Characteristics of fatigue
In metal alloys, and for the simplifying case when there are no
macroscopic or microscopic discontinuities, the process starts with
dislocation movements at the microscopic level, which eventually form
persistent slip bands that become the nucleus of short cracks.
Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities (at the crystalline grain
scale) as well as component design features which cause stress
concentrations (holes, keyways, sharp changes of load direction etc.)
are common locations at which the fatigue process begins.
Fatigue is a process that has a degree of randomnessstochastic),
( often
showing considerable scatter even in seemingly identical sample in well
controlled environments.
Fatigue is usually associated with tensile stresses but fatigue cracks
have been reported due to compressive loads. [8]
The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life. Fracture of an aluminium crank arm.
Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives. Dark area of striations: slow crack
Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested. growth. Bright granular area: sudden
Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such astemperature, fracture.
surface finish, metallurgical microstructure, presence ofoxidizing or inert
chemicals, residual stresses, scuffing contact (fretting), etc.
Some materials (e.g., somesteel and titanium alloys) exhibit a theoreticalfatigue limit below which continued loading
does not lead to fatigue failure.
High cycle fatigue strength (about 104 to 108 cycles) can be described by stress-based parameters. A load-
controlled servo-hydraulic test rig is commonly used in these tests, with frequencies of around 20–50 Hz. Other sorts
of machines—like resonant magnetic machines—can also be used, to achieve frequencies up to 250 Hz.
4 cycles) is associated with localized plastic
Low cycle fatigue (loading that typically causes failure in less than 10
behavior in metals; thus, a strain-based parameter should be used for fatigue life prediction in metals.esting
T is
conducted with constant strain amplitudes typically at 0.01–5 Hz.
High-cycle fatigue
Historically, most attention has focused on situations that require more than 104 cycles to failure where stress is low and deformation
is primarily elastic.
S-N curves are derived from tests on samples of the material to be characterized
(often called coupons) where a regular sinusoidal stress is applied by a testing
machine which also counts the number of cycles to failure. This process is
sometimes known as coupon testing. Each coupon test generates a point on the plot
though in some cases there is a runout where the time to failure exceeds that
available for the test (see censoring). Analysis of fatigue data requires techniques
from statistics, especially survival analysis andlinear regression.
S-N curve for a brittle aluminium with
The progression of the S-N curve can be influenced by many factors such as stress an ultimate tensile strength of 320
ratio (mean stress), loading frequency, temperature, corrosion, residual stresses, and MPa
the presence of notches. A constant fatigue life (CFL) diagram[17] is useful for the
study of stress ratio effect. The Goodman-Line is a method used to estimate the
influence of the mean stress on thefatigue strength.
Probabilistic nature of fatigue
As coupons sampled from a homogeneous frame will display a variation in their number of cycles to failure, the S-N curve should
more properly be a Stress-Cycle-Probability (S-N-P) curve to capture the probability of failure after a given number of cycles of a
certain stress. Probability distributions that are common in data analysis and in design against fatigue include the log-normal
distribution, extreme value distribution, Birnbaum–Saunders distribution, and Weibull distribution.
Complex loadings
In practice, a mechanical part is exposed to a complex, often random, sequence of
loads, large and small. In order to assess the safelife of such a part:
Miner's Rule
In 1945, M. A. Miner[18] popularised a rule that had first been proposed by A. Palmgren in 1924. The rule, variously called Miner's
rule or the Palmgren-Miner linear damage hypothesis, states that where there arek different stress magnitudes in a spectrum, Si (1 ≤ i
≤ k), each contributing ni(Si) cycles, then if Ni(Si) is the number of cycles to failure of a constant stress reversal Si (determined by
uni-axial fatigue tests), failure occurs when:
C is experimentally found to be between 0.7 and 2.2. Usually for design purposes, C is assumed to be 1. This can be thought of as
assessing what proportion of life is consumed by a linear combination of stress reversals at varying magnitudes.
Although Miner's rule may be a useful approximation in many circumstances, it has several major limitations:
1. It fails to recognise the probabilistic nature of fatigue and there is no simple way to relate life predicted by the rule
with the characteristics of a probability distribution. Industry analysts often use design curves, adjusted to account for
scatter, to calculate Ni(Si).
2. The sequence in which high vs. low stress cycles are applied to a sample in fact fect
af the fatigue life, for which
Miner's Rule does not account. In some circumstances, cycles of low stress followed by high stress cause more
damage than would be predicted by the rule.[19] It does not consider the effect of an overload or high stress which
may result in a compressive residual stress that may retard crack growth. High stress followed by low stress may
have less damage due to the presence of compressive residual stress.
Paris' Law
In Fracture mechanics, Anderson, Gomez, and Paris derived relationships for the
stage II crack growth with cycles N, in terms of the cyclical component ΔK of the
Stress Intensity FactorK[22]
where a is the crack length and m is typically in the range 3 to 5 (for metals), which
states that the rate of crack growth with respect to the cycles of load applied is a
function of the stress intensity factor; this is namedParis' law.
where
The figure below shows high cycle fatigue as the right-most linear portion. Any test performed in the bottom left region (i.e. with a
low enough strain amplitude and number of cycles) below the dark line has a high probability to avoid failure.
As shown in the figure above (the left-most linear section) and as described in the next section, the total strain is approximated to be
equal to just the plastic strain. For regions between high and low cycle fatigue, an unweighted sum of the high cycle and low cycle
.[24]
expressions gives a reasonable approximation with a built-in safety factor
Low-cycle fatigue
Where the stress is high enough forplastic deformation to occur, the accounting of the loading in terms of stress is less useful and the
strain in the material offers a simpler and more accurate description. This type of fatigue is normally experienced by components
which undergo a relatively small number of straining cycles. Low-cycle fatigue is usually characterised by the Coffin-Manson
relation (published independently byL. F. Coffin in 1954[25] and S. S. Manson in 1953):[26]
where,
Crack Initiation
The formation of initial cracks preceding fatigue failure is a separate process consisting of four discrete steps in metallic samples.
The material will develop cell structures and harden in response to the applied load. This causes the amplitude of the applied stress to
increase given the new restraints on strain. These newly formed cell structures will eventually break down with the formation of
Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs). Slip in the material is localized at these PSBs, and the exaggerated slip can now serve as a stress
concentrator for a crack to form. Nucleation of a crack to a detectable size accounts for most of the cracking process. It is for this
reason that cyclic fatigue failures seem to occur so suddenly- the bulk of the changes in the material are not visible without
destructive testing. Even in normally ductile materials, fatigue failures will resemble sudden brittle failures.
PSB-induced slip planes result in intrusions and extrusions along the surface of a material, often occurring in pairs. This slip is not a
microstructural change within the material, but rather a propagation of dislocations within the material. Instead of a smooth interface,
the intrusions and extrusions will cause the surface of the material to resemble the edge of a deck of cards, where not all cards are
perfectly aligned. Slip-induced intrusions and extrusions create extremely fine surface structures on the material. With surface
structure size inversely related to stress concentration factors, PSB-induced surface slip quickly becomes a perfect place for fractures
to initiate.
It should be noted that these steps can be bypassed entirely if the cracks form at a preexisting stress concentrator either from an
inclusion in the material or from a geometric stress concentrator such as a sharp corner or small radius. Forming a PSB before failure
requires more energy than crack initiation at a preexisting stress concentrator. It is for that reason that part design and material quality
must be scrutinized when producing parts that will be subjected to high cycle loading.
Sources:[28][29]
Stopping fatigue
Fatigue cracks that have begun to propagate can sometimes be stopped by drilling holes, called drill stops, in the path of the fatigue
crack.[31] This is not recommended as a general practice because the hole represents a stress concentration factor which depends on
the size of the hole and geometry, though the hole is typically less of a stress concentration than the removed tip of the crack. The
possibility remains of a new crack starting in the side of the hole. It is always far better to replace the cracked part entirely
.
Material change
Changes in the materials used in parts can also improve fatigue life. For example, parts can be made from better fatigue rated metals.
Complete replacement and redesign of parts can also reduce if not eliminate fatigue problems. Thus helicopter rotor blades and
propellers in metal are being replaced by composite equivalents. They are not only lighter, but also much more resistant to fatigue.
They are more expensive, but the extra cost is amply repaid by their greater integrity, since loss of a rotor blade usually leads to total
[32]
loss of the aircraft. A similar argument has been made for replacement of metal fuselages, wings and tails of aircraft.
The derailment had been the result of a broken locomotive axle. Rankine's investigation of broken axles in Britain highlighted the
importance of stress concentration, and the mechanism of crack growth with repeated loading. His and other papers suggesting a
crack growth mechanism through repeated stressing, however, were ignored, and fatigue failures occurred at an ever-increasing rate
on the expanding railway system. Other spurious theories seemed to be more acceptable, such as the idea that the metal had somehow
"crystallized". The notion was based on the crystalline appearance of the fast fracture region of the crack surface, but ignored the fact
that the metal was already highly crystalline.
de Havilland Comet
Two de Havilland Comet passenger jets broke up in mid-air and crashed within a
few months of each other in 1954. As a result, systematic tests were conducted on a
fuselage immersed and pressurised in a water tank. After the equivalent of 3,000
flights, investigators at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) were able to
conclude that the crash had been due to failure of the pressure cabin at the forward
Automatic Direction Finder window in the roof. This 'window' was in fact one of
two apertures for the aerials of an electronic navigation system in which opaque
fibreglass panels took the place of the window 'glass'. The failure was a result of
metal fatigue caused by the repeated pressurisation and de-pressurisation of the The recovered (shaded) parts of the
aircraft cabin. Also, the supports around the windows were riveted, not bonded, as wreckage of G-ALYP and the site
(arrowed) of the failure
the original specifications for the aircraft had called for. The problem was
exacerbated by the punch rivet construction technique employed. Unlike drill
riveting, the imperfect nature of the hole created by punch riveting caused manufacturing defect cracks which may have caused the
start of fatigue cracks around the rivet.
The Comet's pressure cabin had been designed to a safety factor comfortably in excess of that required by British Civil Airworthiness
Requirements (2.5 times the cabin proof test pressure as opposed to the requirement of 1.33 times and an ultimate load of 2.0 times
the cabin pressure) and the accident caused a revision in the estimates of the safe loading strength requirements of airliner pressure
cabins.
In addition, it was discovered that the stresses around pressure cabin apertures were
considerably higher than had been anticipated, especially around sharp-cornered cut-
outs, such as windows. As a result, all future jet airliners would feature windows
with rounded corners, greatly reducing the stress concentration. This was a
The fuselage roof fragment ofG- noticeable distinguishing feature of all later models of the Comet. Investigators from
ALYP on display in the Science
the RAE told a public inquiry that the sharp corners near the Comets' window
Museum in London, showing the two
ADF windows at-which the initial openings acted as initiation sites for cracks. The skin of the aircraft was also too
failure occurred.[37] thin, and cracks from manufacturing stresses were present at the corners.
A year later in March 1981, the investigative report[38] concluded that the rig collapsed owing to a fatigue crack in one of its six
bracings (bracing D-6), which connected the collapsed D-leg to the rest of the rig. This was traced to a small 6 mm fillet weld which
joined a non-load-bearing flange plate to this D-6 bracing. This flange plate held a sonar device used during drilling operations. The
poor profile of the fillet weld contributed to a reduction in its fatigue strength. Further, the investigation found considerable amounts
of lamellar tearing in the flange plate and cold cracks in the butt weld. Cold cracks in the welds, increased stress concentrations due
to the weakened flange plate, the poor weld profile, and cyclical stresses (which would be common in the North Sea), seemed to
collectively play a role in the rig's collapse.
Others
The 1862 Hartley Colliery Disasterwas caused by the fracture of a steam engine beam and killed 220 people.
The 1919 Great Molasses Flood has been attributed to a fatigue failure.
The 1948 Northwest Airlines Flight 421crash due to fatigue failure in a wing spar root
The 1957 "Mt. Pinatubo", presidential plane of Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay, crashed due to engine
failure caused by metal fatigue.
The 1965 capsize of the UK's first offshore oil platform, the Sea Gem, was due to fatigue in part of the suspension
system linking the hull to the legs.
The 1968 Los Angeles Airways Flight 417lost one of its main rotor blades due to fatigue failure.
The 1968 MacRobertson Miller Airlines Flight 1750that lost a wing due to improper maintenance leading to fatigue
failure
The 1977 Dan-Air Boeing 707 crashcaused by fatigue failure resulting in the loss of the right horizontal stabilizer
The 1980 LOT Flight 7 that crashed due to fatigue in an engine turbine shaft resulting in engine disintegration
leading to loss of control
The 1985 Japan Airlines Flight 123crashed after the aircraft lost its vertical stabilizer due to faulty repairs on the rear
bulkhead.
The 1988 Aloha Airlines Flight 243suffered an explosive decompression at 24,000 feet (7,300 m) after a fatigue
failure.
The 1989 United Airlines Flight 232lost its tail engine due to fatigue failure in a fan disk hub.
The 1992 El Al Flight 1862 lost both engines on its right-wing due to fatigue failure in the pylon mounting of the #3
Engine.
The 1998 Eschede train disaster was caused by fatigue failure of a single composite wheel.
The 2000 Hatfield rail crash was likely caused by rolling contact fatigue.
The 2000 recall of 6.5 million Firestone tireson Ford Explorers originated from fatigue crack growth leading to
separation of the tread from the tire.[39]
The 2002 China Airlines Flight 611had disintegrated in-flight due to fatigue failure.
The 2005 Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101lost its right wing due to fatigue failure brought about by inadequate
maintenance practices.
The 2009 Viareggio train derailmentdue to fatigue failure.
See also
Aviation safety
Embedment
Forensic materials engineering
Fractography
Thermo-mechanical fatigue
Critical plane analysis
Vibration fatigue
Solder Fatigue
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Further reading
PDL Staff (1995). Fatigue and Tribological Properties of Plastics and Elastomers. Plastics Design Library. ISBN 978-
1-884207-15-0.
Leary, M.; Burvill, C. (2009). "Applicability of published data for fatigue-limited design".Quality and Reliability
Engineering International. 25 (8): 921–932. doi:10.1002/qre.1010.
Dieter, G. E. (2013). Mechanical Metallurgy. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1259064791.
Little, R.E.; Jebe, E.H. (1975).Statistical Design of Fatigue Experiments. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-54115-6.
Palmgren, A. G. (1924). "Die Lebensdauer von Kugellagern" [Life Length of Roller Bearings]. Zeitschrift des Vereines
Deutscher Ingenieure (in German). 68 (14): 339–341.
Schijve, J. (2009). Fatigue of Structures and Materials. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-6807-2.
Lalanne, C. (2009). Fatigue Damage. ISTE - Wiley. ISBN 978-1-84821-125-4.
Pook, L. (2007). Metal Fatigue, What it is, Why it matters. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-5596-6.
Draper, J. (2008). Modern Metal Fatigue Analysis. EMAS. ISBN 0-947817-79-4.
Suresh, S. (2004). Fatigue of Materials. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-57046-8.
External links
Fatigue by Shawn M. Kelly
SAE Fatigue, Design, and Evaluation Committee website
Article regarding Fatigue Testing of Bolted Joints
Examples of fatigued metal products
A collection of fatigue knowledge and calculators
MATDAT.COM - Material Properties Database - Monotonic, Cyclic and Fatigue Properties of Steels, Aluminum and
Titanium Alloys
Application note on fatigue crack propagation in UHMWPE
Video on the fatigue test, Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences
Introduction to the fundamentals of durability engineering