COURSE

Fundamentals of

Electrical Engineering

Assoc. Prof. Ho Pham Huy Anh

September 2017

http://www4.hcmut.edu.vn/~hphanh/teach.php 1
 COURSE OUTLINE
1. Course Title: Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering
2. Total Hours: 30
3. Evaluation: • Mid-Term Exam: 0%
• • Homework – In-Class Exam - Seminar: 40%
• Final Exam: 60%
5. Course - References:
[1] Schaum’s – Theory and Problems of Circuit Analysis -
McGraw Hill - 2007
[2] Schaum’s – Electric Machines and Electro-mechanics -
McGraw Hill - 2007

2
5. Course - References: (cont.)
[3] Nilsson – ELECTRIC CIRCUITS_Solution Manual–
John Wiley & Sons - 2007
[4] Fitzgerald – Electric Machinery -
McGraw Hill – 2005
[5] Nguyễn Kim Đính – Kỹ Thuật Điện –
Nhà Xuất Bản Đại Học Quốc Gia TPHCM – 2015
[6] Nguyễn Kim Đính – Kỹ Thuật Điện –
Nhà Xuất Bản Đại Học Quốc Gia TPHCM – 2015

3
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits
CHAPTER 2. Sinusoidal Circuits
CHAPTER 3. Solving Methods for Sinusoidal Circuits
CHAPTER 4. Three-Phase Circuits
CHAPTER 5. Fundamentals of Electrical Machines
CHAPTER 6. Transformers
CHAPTER 7. Three-Phase Induction Motors
CHAPTER 8.Three-Phase Synchronous Generators
CHAPTER 9. DC Machines.
4
 DETAILED CONTENTS
1 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits

1.1 Components of Electrical Circuits

1.2 Construction of Electrical Circuits

1.3 Parameters of Electrical Component

1.4 Fundamental Electrical Components

1.5 Two Kirchhoff Laws

2 Sinusoidal Electrical Circuits

2.1 General Concepts of Sinusoidal Circuits

2.2 Effective Voltage and Effective Current 5

2.3 Presentation of Sinusoidal Voltage and Current with Vector

2.4 Voltage – Current Relation of Load.

2.5 Impedance Vector and Impedance Triangle of Load

2.6 Power Absorption of Load.

2.7 Vector Representation of Voltage, Current, Impedance and Power

2.8 Power Factor

2.9 Active Power Measurement with Watt-Meter

2.10 Complex Number

2.11 Presentation of Sinusoidal Circuits with Complex Number

6
3. Solving Methods for Sinusoidal Circuits

3.1 General Concepts

3.2 Serial Connection Method. Voltage Division Formula

3.3 Parallel Connection Method. Current Division Formula

3.4 Method of Y ↔ ∆ Conversion

3.5 Method of Mesh Current

3.6 Method of Node Voltage

3.7 Proportional Principle

7
4. Three-Phase Electrical Circuits

4.1 Sources and Loads of Equivalent Three-Phase Circuits

4.2 System of Equivalent Three-Phase Circuits

4.3 System of Equivalent Three-Phase Y - ∆ Circuits, Zl = 0

4.4 System of Equivalent Three-Phase Y - ∆ Circuits, Zl ≠ 0

4.5 System of Non-Equivalent Three-Phase Y - ∆ Circuits, Zl = 0

4.6 System of Non-Equivalent Three-Phase Y - Y Circuits, Zl = 0

4.7 System of Equivalent Three-Phase Circuits with Multiple Loads

4.8 System of Equivalent Three-Phase Circuits with Loads of Three-

8
phase Motors
5. Fundamentals of Electrical Machines

5.1. Faraday Law.

5.2. Magnetic Force Law

5.3. Ampere Law

5.4. Forward Magnetic Problem: Know Φ, Find F

9
6. Transformers

6.1 General Concepts

6.2 Construction of Transformers

6.3 Ideal Transformer Concept

6.4 Equivalent Circuit and Equations of Transformer

6.5 Open Circuit Regime of Transformer

6.6 Short Circuit Regime of Transformer

6.7 Loaded Operation Regime of Transformer

10
7. Three-Phase Induction Motors

7.1. Construction of Three-Phase Induction Motors (IM)

7.2. Magnetic Field of Three-Phase IM

7.3. Working Principles of Three-Phase IM

7.4. Equivalent Circuits and Equations of Three-Phase IM

7.5. Power and Power Factor of Three-Phase IM

7.6. Torque Investigation of Three-Phase IM

11
8. Three-Phase Synchronous Generators

8.1. Construction of Three-Phase Synchronous Generators (SG)

8.2. Working Principles of Three-Phase SG

8.3. Equivalent Circuits and Equations of Three-Phase SG

8.4. Voltage Fluctuation Ratio of Three-Phase SG

8.5. Power and Power Factor of Three-Phase SG

12
9. DC Machines

9.1. Construction of DC Machines

9.2. Working Principles of DC Machines

9.3. Electro-Motive Force (EMF) of DC Machines

9.4. Separated-Excited DC Machines

9.5. Shunt-Excited DC Machines

9.6. Working Principles of DC Motors

9.7. DC Motors Speed Investigation

9.8. DC Motors Torque Investigation

9.9. Shunt-Excited DC Motors

13
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits
1.1. Components of Electrical Circuits (see Figure 1.1)

Fig. 1.1
1. Power Supply: Generates (Supplies) Electrical Power

2. Power Line: Distributes (Transmits) Electrical Power.

3. Conversion Devices: Converse Voltage, Current, Frequency…

4. Electrical Loads : Receive (Consume) Electrical Power.

14
1.2 Construction of Electrical Circuits

1. Two-Port Component is the simplest

component of circuits. (see Fig.1.2)
Fig. 1.2 A and B are 2 Ports, for connecting to
other components in circuit. (see
Fig.1.2)

2. Electrical Circuits is a set of

components connected with other ones
(see Fig. 1.3)

! NODE is a connected point of N Ports

(N ≥ 2)
Fig. 1.3 ! LOOP is a closed line composing of m
components (m ≥ 2) 15
1.3 Electrical Parameters of a Component (see Fig. 1.4)
1. CURRENT (instant) determined by:
a. Reference Direction of Current ( ) (Iref)

Fig. 1.4 b. Current Intensity through component: i = i(t)

i > 0 ⇔ Real Current Direction is the same with Iref.

i < 0 ⇔ Real Current Direction is opposite to Iref.

2. VOLTAGE (instant) determined by:

a. Reference Direction of Voltage (+, –).
b. Voltage value through component : u = u(t).

u > 0 ⇔ Voltage at point + larger than Voltage at point –.

u < 0 ⇔ Voltage at point + smaller than Voltage at point –.

16
3. POWER (instant) (Watt – W)
! If arrow ( ) points from + to – , then Instant Power consumed by
the component is determined as followed

p(t) = u(t).i(t) (1.1)

p > 0 ⇔ Component consumes Power

p < 0 ⇔ Component generates Power

4. ELECTRICAL ENERGY (Joule – J)

Electrical Energy consumed by the component from t1 to t2 :

Wt1 = ∫ p(t )dt

t2
t2
(1.2)
t1
17
1.4. Fundamental Electrical Components

1. Voltage Source (Fig.1.5)

! With voltage independent from current

Fig. 1.5
u = e, ∀i (1.3)

2. Current Source (Fig.1.6)

! With current independent from voltage

Fig. 1.6
i = ig, ∀u (1.4)

3. Resistance component (Resistor) (Fig.1.7)

! With current and voltage proportional to each

Fig. 1.7 other on resistor 18
 ! uR = RiR (1.5)

R = Resistance of resistor component (Ohm - Ω)

! iR = GuR (1.6)

G = Conductance of resistor component (Siemens - S)

1 1
G= ; R= (1.7)
R G

(1.5) and (1.6) are called OHM Laws

! Instant power consumed by resistor is determined by

pR = uR iR = RiR2 = GuR
2 (1.8)
19
 4. Inductance component (Inductor) (Fig.1.8)
di
uL = L (1.9)
dt
1 t
iL (t ) = ∫ u L (τ )dτ + iL (t0 ) (1.10)
L t0
Fig. 1.8

L = Inductance of the Coil (Henry - H)

5. Capacitance component (Capacitor) (Fig.1.9)

duc (1.11)
iC = C
dt
1 t
uC (t ) = ∫ iC (τ )dτ + uC (t0 ) (1.12)
C t0
Fig. 1.9
C = Capacitance of Capacitor (Farad - F)
20
1.5. Two Kirchhoff’s Laws
1. Kirchhoff’s Law on Current (K1)

Σi going into node = 0 (1.13)

At A node (see Fig.1.10):

Fig. 1.10 i1 − i2 + i3 − i4 = 0

2. Kirchhoff’s Law on Voltage (K2)

Σu along the loop = 0 (1.14)

Within the loop of 1234 (ABCD) (see

Fig.1.11):
u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 = 0
Fig. 1.11 21
 Chapter 2. Sinusoidal Electrical Circuits
2.1 General Concepts of Sinusoidal Equation
Consider Fig. 2.1, voltage u and current i over a component shown
as:

u = Um sin(ω t + θ )
(2.1)
i = Im sin(ω t + α )

Fig. 2.1
Peak
u ↔ (Um , θ ) ; Um = Bieâ Voltage
n Ñoä AÙp; Volt.AÙPhase
θ = Pha p (2.2)
!
i ↔ ( Im , α ) ; Im = Bieâ
n Ñoä
Peak Doøng; α = Pha
Current DoønPhase
Current g

! ϕ = θ − α = Volt.Phase − Curr.Phase (2.3)

φ represent Lagging Angle of current with respect to voltage

22
2.2 Effective Voltage and Effective Current
1. Firstly, effective value of a periodical x(t) with period T is
determined as
1 T 2
X= ∫ x (t )dt
T 0 (2.4)
2. We then define Effective Voltage as well as Effective Current as
followed
U I
U = m; I= m (2.5)
2 2

Hence voltage & current over a component in circuit are

!
characterized by 2 pairs of parameters (U, θ) & (I, α) (Fig. 2.2)

u = U 2 sin(ω t + θ ) ↔ (U , θ ) (2.6)
i = I 2 sin(ω t + α ) ↔ ( I , α )

23
Fig. 2.2
2.3. Using phasor to represent sinusoidal voltage and current
1. Voltage Phasor U is characterized by:

Direction: Angle θ with respect to x axis

Magnitude = U


2. Current Phasor I is characterized by:

Magnitude = I

Direction: Angle α with respect to x axis

Fig 2.3
! Hence there is an one-to-one similarity:
u « (U ,θ ) « U and i « (I , α ) « I (2.7)

If i1 « I1 and i2 « I2
!

(2.8)
then i1 ± i2 « I1 ± I2
24
2.4. Voltage-Current Relation on Load
! LOAD can compose of R, L, C components with
only Two-Ports representation.

As known, voltage & current over a

component are characterized by 2 pairs of
!
parameters (U, θ) & (I, α)
Fig 2.4

Impedance = Z =
U
(Z > 0 ) (2.9)
I
Phase Angle of Load = ϕ = θ − α (−90° ≤ ϕ ≤ 90°) (2.10)

! Hence, each LOAD is characterized by one pair of parameters (Z, φ)

25
1. R Circuit.
a. Schematic and Vector Diagram (Fig 2.5)

a) b)
Fig 2.5
b. Resistance and Angle

R = Resistance of resistor component (2.11)

UR (2.12)
ZR = = R; ϕ R = θ R − α R = 0 ο
IR
(2.13)
R circuit ↔ (R, 0o)
26
2. L Circuit
a. Schematic and Vector Diagram (see Fig 2.6)

a) b)
Fig 2.6
b. Inductive Reactance and Angle

XL = ωL = Inductive Reactance of Inductance component (2.14)

U
Z L = L = X L ; ϕ L = θ L − α L = +90ο (2.15)
IL
L Circuit ↔ (XL, 90o) (2.16)
27
3. C Circuit
a. Scheme and Vector Diagram (Fig 2.7)

a) Fig 2.7 b)
b. Capacitive Reactance and Angle
1
XC = Capacitive
= Dung KhaùReactance
ng cuûa PTof Ñieä
Capacitor
n Dung (2.17)
ωC
UC (2.18)
ZC = = X C ; ϕC = θC − α C = −90ο
IC
CMaï
circuit
ch C ↔ (X C , −90ο ) (2.19)
28
4. R-L-C Series Circuit
a. Schematic and Vector Diagram (Fig 2.8)

a) Fig 2.8 b)
b. Capacitive Reactance and Angle

X = X L − X C = ÑieäReactance
n Khaùngof(ÑK)
series
cuûR-L-C
a Maïccircuit
h RLCNT (2.20)
U 2 2 −1 X
Z= = R + X ; ϕ = θ − α = tan (2.21)
I R
Serial
Maï R-L-C
ch RLC Noácircuit
i Tieáp ↔ (Z, ϕ) (2.22)
29
5. R-L-C Parallel Circuit
a. Schematic (Fig 2.9) and Vector Diagram (Fig 2.8b)

b. Total Admittance and Angle

G = 1/R = Conductance of R (2.23)

BL = 1/XL = Ind. Susceptance of L (2.24)

BC = 1/XC = Cap. Susceptance of C(2.25)

Fig 2.9
B = BL – BC = Susceptance of RLC Parallel Circuit (2.26)
U 1 −1 B
Z= = ; ϕ = θ − α = tan (2.27)
I 2
G +B 2 G

Y = 1/Z = I/U = Admittance of R-L-C Parallel Circuit (2.28)

30
2.5 Impedance Vector & Impedance Triangle of Load

Impedance vector Z composed of magnitude Z & argument ϕ

Impedance Triangle had diagonal Z & argument ϕ

R = Z.cosϕ = resistance of Load (2.29)

X = Z.sinϕ = reactance of Load (2.30)

1. Inductive Load (Fig 2.10a)

0 < ϕ < 90ο

R > 0 vaø X > 0 (2.31)
ii lags
chaäm pha
u an ϕ so of
angle vôùφ
iu

31
Fig 2.10a
 2. Capacitive Load (Fig 2.10b)

−90ο < ϕ < 0

R > 0 vaø X < 0 (2.32)
i nihanh pha
leads u (−ϕ ) so
an angle of vôù
φiu
H 2.10b

3. Resonant Load (Fig 2.10c)

ϕ=0
R > 0 vaø X = 0
(2.33)
iiand
cuønugare
phain vôù
iu
phase
H 2.10c
32
 4. Purely Inductive Load (Fig 2.10d)

ϕ = +90ο
R = 0 vaø X > 0 (2.34)
i ch aäm uphan
i lags 90ο soofvôù
a angle 90io u

H 2.10d
5. Purely Capacitive Load (Fig 2.10e)

ϕ = −90ο
R = 0 vaø X < 0 (2.35)
i nh anhupan
i leads 90ο so
haangle vôùoi u
of 90

H 2.10e 33
2.6. Power consumed by Load (Fig 2.11)
1. Load consumes 3 types of Power:
Active P(W); Reactive Q (VAr)
and Apparent S (VA).

S = UI; P = S.cosϕ; Q = S.sinϕ (2.36)

Fig 2.11
2. Power P and Q consumed by R, L, C determined as:
PR = RI R2 , PL = 0, PC = 0 (2.37)
QR = 0, QL = X L I L2 , QC = − X C IC2
3. In case load is composed of many Rk, Lk, Ck then:
P = UI cos ϕ = ∑ PRk = ∑ Rk I Rk
2
(2.38)
Q = UI sin ϕ = ∑ QLk + ∑ QCk = ∑ X Lk I Lk
2
− ∑ X Ck I Ck
2
(2.39)
34
 4. Power Vector and Power Triangle of Load (Fig 2.12)

Power Vector S possesses amplitude S and angle ϕ

Power Triangle composes of diagonal S and angle ϕ

! Power TGCS
Triangleñoà
&nImpedance
g daïng vôù
i TGTTare identical
Triangle
! S = I 2Z; P = I 2 R; Q = I 2 X (2.40)

a) Fig 2.12 b)

Inductive Load in reality consumes P and Q (see Fig 2.12a)

Capacitive Load in reality consumes P and generates Q (Fig 2.12b)

35
2.7 Vector Representation of Current, Voltage, Impedance & Power

a) b)

c) Fig d)
2.13 36
2.8 Power Factor (PF)

1. PF of Load in Fig 2.14 calculated as:

P P
PF = = = cos ϕ (2.41)
S UI

ϕ = Angle of PF of Load (= Angle of Load)

! Inductive load has a lagging PF,

! Capacitive load has a leading PF .
2. Important role of improvement of load PF.

a) b)
37
Fig 2.14
Study on Fig 2.14a, Voltage source Up supplied to Load U with
Power Triangle as Fig 2.14b, Power Line Resistor Rd.
Calculations gave:
P

Line current Id = Load current I = (2.42)
U cos ϕ

Power Line Loss = Pth = R I 2 (2.43)
d

Generating Power = PP = P + Pth (2.44)

P

Efficiency (HS) of circuit = η % = × 100 (2.45)
P + Pth
! If cos ϕ ↓ then I ↑, Pth ↑, Pp ↑ and η % ↓

⇒ It is necessary to improve the PF of Load.

38
3. Improvement Power Factor (PF) of Load Using Capacitor

a) Fig b)
In order to improve PF of Load in2.15
Fig 2.15 from cosϕ up to cosϕ1 , one
connect 1 capacitor C // Load to obtain New Load (P1, Q1, cosj1).

P1 = P + Pc = P (2.46)

Q1 = Q + Qc ⇒ Qc = Q1 − Q = P(tan ϕ − tan ϕ1 ) (2.47)
P (tan ϕ − tan ϕ1 ) (2.48)
C=
ωU 2
39
2.9 Measure Active Power Using Watt-Meter (W-M) (Fig 2.16)

M and N are two components connected

through 2 nodes A and B.

Current and Voltage Coils of W-M

have 2 terminals with + sign marking.
Fig 2.16
! If we choose Iref (→) to flow into terminal + of W-M and Uref (+,
–) has terminal + connected to terminal + of W-M then

Indicated Value of W-M = P = UI.cos

= Active power consumed by N = Active power generated by M

40
 2.10 Complex Number (CN)
1. Definition

Imaginary Unit j:

j2 = – 1 (2.50)

CN: A = a +jb (2.51)

a = Re A
= Real part of A

b = Im A
Fig 2.17 = Imaginary part of A

A* = a – jb = Complex Conjugate of A (2.52)

41
 2. Graphical Representation of Complex Number (Fig 2.17)
Point A (a, b) is operating point of complex number A = a + jb

Vector A = OA is operating point of complex number A = a + jb

⇒ There is similarity 1 – 1:

! Complex A = a + jb ↔ point A (a, b) ↔ Vector A (2.53)

Real term of A = a ↔ point A (a, 0) ∈ x Axis

⇒ x Axis is Real Axis (Re).

Imaginary term of A = jb ↔ point A(0, b) ∈ y Axis

⇒ y Axis is Imaginary Axis (Im).

NOTE:
! Point A*(a, –b) symmetric with A (a, b) over real axis
42
3. Calculation on Complex Number (CN)

Calculations (+, –, ×, ÷) of CN under Quadratic Mode A =

! a +jb as similar as real number, with attention j2=–1

4. Amplitude and Angle (Argument) of CN

! Magnitude of CN A represent value of vector A:

A = A = r = a2 + b2 (2.54)

! Argument of CN A is determined as:

−1 b
arg A = θ = tan (2.55)
a
43
5. Various Forms of CN

a. Algebraic form A= a + jb (2.56)

b. Trigonometric form A = r (cosθ + jsinθ) (2.57)

! Euler Formula: ejθ = cosθ + jsinθ (2.58)

c. Exponential form A = rejθ (2.59)

! Symbol θ = cosθ + jsinθ (2.60)

d. Polar form A=r θ (2.61)

r1 θ1 r1
! (r1 θ1 )(r2 θ 2 ) = r1 r2 θ1 + θ2 ; = θ1 − θ2 (2.62)
r2 θ 2 r2

44
2.11 Using CN to represent sinusoidal electrical signals

1. AÙp Phöùc vaø Doøng Phöùc

1. Voltage Phasor U = U ∠θ (2.63)

U = U ⇒ Bieân Voltage Magnitude

c = AHD
Ñoä AÙp Phöù
! (2.64)
arg U = θ ⇒ Goùc AÙpVoltage
Phöùc =Phase
Pha AÙp

2. Current Phasor I = I∠α (2.65)

I = I ⇒ BieânCurrent
ñoä doøngMagnitude
phöùc = DHD
!
arg I = I ⇒ Goùαc =Doø
Current
ng PhöùPhase
c = Pha Doøng

45
3. Complex Impedance figured
as a Complex Number (2.67-68)

Z = Z ⇒ Bieâ
Magnitude
n ñoäTT of CN
phöùc =Impedance
TT cuûa Taû=iLoad Impedance
! (2.68)
arg Z = ϕ ⇒ GoùArgument =CN
c TT Phöùcof GoùcImpedance
cuûa Taûi = Load Angle
In Fig 2.18c:
! Z↔Z
4. Complex Power figured as a
Complex Number (2.69-70)

Magnitude
S = S ⇒ Bieân ñoäCS of CN
phöùc =Power
CSBK= cuûLoad’s
a TaûiApparent Power
! (2.70)
Argument
arg S = ϕ ⇒ Goùc CS Phöùc = of
GoùCN
c cuûPower
a Taûi = Load Angle

! In Fig 2.18d: S↔S

46
5. Complex Admittance figured (2.71-72)
as a Complex Number

Y = Y : Magnitude
Bieân ñoäTDofphöù
CNcAdmittance
= TD cuûa Taû= Load
i Admittance
!
arg Y = −ϕ : GoùArgument
c TD phöùcof
= CN c cuûa Taûi = - Load(2.72)
−GoùAdmittance Angle

6. Complex OHM Law

(2.9) and (2.10) ⇔ (2.73)

(2.66)! is called Complex OHM Law of Load.

7. Relation Between U, I, Z and S of Load

! S = UI∗ = I 2 Z (2.74)
47
8. Comparison Between Complex Diagram Display (Fig 2.18) with Vector Diagram
(Fig 2.13)

a) b)

c) Fig 2.18 d) 48
9. Significance of Z = R + jX, Y = G + jB, S = P + jQ

(2.75)
ReZ =R = ÑTTÑ ; ImZ = X = ÑKTÑ


 CUÛA
ReY =G = ÑDTÑ; ImY = B = ÑNTÑ (2.76)

 TAÛI
ReS =P = CSTD; ImS = Q = CSPK 

 (2.77)

R –X G –B
G = 2 2 ; B = 2 2 ; R = 2 2 ; X= 2 2
R +X R +X G +B G +B (2.78)

10. Complex Impedance & Complex Admittance of R, L, C

ZR = R; ZL = jX L ; ZC = –jX C (2.79)
YR = G; YL = – jBL ; YC = jBC (2.80)

49
11. Complex Kirhoff’Current Law Σi going into node = 0 (2.81)

12. Complex Kirhoff’Voltage Law Σu along the loop = 0 (2.82)

13. Complex Power Conservation Rule (Fig 2.19)

If Circuit composes of N components

and → flow from + to –

of each component. Then

∑ S k = ∑ U k I∗ k = 0 (2.83)

⇔ ∑ Pk = 0 and ø ∑ Qk = 0 (2.84)
Fig 2.19
50
 Chapter 3. Solving Methods for Sinusoidal Circuits
3.1. General Concepts
1. Contents of Sinusoidal Circuits’ Solving
• Suppose Circuits including 5 types of components: Voltage
Source e(t), Current Source ig(t), Resistor R, Inductor L and
Capacitor C. The required tasks:
• a. Instant Voltage u(t) and Instant Current i(t) through a
Component.
• b. Active power P, Reactive power Q, Apparent power S
consumed or generated by a component.
2. Two main Tools for solving sinusoidal circuits concerning using
VECTOR and COMPLEX NUMBER. Conversion between two
methods realized as followed Fig. 2.13 up to Fig.2.18.
51
3. Sinusoidal Circuits Solving Procedure includes 3 following steps:

S1. Transform into Complex Circuits using following rules:

e(t ) = E 2 cos(ωt + θ ) ⇒ E = E∠θ

(3.1)

ig (t ) = I g 2 cos(ωt + α ) ⇒ I g = I g ∠α (3.2)

R, L, C → ZR, ZL, ZC; YR, YL, YC using (2.72) and 3.3)

Real variable u (t ) = U 2 cos(ωt + θ ) ⇒ U = U∠θ

(3.4)

Real variable i (t ) = I 2 cos(ωt + α ) ⇒ I = I∠α

(3.5)
S2. Solve Complex Circuit using Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Current, and
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Laws to find out U, I.

S3. Inversely Transform to Sinusoidal Circuit to determine u(t) and i(t)

based on the same sules in S1. 52
4. Important Notes
a. As to realize S1 and S3, one can apply 1 of 4 Types of sinusoidal
functions: effective-sin, effective-cos, peak-sin, and peak-cos; but
with formulas for calculating P,Q, S, only effective-cos is available!

b. LOAD: U = Z I or I = Y U (3.6)

c. VOLTAGE SOURCE: U=±E (3.7)

d. CURRENT SOURCE: I = ± Ig (3.8)

e. COMPONENT: If Iref in the same (opposite) direction with Uref,

then the CONSUMED (GENERATED) Complex Power is:
S = U I* (3.9)
53
3.2. Series Connection Method. Formula of Voltage Division (see Fig. 3.1)

U = Summed Voltage; I = Common current

Uk = Voltage over Zk (k = 1,2)

Uk = ZkI (3.10)

U = U1 + U2 = (Z1 + Z2)I = ZEQI

! ZEQ = Z1 + Z2 (3.11)

U (3.12)
⇒ I=
Fig. 3.1 Ztñ
Z1 Z2
! Voltage Division U1 = U; U 2 = U (3.13)
Ztñ Ztñ
Formula 54
3.3. Parallel Connection Method. Formula of Current Division (Fig. 3.2)

I = Total Current; U = Common Voltage

Ik = Current through Yk (k=1,2)

I k = Yk U (3.14)

I = I1 + I2 = ( Y1 + Y2 )U = Ytñ U

! Ytñ = Y1 + Y2 (3.15)
Fig. 3.2
I (3.16)
⇒ U=
Ytñ
! Current Division Y1 Y2
I1 = I; I2 = I (3.17)
Ytñ Ytñ
Formula
55
3.4 Method of Y ↔ ∆ Conversion (Fig. 3.3)

a) b)

Fig. 3.3
Y ⇒∆ ∆⇒Y
Z1 Z 2 (3.18) Z12 Z 31 (3.19)
Z12 = Z1 + Z 2 + Z1 =
Z3 Z12 + Z 23 + Z 31

! If 3 Loads are equal ⇒ ZD = 3ZY or ZY = ZD/3 (3.20)

56
3.5. Method of Mesh Current
1. In case of One-Loop Circuit (Fig 3.4)

S1. Choose Variable = Mesh current IM1

S2. Mesh Current Eq. expressed as:

Z11I M 1 = EM 1 (3.21)

Z11 = ∑ Z k in mesh 1 (3.22)

Fig 3.4
EM 1 = ∑ Ek in mesh 1 (3.23)

! Ek take sign + (–) if IM1 flow out from port + (–) of Ek

EM 1
S3. Solve (3.21) ⇒ I M1 = (3.24)
Z11
57
S4. Calculate real Currents based on IM1: I1 = I M 1 , I2 = −I M 1 ...

S5. Calculate real Voltages:

U1 = E1 , U 2 = Z2I2 , U 3 = −E3 , U 4 = −Z4 I 4

S6. Calculate P, Q, S of components (consumed or generated):

a. E1 generates: S1 = E1I∗1 = P1 + jQ1 (3.25)

E1 generates Active Power = P1 and Reactive Power = Q1

b. E3 consumes: S3 = E3I*3 = P3 + jQ3 (3.26)

E3 consumes Active Power = P3 and Reactive Power = Q3
S7. Evaluate Conservation Principle of P and Q

∑ gen. P = ∑ con. P; ∑ gen. Q =∑ con. Q (3.27)

58
 2. Two-loop circuit (Fig 3.5)

S1. Choose 2 main variables

IM1 and IM2 (clockwise).

S2. Set of Mesh Current

Equations expressed as:

Fig 3.5 Z11I M 1 + Z12I M 2 = EM 1

Z21I M 1 + Z22I M 2 = EM 2 (3.28)
Ik, Uk, and Sk are determined from IM1 and IM2
! Zii determined using (3.22); EMi using (3.23)
! Z12 = Z 21 = −∑ common Z k between mesh 1 and mesh 2 (3.29)

S3. Then solve (3.28) 59

3.6 Method of Node Voltage.
1. Definition (see Fig 3.6)

Consider a circuit contained lots of

nodes A, B,…

Choose one Reference NODE N.

Define Node Voltage = Voltage between

chosen node and basic node N:

U A = U AN (3.30)
!
UN = UNN = 0 (3.31)

U A − UB = E1 ; UG = E3 (3.32)
I2 = Y2 (UC − UD ); I4 = Y4 UH (3.33)
Fig 3.6 60
 2. Two-Node Circuit (Fig 3.7)
S1. Choose N as ref. Node.

S2. Choose variable = UA

S3. Ik = Yk(UA – Ek) (3.34)

S4. Σ Ik = ΣYk(UA – Ek) = 0

Fig 3.7 ⇒ (ΣYk)UA = ΣYkEk (3.35)

S5. Solve Node Voltage Equation (3.35)

UA =
∑ YE k k
(3.36)
∑Y k

S6. Finally, calculate Ik from (3.34) ⇒ Uk, Sk ... 61

3.7 Proportional Principle

If multiply all Sources Ek and Igk of 1 Circuit to the same CN A =

k∠b then Uk and Ik of each component will be also multiplied to A

! Voltage and Current of each component can be multiplied to k

! Voltage and Current Phase of each component can be added to b

If Power Source {Ek, Igk} ↔ Response {Uk, Ik}

!
Then Power Source {AEk, AIgk} ↔ Response {AUk, AIk}
62
 Chapter 4. Three Phase Electrical Circuits
4.1 Three Phase Equivalent Circuit (3ΦEQ)
1. Two-Index Symbol (see Fig 4.1)

Fig 4.1

Uab = Ua − Ub = −Uba (4.1)

a. Uab = Voltage over ab
Uab = Uac + Ucb (4.2)

b. Iab = Current from a to b Iab = −Iba (4.3)

c. Zab = Impedance between a & b Zab = Zba (4.4)

Uab = ZabIab (4.5)

63
2. Voltage Source 3Φ-EQ (VS3Φ-EQ) is a set of three sinus
voltages had the same voltage and frequency, but mismatch the
phase 120o respectively (see Fig 4.2). We only consider the case
of forward sequence.

a) Fig 4.2 b)

Uax = U p∠ θa ! Only based on known Uax

Uby = U p∠ θa − 120ο (4.6) Uby = Uax∠ − 120ο
⇒
Ucz = U p∠ θa − 240ο Ucz = Uax∠ − 240ο 64
3. VS3ÞEQ Connected Y (see Fig 4.3)

a) b)

Up = AHD pha
!
Fig 4.3 Ud = AHD daây
a. Phase Voltage = (Uan, Ubn, Ucn); Line Voltage = (Uab, Ubc, Uca)

b. Determine the relation between Line & Phase Voltage

Ud = 3Up 


 ⇔ Uab = Uan 3∠ 30ο (4.7)
Uab faster 30ο compared to Uan 


 65
4. VS3ÞEQ Connected ∆ (see Fig 4.4)
Line Voltage = Phase Voltage
= (Uab, Ubc, Uca)
Fig 4.4

Ud = Up (4.8)

5. Loads of 3ÞEQ connected Y (Fig 4.5a) or ∆ (Fig 4.5b)

Z p = TT pha
Z p = Rp + jX p
Z p = Z p ∠ϕ

a) Fig 4.5 b) 66
 4.2. System 3Þ Y-Y Equivalent (see Fig 4.6)

1. Definitions. Fig 4.6

Z p = Rp + jX p
a. (Uan, Ubn, Ucn) = Source Phase Voltage Z p = Z p∠ ϕ
b. (Uab, Ubc, Uca) = Source Line Voltage Zd = Rd + jX d 67
c. (UAN , UBN , UCN ) = Load Phase Voltage.

d. (UAB , UBC , UCA ) = Load Line Voltage.

e. (U aA , U bB , U cC ) = Voltage Drop over Line

f. (I na , I nb , I nc ) = Source Phase Current

g. (I AN , I BN , ICN ) = Load Phase Current

h. (I aA , IbB , I cC ) = Line Current

! System 3Φ Y-Y Equivalent possessed forward sequential

feature, hence only need to know 1 among 3. For example:

Uca = Uab ∠ − 240ο ; UBN = UCN ∠120ο ; I bB= I aA∠ − 120ο

68
2. Solve 3Þ Circuit (Fig 4.6) based on 1 phase Circuit (Fig 4.7)

Z p = Rp + jX p
Z p = Z p ∠ϕ
Zd = Rd + jX d

Fig 4.7
Uan
a. Calculate current I na = I aA= IAN = (4.9)
Zp + Zd

b. UAN = ZpIAN ; UaA = Z dI aA; UAB = UAN 3 ∠30ο (4.10)

Then UAB = Ud ; UAN = Up ; IaA = Id ; IAN = Ip

(4.11)
Ud = 3 Up ; Id = Ip (Taûi Y )
69
3. Power, Loss, and Efficiency of 3ФEQ Circuit

a. Power consumed by 3ФLoad

P = 3Up Ip cos ϕ ; Q = 3Up Ip sin ϕ ; S = 3Up Ip (4.12)

P = 3Ud Id cos ϕ ; Q = 3Ud Id sin ϕ ; S = 3Ud Id (4.13)

P = 3Ip2 Rp ; Q = 3Ip2 Xp ; S = 3Ip2 Zp (4.14)

b. Loss on 3Þ Lines

Pth = 3Id2 Rd ; Qth = 3Id2 Xd (4.15)

c. Total Power generated from 3Þ Source

PP = P + Pth ; QP = Q + Qth ; SP = PP2 + QP2 (4.16)

70
 d. Efficiency Calculation

P P
η% = × 100 = × 100 (4.17)
PP P + Pth

Rp
! η% = × 100 (4.18)
Rp + Rd
4. Calculation of Three phase Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

a. S = 3UAN I∗AN = 3Zp Ip2 = P + jQ (4.19)

b. Sth = 3UaAI∗aA = 3Zd Id2 = Pth + jQth (4.20)

c. Sp = 3UanI∗na = PP + jQP (4.21)
71
4.3 System 3Þ Y- ∆ Equivalent, Zd = 0 (see Fig 4.8)

a) Fig 4.8 b)
1. Voltage: Uab = Uan 3 ∠30ο ; UAB = Uab (4.22)

2. Current: IAB = UAB ; IaA = IAB 3 ∠ − 30ο (4.23)

Zp
! If known U AB = U d = U p ; IaA = Id ; I AB = I p

then U d = U p ; Id = 3I p (TAÛI ∆) (4.24)

72
4.4 System 3Þ Y- ∆ Equivalent, Zd ≠ 0 (see Fig 4.9)

a) Fig 4.9 b)
S1. Change load ∆ (Zp) to Y (Zp/3) ⇒ (Fig 4.9b)

U an I aA
S2. I na = I aA = I AN = ; I AB = ∠ 30ο (4.25)
Z p /3 + Zd 3

S3. UAN = (Zp /3)IAN ; UaA = ZdIaA ; UAB = UAN 3∠ 30ο (4.26)
73
4.5 System 3Þ Y- Y Non-Equivalent, Zd = 0 (see Fig 4.10a)

a) Fig 4.10 b)
S1. We split 3Þ circuit to three independent 1Þ circuits (Fig 4.10b)
U an
S2 I na = I aA = I AN = ... (4.27)
Zd + Z AN

S3 I Nn = I AN + I BN + ICN (4.28)
74
4.6 System 3Þ Y- ∆ Non-Equivalent, Zd = 0 (see Fig 4.11)

S1. Uab = Uan 3 ∠30ο (4.29)

S2. UAB = Uab (4.30)

UAB
S3. IAB = (4.31)
ZAB
S4. IaA = IAB − ICA (4.32)

Fig 4.11
! Power of System 3Φ Non-EQ calculated from all of three Loads.
From Fig 4.11, Complex Power of 3Φ source generated as:

SP = Sna + Snb + Snc = UanI∗na + UbnI∗nb + UcnI∗nc

= ( Pna + jQna ) + ( Pnb + jQnb ) + ( Pnc + jQnc ) = PP + jQP
75
4.7 System 3Þ Equivalent with Multiple Loads (see Fig 4.12a)

Fig 4.12

There are n Loads parallel; each Load either Y or ∆

Load k can be calculated based on

Either Impedance Triangle ( Rpk , X pk , Z pk , Z p ) ( H 4.12b)

Either Power Triangle ( Pk , Qk , Sk , Sk ) ( H 4.12c) 76

1. Problem 1. Know Uan , Zd , vaø Zpk

S1. Change Y ↔ ∆then calculate Z ptñof N Loads

S2. Fix I aAthen using Formula of Current Division

2. Problem 2. Know Ud = UAB vaø Sk. Then calculate:

S1. P = ∑ Pk ; Q = ∑ Qk ; S = P 2 + Q2 (4.33)

S2. Id = IaA = S/ 3U d (4.34)

S3. Pd = 3Id2 Rd ; Qd = 3Id2 X d (4.35)

S4. PP = P + Pd ; QP = Q + Qd ; SP = PP2 + QP2 (4.36)
S5. U ab = U dP = SP / 3 Id ; cos ϕ P = PP /SP (4.37)
77
4.8 System 3Þ Equivalent with Loads of 3Þ Motors (see Fig 4.13)

Fig 4.13

3Þ Motor is an electrical 3Þ Load whose PF = cosφ and
applies Input Power P1 to Output Power P2

Efficiency
η = P2 / P1 (4.38)

P2
! Id = (4.39)
3Udη cos ϕ 78
Chapter 5. General Concepts of Electrical Machines
5.1. Faraday Law

1. Inductive EMF Law (Fig 5.1)

φ(t) = Instant Magnetic Flux
through 1 turn

ev(t) = Inductive EMF
in 1 turn
! ev(t) = uab(t) while i(t) = 0

! dϕ (t)
ev (t) = − (5.1)
dt
Fig 5.1
dϕ (t) (5.2)

Coil of N Turns: e(t) = − N
dt 79
 2. Generator EMF Law (Fig 5.2)

ab: Conductor with length l

B = Magnetic Flux Density

v = Speed of conductor

Fig 5.2 ! e = Bvl (5.3)

5.2. Magnetic Force Law (Fig 5.3)

I = Current through conductor ab

B = Magnetic Flux Density

l = Length of Conductor

F = BIl (5.4)
80
Fig 5.3
 5.3. Ampere Law (Fig 5.4)

I1, I2,… were n currents

C = Closed Loop

H = Magnetic Field Intensity at P

∫
C H.dl = ∑ Ik bao bôûi C (5.5)

Fig 5.4 5.4. Magnetic Ohm Law (Fig 5.5)
1. Magnetic Circuit had:

l = Length [m]

S = Surface [m2]

μ = Absolute Permeability

R = l/ μS = Magnetic Reluctance
Fig 5.5 81

µ r = µ /µο = Relative Permeability (5.6)
µο = 4π × 10−7 (H /m) = Ñoä Töø Thaåm Tuyeät Ñoái cuûa CK
2. The Coil had N turns, contained current I, MMF F = NI

3. Main Parameters in Magnetic Circuit

H = Magnetic Field Intensity = NI/l (5.7)

B = Flux Density = μH (5.8)

F = Flux = BS (5.9)

4. Magnetic OHM Law F = NI = RΦ = Hl (5.10)

5. Magnetic circuit had m serial components & n coils.

(5.11)
∑ Hi li = ∑ RiΦ = ∑ N k Ik = ∑ Fk = F
82
5.5. Forward Problem: Know Φ, Find F.

S1. Calculate Bi = Φ/Si

S2. a. If component is Magnet, using Magnetizing Curve

Bi = Bi ( Hi ) to induce Hi flow in component (5.12)

b. If component is Air then Hο = Bο /µο (5.13)

S3. Calculate Total MMF created F: F = ∑ Hi li (5.14)

! If know μi or μri and find F then:

S1'. Calculate Ri = li /µi Si = li /µri µο Si

S2'. F = ∑ N k Ik = ∑RiΦ (5.15) 83

 Chapter 6. Transformers (TFM)
6.1. General Concept
1. Schematic (Fig. 6.1)

TFM is a 2-port network

In-port is Primary (PRI)

(connected to source)

Out-port is Secondary (SEC)

Fig. 6.1 (connected to Load T)
2. Rated parameters (Nominal)

U1dm = Nominal Pri.Voltage;U 2 dm = Nominal Sec.Voltage

1dm = Nominal Pri. Current ; I 2 dm = Nominal Sec. Current

I

S1dm = U 1dm I 1dm = U 2dm I 2dm = S 2dm = Nominal Apparent Power
84
6.2. Construction of Transformers (Fig. 6.2)

1. Core with area of S to

guide the flux F.

2. Primary Winding has N1

turns.

3. Secondary Winding has

N2 turns.
Fig. 6.2
6.3. Ideal Transformers

1. Charactersitics of Ideal Transformers

a. Windings without resistances and reactances: R1= R2 =X1 =

X2 = 0
85
b. Core without reluctance and losses: R = 0, Pt = 0
Some pictures

Small power Small 3-phase

Control
Cast resin

110 kV, oil

10 kV, oil 500 kV, oil
86
2. Equations of Ideal Transformers
a. Electro-Motive Force (Induced Voltage)

U1 = E1 = 4.44 fN1Φ m = 4.44 fN1 Bm S (6.1)

U 2 = E2 = 4.44 fN 2 Φ m = 4.44 fN 2 Bm S (6.2)

b. Voltage Ratio

U1 E1 N1
k= = = (6.3)
U2 E2 N2

c. Current Ratio
I1 U 2 1
S1 = S 2 ⇒ U1 I1 = U 2 I 2 ⇒ = = (6.4)
I 2 U1 k
87
6.4. Equivalent Circuits and Equations of Practical Transformers

1. Eq. Circuits of primary Winding

(Fig. 6.3)

R1, X1, and Z1 = R1+ jX1 are
primary resistance, leakage
reactance, and impedance.

U1 , E1 , I1 , and f are primary
Fig. 6.3 voltage, EMF, current and
frequency.
Voltage Drops on primary Winding due to primary R, X, and Z are:
! ∆U1R = R1I1 , ∆U1 X = jX 1I1 , ∆U1 = Z1I1 (6.5)

! U1 = E1 + Z1I1 (6.6)
88
2. Equivalent Circuit of Secondary Winding (Fig. 6.4)

R2, X2, and Z2 = R2+ jX2 are

secondary resistance, leakage
reactance, and impedance.

U , E 2 , I 2 and f are secondary
2
voltage, EMF, current and
frequency.
Fig. 6.4

Voltage Drops on SEC Winding due to secondary R, X, and Z are:

! ∆U 2 R = R2 I 2 , ∆U 2 X = jX 2 I 2 , ∆U 2 = Z 2 I 2 (6.7)

! E2 = U 2 + Z2I2 (6.8)
89
3. Equivalent Circuit for Ideal Magnetic Core (Fig.6.5 & Fig. 6.6)

a. Two phenomena in the core

Core losses Pt

Sinusoidal flux F

b. In Open-Circuit operation (OC)

(Fig. 6.5), the no-load primary
Fig. 6.5 current Io includes (Fig. 6.6a)

Core losses related IC (in phase with E1), resulting in Pt

Magnetizing current Im(90o lagging wrt E1), producing F ⇒

Eq. circuit for the magnetic core (Fig. 6.6b)
90
a)
b)
Fig. 6.6

RC = Core loss resistance E1

IC = = GC E1 (6.9)
RC

GC = Core loss admittance
E1
Im = = − jBm E1 (6.10)

Xm = Magnetizing reactance jX m

Bm = Magnetizing admittance Iο = IC + I m (6.11)

91
4. Current Equation (Fig. 6.2)
a. For ideal transformers, when load demands I2, equivalent
I1 needed is

I'2 = I2 /k (6.12)

! I'2 is called secondary current referred to primary

b. For practical transformers in no-load condition (I2 = 0)

the needed I1 is the no-load primary current (6.11)

c. Applying superposition, for practical transformers,

when load demands I2 then

I1 = I'2 + I o (6.13)
92
5. Equivalent Circuit of Transformers (Fig. 6.7)

Fig. 6.7
6. Equivalent Circuit referred to primary (Fig. 6.8) U’2 = kU2

I’2 = I2/k

Z’2 = k2Z2

Z’T = k2ZT

93
Fig. 6.8
7. Approximate Equivalent Circuit (EC) referred to primary (Fig.
6.9)

Rn = R1 + R2′
Fig. 6.9 X n = X 1 + X 2′
Z n = Rn + jX n

are short-circuit resistance, reactance, and impedance referred

to primary of transformers.
! The advantage of the EC in Fig. 6.9 is the combination of three
loads in parallel: Ic, Im, and I’2 are independent.

! U1
I'2 = (6.14)
Zn + Z'T
94
8. Phasor Diagram from EC referred to primary (Fig. 6.10)

( ) ( )
! Given U 2 , I 2 , find U1 , I1 using phasor diagram.

Fig. 6.10 95
Construct the following phasors

U 2′ = kU 2 and I 2′ = I 2 / k





Step 1.

∆U 2′ R = R2′ I 2′ and ∆U 2′ X = jX 2′ I 2′





Step 2.

E1 = U 2 + ∆U 2′ R + ∆U 2′ X





Step 3.

I C′ = GC E1 and I m = − jBm E1





Step 4.

I 0 = I 2′ + I m




Step 5.

I1 = I 2′ + I 0




Step 6.





Step 7. ∆U1R = R1 I1 and ∆U1 X = jX 1 I1





Step 8. U1 = E1 + ∆U1R + ∆U1 X 96
6.5. No-load Operation of Transformers
1. Schematic and Equivalent Circuit (Fig. 6.11)

a) Fig. 6.11 b) c)

U1

Fig. 6.11b ⇒ I o = = Yo U1 (6.15)
( R1 + jX1 ) + ( RC //jX m )

Fig. 6.11c ⇒ I o = I c + I m = (Gc − jBm )U1 (6.16)

! Core loss ≈ No-load loss Pt ≈ P0 (6.17) 97

2. Open-Circuit Test of Transformers
a. Diagram: Fig. 6.11a, using 2 V , 1 A , and1 W .

b. Procedure: Apply U1n to primary then measure U1n, U20, I0, P0.

(6.18)

Voltage Ratio: k = U1dm / U 20

No-load current (%): I 0 % = (I 0 / I1dm )×100 (6.19)

Core loss: Pt = P0 − R1 I 02 ≈ P0 (6.20)

No-load power factor: cos ϕ 0 = P0 / (U1dm I 0 ) (6.21)

Rc and Gc: Rc = U12dm / P0 ; Gc = 1 / Rc (6.22)

Xm and Bm:
I0
Y0 = ; Bm = Y02 − Gc2 ; X m = 1 / Bm (6.23)
U1n 98
6.6. Short-Circuit (SC) Operation of Transformers
1. Schematic and EC (Fig. 6.12)

a) Fig. 6.12 b)

Fig 6.12b ⇒ U1n = (Rn + jX n )I1n = Z n I1n (6.24)

SC current >> Nominal current: I1n >> I1dm; I2n >> I2dm
! SC loss ≈ Copper loss
Pn ≈ Pd = R1 I12n + R2 I 22n = Rn I12n (6.25)
99
2. Short-Circuit (SC) Test of Transformers

a. Diagram: Fig. 6.12a, with 1 Voltage Regulator, 1 V, 2A, 1W.

b. Procedure: Apply voltage to primary so that I1n = I1dm and I2n =

I2dm; then measure U1n, I1dm, I2dm, and Pn.

SC voltage (%) un % = (U1n / U1dm )×100 (6.26)

Nominal Pc Pddm = Rn I12dm ≈ Pn (6.27)

SC power factor cos ϕ n = Pn / (U1n I1dm ) (6.28)

Short-Circuit R, X, Z
U1n Pn
Zn = ; Rn = 2 ; X n = Z n2 − Rn2 (6.29)
I1dm I1dm

! Normally: R1 = R2′ = Rn / 2; X 1 = X 2′ = X n / 2 (6.30)

100
6.7. Loaded Transformers

1. Diagram (Fig. 6.13a) and EC (Fig. 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9)

b)

Fig. 6.13

c)
a)

Load is characterized by Impedance Triangle (Fig. 6.13b) or

!
Power Triangle (Fig. 6.13c)

Load Factor I2 I1 S2
β= ≈ ≈ (6.31)
I 2 dm I1dm S 2 dm
101
2. Power, Losses, and Efficiency of Transformers (Fig. 6.13a)

P1 = Input Power

Pđ1 = Primary Copper Loss

Pt = Core Loss

Pđt = P1 – Pđ1 – Pt = Electromagnetic Power

Pđ2 = Secondary Copper Loss

P2 = Pđt – Pđ2 = Output Power

Pth = P1 – P2 = Total Power Loss

P2
! Efficiency = η % = × 100 (6.32)
P1 102
3. Different Power Terms from Fig. 6.7 and 6.8

( )
P1 = Re U1 I1 = U1 I1 cos ϕ1


*

(6.33)
where cosϕ1 is the power factor at primary terminals.
2 (6.34)

Pđ 1 = R I 1 1

Pt = Rc I c2 = Gc E12 ≈ GcU12 (6.35)

Pđt = (R2 + RT )I 22 = (R2′ + RT′ )I 2′2

( )
= Re E2 I 2 = Re E1 I 2′ ( ) (6.36)


*

*

Pđ 2 = R2 I 22 = R2′ I 2′2 (6.37)

( )
Pđt = RT I 2 = RT′ I 2′ = Re U 2 I 2 = Re U 2′ I 2′
2 2
( )


*

*


(6.38)
= U 2 I 2 cos ϕ 2 = U 2′ I 2′ cos ϕ 2 103
4. Approximate Expressions of Power, Losses, and Efficiency

! Assuming U1=U1đm and U2 = U2đm

(6.39)

P2 = bSđmcosj2

Pt = P0 = Input Power in Open-Circuit Test (6.40)

Pđ = Pđ 1 + Pđ 2 = Pđđm β = Pn β
2 2
(6.41)

Pđđm = Pn = Input Power in Short-Circuit Test

βS đm cos ϕ 2
η= (6.42)
βS đm cos ϕ 2 + P0 + β 2 Pn

! h is maximum when β = P0 / Pn (6.43)

104
Chapter 7. Three Phase Asynchronous Motor (3ΦASM)
7.1. Structure of 3ÞASM
1. Stator (ST)

a. Steel Core of ST

b. ST Winding (STW) composed of 3 coils (AX, BY, CZ)

2. Rotor (RT)
a. Steel core of RT

b. RT winding (RTW) have two types:

RT Squirrel

RT Compound Winding, with 3 coils (ax, by, cz)

105
7.2. Magnetic Field in 3ÞASM.

Let’s give a system of 3Þ sinusoidal current run into 3 coils of

! ST, eventually we have a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF)
rotated though 2p poles (Fig. 7.1)

Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field

(or Synchronous Speed)

! 60 f (7.1)
n1 = (v/p)
p

f = frequency of ST current

p = pole pair number of ST

Fig. 7.1
106
7.3 Working Principle of 3ΦASM (Fig. 7.2)

S1. Supply 3Þ equivalent current to

ST, we have 1 RMF 2p poles rotating
with synchronous speed n1

S2. RT Coil length l go through flux

Φ (with flux density B) with speed v
and hence induce an EMF e2 = Bvl.

Fig. 7.2
S3. Because of RT on short-circuit, short-circuit current i2 run
in coil will cause magnetic force F = Bi2 l which rotate RT the
same direction with RMF ST n1 but with speed n < n1. 107
! Therefore in 3ÞASM, we have 3 different speeds:

n1 = Speed of ST RMF = Synchronous Speed (SS)

n = Speed of RT = Motor Speed (MS)

ns = n1 – n = Slip Speed (Slip S)

VTT ns
Slip Ratio = s = =
VTÑB n1
n1 − n n1 − n
! s= ; s% = × 100 (7.2)
n1 n1
108
7.4. 1Þ Equivalent Circuit (EC) and Equations of 3ÞASM
1. 1Þ EC of ST (Fig. 7.3)
R1, X1 and Z1 = R1+ jX1 are
resistance, Leak Reactance, and
1Þ Impedance of ST winding.
We also have U1, E1, I1, f are
phase Voltage, EMF, Current &ø

Fig. 7.3 frequency of ST

! Voltage Drop caused by resistance, leak reactance, and 1Φ Impedance of ST :

∆U1 R = R1I1 ; ∆U1 X = jX1I1 ; ∆U1 = Z1I1 (7.3)

! U1 = E1 + Z1I1 (7.4)
109
2. 1Þ EC of stand-still rotor

R2, X2, & Z2 = R2+jX2 are resistance,
Leak Reactance, and 1Φ Impedance of
stand-still rotor.

E2 , U 2 = 0, vaø I2 are EMF, voltage

and phase current of stand-still rotor. We
also have f = frequency of stand-still rotor
Fig. 7.4a
= frequency of ST
! Voltage drop caused by resistance, Leak Reactance, and 1Φ Impedance of stand-
still rotor will be:
∆U 2 R = R2I2 ; ∆U 2 X = jX 2I 2 ; ∆U 2 = Z2I2 (7.5)
!
E2 = R2I2 + jX 2I2 = Z2I2 (7.6)
! (7.7)
E2 = 4, 44 fkdq2 N2Φ m 110
 3. 1Þ EC of Rotating Rotor (RTR) (Fig. 7.4b)

Fig. 7.4b

R2, X2s=sX2; Z2 = R2+jsX2 are Đ.T, Đ.Khang, and 1Þ Impedance of RT


E2 s = sE2 , U 2 = 0 vaø I2 are EMF, voltage & current of RTQ

f2s = sf is frequency of RTQ.

! Frequency RTQ = s × frequency RTÑY (7.8)

! sE2 = R2I 2 + jsX 2I2 = Z2 sI 2 (7.9) 111

4. 1Þ EC of Rotating Rotor, referred to stand-still rotor (Fig.7.4c, d)

(7.11) ⇒
R2
E2 = I2 + jX 2I2 (7.10)
s
⇒ Fig.7.4c, induced from Fig.7.4a
by replacing R2 with R2/s

Fig. 7.4c
R2 1 − s (7.11)
! = R2 + R2
s s
⇒ Fig. 7.4d, similar to EC of
transformer secondary circuit with
resistance Load

1− s (7.12)
RT = R2
s 112
Fig. 7.4d
 5. 1Þ EC of 3ÞASM referred to stator (Fig. 7.5)

Fig. 7.5
a. ST Circuit Parameters:

R1 and X1: 1Þ resistance and reactance of ST

Rc and Xm: 1Þ Magnetizing Resistor and Reactor of ST

Gc and Bm: 1Þ Magnetizing Conductance and Admittance of ST113

b. Circuit Parameters of Rotor referred to stator:

R2′ = k2 R2 = ÑT 1φ cuûa RTÑY QVST

2

X 2′ = k X 2 = ÑK Taûn 1φ cuûa RTÑY QVST

R2′ (1 − s)/s = k2 R2 (1 − s)/s = ÑT1φ cuûa Taûi QVST

c. Working Parameters of ST

U1 vaø E1 = phase voltage and phase EMF of ST

I = phase current of ST
1

I 0 = One phase no-load current of ST

I c vaø I m = Two magnetizing current components of I 0

114
d. Referred Parameters of rotor

U'2 = kU 2 = Phase voltage of Load referred to stator

E'2 = kE2 = Phase EMF of rotor referred to stator

= E1 = Phase EMF of stator

I'2 = I2/k = Phase current of rotor referred to stator

e. Principal Equations of 1ÞEC of 3ÞASM referred to Stator

(7.13) (7.16)
U1 = E1 + Z1I1 I1 = I'2 + I0
I0 = I c + Im (7.17)
E1 = U'2 + Z'2I'2 (7.14)
1− s I c = Gc E1 (7.18)
U'2 = R'2 I'2 (7.15)
s I m = − jBm E1 (7.19)
115
7. Approximating 1Þ Equivalent Circuit of 3ÞASM referred to ST

Fig. 7.6

Rn = R1+R'2; Xn = X1+X'2; and Zn = Rn+jXn are 1Φ resistance, Leak
Reactance, and Impedance of 3ΦASM referred to stator.
1ÞECs in Fig.7.5 & Fig.7.6 of 3ÞASM quite similar to ECs in Fig.6.8
& Fig.6.9 of Transformer with resistance Load referred to ST

1− s
RT′ = R2′ (7.20)
s 116
7.5. Power Factor, Loss, and Efficient Ratio of 3ÞASM
1. Block Diagram (Fig. 7.7)

P1 = Input Power

P2 = Output Power

Fig. 7.7 2. Schematic Circuit (Fig. 7.8)

117
Fig. 7.8
3. Power Flow Chart of the 3ÞASM (see Fig. 7.8 and 7.9)

P1 = Input Power

Pđ1 = ST Copper Loss

Pt = Magnetizing Loss

Pđt = P1 – Pđ1– Pt = Electro-Magnetic Power (RT Input Power)

Pđ2 = RT Copper Loss

Pc = Pđt – Pđ2 = Total Mechanical Power

Pmq = Friction & Ventilation Loss (or Mechanical Loss).

P2 = Pc – Pmq = Output Mechanical Power

Pth = P1 – P2 = Total Loss

P2
! HS = η% = × 100 (7.21)
P1
118
 Fig.7.9

4. Statements of P1 and P2 calculated from Fig. 7.3, 7.4, 7.5

P1 = 3U1 I1 cos ϕ = 3U d Id cos ϕ = 3 Re(U1I∗1 ) (7.22)
with cos ϕ = Power Factor of 3ÞASM 119

Pñ1 = 3 R1 I12 (7.23)

Pt = 3Rc Ic2 = 3Gc E12 (7.24)

R2 2 R2′ 2 (7.25)

Pñt = 3 I2 = 3 I2′
s s

Pñ 2 = 3R2 I22 = 3R2′ I2′ 2 = sPñt (7.26)

1− s 2 1− s 2

Pc = 3R2 I2 = 3R2′ I2′ = (1 − s) Pñt (7.27)
s s

n1 − n taàn soá RT f
! s= = = RT (7.28)
n1 taàn soá ST fST

120
7.6. Torque of 3ÞASM
1. Output Torque (Useful On-Shaft Torque)
P2 P2 9, 55 P2
! M2 = = = (7.29)
Ω 2π n/60 n

with M2(N.m), P2(W), Ω (rad/s) and n(v/p)

2. Total Torque (Electro-Magnetic Torque)

PC P ĐT 3 R 2' I 2' 2
! M = = = (7.30)
ω ω1 ( 2 π f / p ). s

! 3 R 2' U 12
M =
[
s ω1 ( R1 + R 2' / s ) 2 + x n2 ] (7.31)

121
Chapter 8. Three-Phase Synchronous Generator
8.1. Structure of 3ÞSG
1. Stator (ST)
a. Steel Core of ST
b. Winding of ST (STW) includes 3 coils (ax, by, cz)
2. Rotor (RT)
a. Steel Core of RT
b. Winding of RT (RTW) or Excited Winding (EW) includes
2*p poles, within two types:

RT salient pole

RT rounded pole or RT cylindrical

3. Excited Component: provides excited current Ik

122
8.2. Working Principle of 3ΦSG (Fig. 8.1)

S1. Install 3 coils (ax, by, cz) of ST

winding within equally electrical 120o
S2. Supply Excited Current Ik to
Excited Winding, we see
Constant Flux Φ related to Ik:

Φ = Φ ( Ik )

Fig. 8.1
S3. Apply 1 Mechanical Source (for example a primary motor )
rotating RT at speed n. The instant flux φa(t)
through 1 turn of the coil ax will be:
ϕ a (t) = Φ m cos ω t (8.1) 123
! 3 EMF inductive (ea, eb, ec) generated from 3 coils (ax, by, cz) of
STW is a 3Þ Equivalent Voltage Source:
ea (t) = E p 2 sin ω t
eb (t) = E p 2 sin(ω t − 120ο )
(8.2)
ec (t) = E p 2 sin(ω t − 240ο )

Frequency:
np (8.3)
f =
60
with n = speed of RT (rpm) and p = pole pair number of RT

Efficient EMF E p = 4, 44 fkdq1 N1Φ m (8.4)

with kdq1 = winding ratio of ST (kdq1<1)

124
8.3 Equivalent Circuit (EC) and Equations of 3ÞSG

1. EC of RT (Inductive PART) or Excited Circuit (Fig. 8.2)

a. Circuit Parameters

Rs = resistance of excited coil

Rk = Excited potentiometer value

Rf = Rs + Rk = Total resistance

b. Working Parameters

Uk = Excited Voltage;

Ik = Excited Current;
c. Principal Equation.
Fig. 8.2
U k = ( Rs + Rk ) Ik = Rf Ik (8.5)
125
2. 1Þ Equivalent Circuit of ST (Armature PART) of 3ÞSG (Fig. 8.3)

Rö, Xs, and Zs = Rö + jXs are

resistance, reactance and 1Þ

synchronous impedance of ST

ZT is Phase Impedance of Load

E g , U T , I ö , I T are EMF, Load

voltage, Armature and Load
Fig. 8.3
current
! Voltage drops caused by Rư, Xs, and Zs of ST determined as:
∆UöR = Rö Iö ; ∆UöX = jXsIö ; ∆Uö = ZsIö (8.6)

E g = U T + Rö Iö + jX sIö = U T + ZsIö
! (8.7)
Iö = IT
126
8.4. Percentage of Voltage Fluctuation (ΔU%) of 3ÞSG

1. Definition
In Fig. 8.3, 3ÞSG in work with Constant Efficient EMF. U p = U g

Consider U T = U T used in the two following regimes:

On-Load Regime (IT > 0): UT on-load = UT.

No-Load Regime (IT = 0) : UT no-load = Ep.

! Ep − UT (8.8)
∆U % = × 100
UT
Based on (8.3), (8.4) and Fig. 8.2, if generator is in work with
!
speed n &ø excited current Ik unchanged, then Ep unchanged.
127
2. Calculation ΔU% based on (UT, IT)

Using (8.9), with Iö=IT

chosen as reference, we
have Vector Diagram
presented in Fig. 8.4.

I ö = Iö ∠0ο = Iö

U T = U T∠ ϕ = U T cos ϕ + jU T sin ϕ
Fig.8.4

E g = U T cos ϕ + Rö Iö + j (U T sin ϕ + X s Iö )

! E p = E g = (U T cos ϕ + Rö Iö )2 + (U T sin ϕ + X s Iö )2 (8.9)

! cos ϕ treå ⇔ sin ϕ > 0; cos ϕ sôùm ⇔ sin ϕ < 0 128

8.5. Power Factor, Loss, and Efficient Ratio of 3ÞSG
1. Block Diagram (Fig. 8.5)

P1 = Input Mechanic Power

P2 = Output Electrical power

Fig. 8.5 2. Schematic circuit (Fig. 8.6)

129
Fig. 8.6
3. Power Flow Chart of 3ÞSG (Fig. 8.6)

P1 = Input Mechanical Power

Pt = Magnetizing Loss

Pđư = Armature Copper Loss = Pđs = Stator Copper Loss

Pkt = Excited Loss = Pđr = RT Copper Loss.

Pmq = Friction & Ventilation Loss (or Mechanical Loss).

Pth = Pt + Pđư + Pkt + Pmq = Total Losses

P2 = P1 – Pth = Output Electrical Power

P2
! HS = η % = × 100 (8.10)
P1
130
4. Statements of P1 and P2 Power Based on Fig. 8.2, 8.3, & 8.6.

P1 = M1Ω (8.11)

Ω = 2π n/60 = 0,105n (8.12)

! P1(W); M1(N.m); Ω (rad/s); and n(v/p) (8.13)

P2 = 3U d Id cos ϕ (8.14)

Pñö = 3Rö Iö2 (8.15)

Pkt = Rf Ik2 (8.16)

8.6. Input Torque of 3ÞSG

9, 55 P1 (W )
M1 ( N .m) = (8.17)
n(v/p)
131
 Chapter 9. DC Direct Current Machines
9.1 Structure of DC Machines
1. Stator (ST) (Inductive Side)
a. Steel Core ST

b. Winding ST (STW) or Excited Winding (EW) installed

on 2p poles.
2. Rotor (RT) (Armature Side)
a. Steel Core RT

b. Winding RT (RTW) or Armature Winding (AW)

3. Collecting Rings (Rectifier Rings)

Used to rectify the alternative current to direct current.

132
9.2 Working Principle of DC Machines (DCMC)

S1. Supply current Ik to excited winding,

we have the flux Φ = Φ(Ik)

S2. Use 1 primary motor as to rotate RT

with speed n. RT coil with length l run
through flux Φ (with Flux Density B
(Fig. 9.1)) at speed v. Hence in the coil
induces the inductive EMF e (see Fig.
5.2)
Fig. 9.1
e = Bvl (9.1)
S3. Collecting Rings rectify and connect into the EMF E
9.3. The EMF Value of DC Machine

! E = Ke.n.Φ (9.2)
133
9.4. Separated Exciting DC Generator

1. Excited Circuit (Fig. 9.2a)

similar to the excited circuit
of 3ÞSG (see Fig. 8.3)
2. Armature Circuit (Fig. 9.2b)
a) b)
Rư = Armature resistance
Fig. 9.2

RT = Load resistance

E = Electro-Motif Force (EMF)

UT = Load Voltage U T = RT IT (9.3)
∆U ö = Rö Iö (9.4)

ΔUư = Voltage Drop over Rư
Iö = IT (9.5)

Iư = Armature Current
E = U T + Rö Iö (9.6)

IT = Load Current
134
9.5. Parallel Exciting DC Generator (Shunt DC Generator)
1. Equivalent Circuit (EC) (Fig. 9.3) and Equations.

Fig. 9.3

∆U ö = Rö Iö (9.7) Iö = IT + Ik (9.9)
U T = Rf Ik = RT IT (9.8) E = U T + Rö Iö (9.10)
135
2. Power Factor, Losses and Efficiency of Shunt DC Generator (Fig. 9.3)

P1 = Input Mechanical Power

Pt = Magnetizing Loss

Pđư = Armature Copper Loss = Pđr = RT Copper Loss

Pkt = Excited Loss = Pđs = ST Copper Loss

Pmq = Frictional & Ventilating Loss (Mechanical Loss)

Pth = Pt + Pđư + Pkt + Pmq = Total Losses. (9.11)

P2 = P1 – Pth = Output Electrical Power

P2
! HS = η % = × 100 (9.12)
P1
3. Input Torque of Primary Motor applied to the Shunt DC
Generator
136
! Similar to (8.21) of 3ÞSG.
9.6 Working Principle of DC Motor (DCM)

Fig. 9.4 Fig. 9.5

S1. Supply current Ik to excited winding, the flux Φ = Φ(Ik) is
formed with the flux density B (see Fig. 9.5).

S2. Supply current Iö to armature winding, we have current Iö/2a

run through armature winding. Consequently Magnetic Force F
appeared to rotate the rotor.

! F = B(Iö/2a)l (9.13)
137
9.7 Speed of DC Motor

Fig. 9.4 gives: ⇒ U = E + ∆U ö = E + Rö Iö (9.14)

E U − Rö Iö
n= = (9.15)
K EΦ K EΦ

9.8 Torque of DC Motor

We have B from flux Φ and torque M from force F. Hence from
(9.13), we have the Total Torque (corresponding to Total
Mechanical Output) is calculated as follows
(9.16)
M = K M ΦIö

! Graph F = F(Ik) has the same Magnetizing Curve as B = B(H)

138
9.9 Shunt DC Motor (Shunt DCM)
1. Equivalent Circuit (EC) (Fig. 9.6) and principal Equations

Fig. 9.6

(9.17) I = Iö + I k (9.19)
∆U ö = Rö Iö
U = E + Rö Iö
U = Rf I k (9.18) (9.20)
139
2. Power Factor, Loss, and Efficient Ratio of Shunt DC Motor

P1 = Input Electrical Power

Pkt = Excited Loss = Pưs = ST Copper Loss

Pư = P1 – Pkt = RT Input Power (Armature Input Power)

Pđư = Armature Copper Loss = Pđr = RT Copper Loss

Pc = Pư – Pđư = Total Mechanical Power

Pt = Magnetizing Loss

Pmq = Frictional & Ventilating Loss (Mechanical Loss)

Po = Pt + Pmq = No-Load Loss (Rotating Loss) (9.21)

P2 = Pc – Po = Output Mechanical Power

Pth = P1 – P2 = Pkt + Pđư +Pt + Pmq = Total Losses (9.22)
P2 (9.23)
! HS = η % = × 100
P1 140
 Fig. 9.7
3. Statements of P1 and P2 based on Fig. 9.7
P1 = UI; Pö = UIö ; Pc = EIö (9.24)

Pkt = Rf Ik2 ; Pñö = Rö Iö2 (9.25)

141
4. Torque of Shunt DC Motor

Pc (9.26)
a. Total Torque M= = K M ΦIö
Ω
P0 Pt + Pmq (9.27)
b. Rotating Loss Torque M0 = =
Ω Ω
c. Output Torque P2 (9.28)
M2 = = M − M0
Ω

If (U1, Iư1, F1, n1, M1) and (U2, Iư2, F2, n2, M2) are parameters of the
1st and 2nd working regimes; then from (9.15) and (9.16), we have

n2 E2 Φ1 U 2 − Rö Iö 2 Φ1 (9.29)
= . = .
n1 E1 Φ 2 U1 − Rö Iö 1 Φ 2
!
M2 Φ 2 Iö 2 (9.30)
= .
M1 Φ1 Iö 1
142