Barriers to Communication

Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful communication.
These barriers leave the communication ineffective. A number of situations crop up when the various
elements of different kinds of obstacles begin to dominate. These obstacles may occur between any two
of the communication process step or may affect all the steps in the process.

Physical Barriers:

 Noise: This is a physical barrier which hinder the flow of communication for sometime. It can be
referred to poor telephone connections, incorrect typing etc. It may be psychological like fatigue,
anxiety, ego-hang ups etc. It may be a visual noise also. The late arrival of an employee may also act
as a barrier in the understanding level of the other.
 Improper time: Improper time also hinders the process of communication .e.g, any work at the
closing hour may cause resentment in the worker as he is ready to leave the office.
 Physical distance: This happens where the staff sits at distant places or there are many divisions of
the organization in various cities. If the receiver is at some distant place then it gets difficult for the
sender to know whether the receiver has got and understood the message or not. To communicate
effectively ne needs proper distance, time and noise free environment.

Semantic Barriers:

 Variety of meanings: Semantic is related to the meaning of the word. A single word has different
meanings for different persons. If both the sender and the receiver choose different meanings for
the same word , then it creates a barrier in the communication. This problem occurs because of
differences in educational background or situations. People use either the same word in different
ways or different words in the same way. A simple word “Run” in the dictionary has more than 70
meanings.
 Cultural Barriers: The world today has become very small due to reduction in the communication
gap. With the globalization the understanding of communication has become very critical . It
becomes very difficult for the management to manage the affairs of the organization when they
have to handle different people from different cultures and different languages. The same words,
phrases, symbols ,actions, mean differently to different people. The greater the differences,the
greater the chances of misunderstanding and miscommunication.
 Badly expressed message: If the message lacks clarity and recession . then it creates a bad
impression. Choice of wrong , incorrect organization , poor sentence structure, improper vocabulary
all result in unclear and poor expression.
 Jargons: Jargons are the technical words which are used within a particular group of a special field.
Such words, when used with a layman , are difficult to understand.
 Unclarified assumptions: When the sender does not complete the message and doesn’t make
anything clear in the message and leaves everything on the listener that he will understand the
message automatically . While on the other hand the receiver reads whatever the sender has
written and assumes the message and tries to interpret it as it is.
Psychological Barriers:

 Selective Listening: In this type of barrier ,the receiver is not ready to listen to any new thing which
conflicts the existing belief. Thus he listens to only these beliefs or views which support his own
existing beliefs. Thus those new ideas are avoided.
 Premature Evaluation: In the modern world , people are lacking patience and they are not ready to
listen to others. They try to frame their own judgments even before listening to the complete
message.
 Emotional Attitude: Sometimes it so happens that the sender and the receiver are not able to
communicate properly with each other. The reason may be the short temperedness of one person.
In that case the subordinate will not feel free to express his views.

Personal barriers:

 Resistance to change: Many people resist changes. If there is any change which interfere with their
present routine life or working conditions, then they don’t accept such changes. They fear that such
changes will effect their authorities and responsibilities.
 Lack of trust and confidence: The management and the workers lack trust and confidence in each
other if they are not having cordial relations. The communication cannot flow effectively .In that
case communication or the message is rejected.
Inattention: Sometimes the listener is not ready to receive the message or even listen to it.People
generally skip over reports, circulars, bulletins ,notices etc.
Sometimes the listener is physically present but mentally somewhere else. The other reason is that
people are ready to listen to those things only which are of their interest.
 Fast speed of speaking: If the speaker speaks too fast ,it gets difficult for the listener to understand
him. This gives the listener enough time to wander to other matters rather than concentrating on
what the speaker says.
 Lack of communication skills: If the speaker is unable to present the message in an effective way,
the audience will not give attention to the speaker. Lack of communication skill can break down the
communication process.
 Negative feelings: The emotions and feelings of two person can contradict with each other.No two
person perceive reality in identical manners.

Organisational Barriers:

 Multiple channels: Various channels make the communication ineffective. When the information
passes throw several lines of hierarchy, there is a possibility of message distortion.
 Status differences: The authority or superiority complex leads to various problems.The differences
of higher and lower rank create doubt and fear.
CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Channels are the pathways through which the message travels from the sender to the receiver .
The channels should not be too long otherwise it may distort the message. Following are the
major channels of communication:

1. FORMAL COMMUNICATION
2. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

FORMAL COMMUNICATION

In this type of communication , the message travels through a proper channel.This is an official
communication for solving official problems.For example, if a branch manager wants to
communicate with the chairman , he has to pass his message through the area manager,
regional manager and other functionaries. This process is often slow especially when there are
several authority levels between the sender and receiver.

Formal communication is generally in the form of policy manuals , procedural hand books,
memoranda, scheduled meetings, orders, conferences, social interviews, etc.

Features:

1. Messages are sent through a proper chain.

2. This has got a proof of receiving messages.
3. It provides authentic information.
4. This is an authorized way of communication.

Merits:

1. This helps in making contacts with the distant parties.

2. This is helpful in managing and controlling business affairs.
3. The source of communication can be located.
4. A person can be held responsible because this has got a record.
5. This ensures orderly flow of communication.
6. This is a proper and systematic way of communication.

Demerits:

1. As there is a long chain so chances are there of transmission error.

2. There are certain rules that are rigid but they are to be followed .
3. There is lack of free and frank opinion.
4. This communication overloads the higher authority with work
5. Personal warmath and touch is not to be found in it.
 6. There is a slow process of communication.

Formal Communication flows in the following directions:

(1) Downward Communication

(2) Upward Communication
(3) Horizontal Communication
(4) Diagonal Communication
1. Downward Communication: Downward Communication is the information that is exchanged
between the superiors and the subordinates. The higher authority transforms work related
information to the employees at lower level.There is the chain of command ,orders , directions,
instructions etc.in the form of circulars, notices, letters, oral commands etc. Downward
communication is used by the higher authority for the following purposes.
 To provide the feedback on employees performance.
 To provide the information regarding the employees’ job profiles and to instruct them
how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
 To instruct them about the goals and targets of the organization
 To give orders and warnings to the employees for their better performance
 To make new policies and decision

Sometimes,downward communication becomes inaccurate,when the information passes down several

lines of hierarchy , there is a possibility of message distortion.

2. Upward Communication: Communication that flows from lower level to upper /higher level in
an organization is called upward communication. The employees use upward communication to
convey their problems and suggestions to the higher authority. It can be used in the form of
messages containing informations,requests.reports, proposals and feedback.
3. Horizontal communication: Communication that takes place at the same levels of hierarchy in
an organization is called horizontal or lateral communication.
It takes place among the members of same work group or at the same level. There is no any
superiority or inferiority complex. It facilitates co-operation and helps in solving various
problems.
4. Diagonal communication: Diagonal communication is that communication when there is
exchange of information between a manager and employees of other work groups or
departments. Diagonal communication is the cross-functional communication between
employees at different levels of the organizational hirerarchry.
For example, to design a new product a production manager interacts with finance supervisor.
So, it is a communication between employees or persons who are neither of the same level nor
of the same department.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS

Informal communication is used in every organization. This is also known as grapevine. This is the
result of the desire of the people to communicate with each other. Personal and official matters are
discussed in it .Informal matters are discussed in it like retrenchment of a colleague, have affair of the
boss, differences of an officer with his wife etc. The main purpose is to get pleasure. This is among the
people who are working at the same level and can communicate perfectly with ease. It does not follow
any set pattern.

The grapevine travels fast in any direction in any organization. There is not any formal path to be
followed in informal communication. There are four different networks through which this
communication travels.

1 .Single or straight line chain model: In this type of chain one person tells the information to the
second in a secret way and the second person tells the third person and so on. Thus thischain keeps on
moving. And within few hours every employee in the organization comes to know of the information.

2.Cluster model of grapevine: This chain travels much faster than the straight chain as in this one
person shares the information with two or more persons and then those persons further share this
information with some other people.And in this way the information reaches all the people in the
organization within two hours.

3.Star or Gossip pattern of grapevine: This is the fastest model of communication .In this model one
person shares the information with all the employees in a group and it reaches every employee in the
organization in a few minutes.

Features:

1. It spreads at a fast speed.

2. This acts as a source of humor and relaxation.
3. It satisfies the need to have friendly relations.
4. It is more like a rumour so the contents may not be real
5. This can’t be avoided.

Merits:

1. It provides emotional relief to the workers as it reduces tensions between the employers and
employees.
2. It helps the management to know what the employees think about the organization nand also
about their various activities.
3. It also proves that the workers are interested in their associates.
4. It promotes friendly relations among the workers.
5. It spreads very quickly.
6. The responses ,reactions and the attitudes can be measured easily.

Demerits:

1. One of the major drawbacks of grapevine is that it spreads baseless or distorted information
which can spoil the image of the employer.
 2. This can sometimes harm the organization just because of inaccurate information.
3. This consists of unconfirmed facts, half truths, rumors and distorted information.
4. It is very difficult to held anyone responsible for it.
5. Generally this is incomplete so there are more chances of misunderstanding.

How to use grapevine effectively:

1. The managers should check the rumors that harmful rumors should not reach the employees.
2. It should be used only to know the views of the employees.
3. In case there is any false news, the management should contradict the fears.
4. The management should also involve the workers in decision making process so that the false
rumors should be stopped.

CONSENSUS: Consensus is a mutual agreement of opinion on a given problem among the majority of
people in a group or community. If everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way ,we
can say that the behavior shows consensus. The root of consensus is the word “consent” which means
to give permission to. For decision making process, it goes through three stages

 Discussion
 Proposal
 Modifying the proposal to generate as much agreement as possible.

Consensus emphasizes the cooperative development of a decision with group member working
together, rather than competing against each other.
COMMUNICATION :

The word communication is derived from Latin word ‘communicare’ which means
‘to impart’ , ‘to share’. Peter Little says that ‘Communication is the process by
which information is transmitted between individuals and \or organizations so
that an understanding response results. But communication is not merely
transmission of meaning from one person to another through symbols. It implies
that the system of communication is commonly owned, accepted & recognized by
the members of a community. It enables them to acquire, exchange,store,retrieve
& process information.Communication is essentially a social affair.

Communication is the basic need of mankind . It is the foundation of civilized

society. All the progress made by human beings, has been made possible because
of their ability to communicate. Communication is an integral part of life .Most of
our activities like ordering a meal at a restaurant, hailing a taxi, socializing with
friends involve communication. So it is the process through which we express our
views, ideas , opinions, feelings to others.

Communication is a two way process . It means the presence of minimum two

minds is essential for communication.Communication does not mean only Oral or
Written messages .It includes everything that may be used to convey the meaning
to the second person.For example,movement of lips or the wink of an eye or
wave of hands may convey more meanings than even spoken or written words.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION:

 Sender
 Receiver
 Topic
 Channel
 Code (means language should be same)
 Settings:
(1) External
(2)Mental
 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is generally classified into the following types:

 Verbal communication
(1) Oral communication (2) Written communication
 Non-verbal communication
 Interpersonal communication
 Intrapersonal communication
 Extrapersonal communication
 Mass communication
 Media communication.

VERBAL COMMUNICTION:

Since a professional has to spend a large amount of his/her working time in

speaking and listening to others besides reading and writing , most of the time
he/she has to use language as avehicle of communication . This type of
communication is termed as verbal communication.

Verbal communication thus stands both for the spoken and the written word
used in the communication process. It can further be divided into oral and
written.

Oral Communication A face-to-face interaction between the sender and the

receiver is called oral communication. In this type of communication , there could
be two or more than two persons who use spoken language as a medium of
communication. For instance, whenever we make presentations, deliver
speeches, participate in group discussions, appear for interviews, or simply
interact with somebody , we are involved in oral communication.

Written Communication In this type of communication, the sender uses the

written mode to transmit his/her messages. Reports , proposals, books,
handbooks, letters, emails, etc. come in this category.Written communication is
routinely used for documentation purposes in business and government
organizations.
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

When a message is communicated without using a word ,the process requires

non-verbal cues to be transmitted and received. Non-verbal communication
forms an important part in the world of professional communication , It can be
furthere categorized into two parts---body language and paralinguistic
features.Body language involves aspects such as personal appearance, walk,
gestures, facial expressions, hand movements, posture, and eye contact.The
paralinguistic features include a person’s voice, volume, pitch, rate, pauses,
articulation, voice modulation, etc.

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

This implies individual reflection , contemplation ,and meditation. So , whenever

communication takes place within one’s own self , it is termed as intrapersonal
communication.One example of this form of communication is transcendental
meditation.It is also believed that this type of communication encompasses
communicating with the divine and with spirits in the form of prayers and rites
and rituals. Another example, One automatically jumps off the road to avoid a
speeding truck .Here you sense danger and send the message to the brain which
is the receiver.It sends the feedback to act this way to avoid danger.It is the most
basic communication without which no ther communication is possible.Even
while communicating with others one is always communicating within to judge,
plan, consider, process and evaluate information.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

It is sharing of information among people. This can be formal or informal .This is a

direct, written , or oral communication that occurs between two or more persons.
For example your interaction with your boss is different from your interaction
with your colleagues. This style of interpersonal communication depends upon
surroundings, psychological factors and even on culture .

EXTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Communication does not take place only among human beings . If we observe
carefully ,we find that sometimes we do communicate with non-human entities,
such as animals, birds, etc. For instance, we command our pet dog or cat to sit
,stand, or go, they immediately follow our orders. Whenever we caress them or
pat on their back for doing something good ,they are elated and they start
wagging their tails. This type of communication is known as extrapersonal
communication.

MASS COMMUNICATION

This is generally identified with tools of modern mass media , which include books
, the press, cinema, television, radio, the Internet, etc. It is a means of conveying
messages to an entire populace. This also includes the speeches delivered by a
Prophet or a Political leader.

MEDIA COMMUNICATION

It includes communication that takes place only with the help of electronic media,
such as computer ,cell phones LCD, video, television , etc. Of these, the internet
has become a major means for all sorts of official or personal communication.

Regardless of the type of communication involved , communication remains an

ever continuing process that keeps ticking all the time It is an important to human
life as is our any other day-to-day activity, such as breathing , eating, and
sleeping.
Importance of Communication in an Organization:
Effective Communication is significant for managers in the organizations so as to perform the
basic functions of management, i.e., Planning, Organizing, Leading and Controlling.
Communication helps managers to perform their jobs and responsibilities. Communication
serves as a foundation for planning. All the essential information must be communicated to the
managers who in-turn must communicate the plans so as to implement them. Organizing also
requires effective communication with others about their job task. Similarly leaders as managers
must communicate effectively with their subordinates so as to achieve the team goals.
Controlling is not possible without written and oral communication.
Managers devote a great part of their time in communication. They generally devote
approximately 6 hours per day in communicating. They spend great time on face to face or
telephonic communication with their superiors, subordinates, colleagues, customers or suppliers.
Managers also use Written Communication in form of letters, reports or memos wherever oral
communication is not feasible.
Thus, we can say that “effective communication is a building block of successful
organizations”. In other words, communication acts as organizational blood.

The importance of communication in an organization can be summarized as follows:

1. Communication promotes motivation by informing and clarifying the employees about

the task to be done, the manner they are performing the task, and how to improve their
performance if it is not up to the mark.
2. Communication is a source of information to the organizational members for decision-
making process as it helps identifying and assessing alternative course of actions.
3. Communication also plays a crucial role in altering individual’s attitudes, i.e., a well
informed individual will have better attitude than a less-informed individual.
Organizational magazines, journals, meetings and various other forms of oral and written
communication help in moulding employee’s attitudes.
4. Communication also helps in socializing. In todays life the only presence of another
individual fosters communication. It is also said that one cannot survive without
communication.
5. As discussed earlier, communication also assists in controlling process. It helps
controlling organizational member’s behaviour in various ways. There are various levels
of hierarchy and certain principles and guidelines that employees must follow in an
organization. They must comply with organizational policies, perform their job role
efficiently and communicate any work problem and grievance to their superiors. Thus,
communication helps in controlling function of management.

An effective and efficient communication system requires managerial proficiency in delivering

and receiving messages. A manager must discover various barriers to communication, analyze
the reasons for their occurrence and take preventive steps to avoid those barriers. Thus, the
primary responsibility of a manager is to develop and maintain an effective communication
system in the organization.
Guidelines for Effective Communication
Effective communication is a part and parcel of any successful organization. A communication
should be free from barriers so as to be effective. Communication is a two way process where the
message sent by the sender should be interpreted in the same terms by the recipient. The
characteristics of effective communication are as follows :

1. Clarity of Purpose: The message to be delivered must be clear in the mind of sender. The person
to whom it is targeted and the aim of the message should be clear in the mind of the sender.
2. Completeness: The message delivered should not be incomplete. It should be supported by
facts and observations. It should be well planned and organized. No assumptions should be
made by the receiver.
3. Conciseness: The message should be concise. It should not include any unnecessary details. It
should be short and complete.
4. Feedback: Whether the message sent by the sender is understood in same terms by the receiver
or not can be judged by the feedback received. The feedback should be timely and in personal. It
should be specific rather than general.
5. Empathy: Empathy with the listeners is essential for effective verbal communication. The
speaker should step into the shoes of the listener and be sensitive to their needs and emotions.
This way he can understand things from their perspective and make communication more
effective.
6. Modify the message according to the audience: The information requirement by different
people in the organization differs according to their needs. What is relevant to the middle level
management might not be relevant to the top level of management. Use of jargons should be
minimized because it might lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretations. The message
should be modified according to the needs and requirements of the targeted audience.
7. Multiple Channels of communication: For effective communication multiple channels should be
used as it increases the chances of clarity of message. The message is reinforced by using
different channels and there are less chances of deformation of message.
8. Make effective use of Grapevine (informal channel of communication): The employees and
managers should not always discourage grapevine. They should make effective use of grapevine.
The managers can use grapevine to deliver formal messages and for identification of issues
which are significant for the employees. The managers can get to know the problems faced by
the employees and can work upon it.
Models of communication
Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the human communication process.
The first major model for communication came in 1948 by Claude Elwood Shannon and published with
an introduction by Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. Following the basic concept, communication is
the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to
another (receiver)

(1)Shannon and Weaver:

The Shannon–Weaver model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone
technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The
sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the
receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also
recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation,
which they deemed noise. The noise could also mean the absence of signal.

Shannon and Weaver's model of communication

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of

communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form
(as spoken language) from an emissor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This
common conception of communication views communication as a means of sending and
receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability.
Mathematicians Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the
following elements:

 An information source, which produces a message.

 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
 A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
 A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
 A destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within
this concept

1. The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?

2. The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
 3. The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?

Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating:[4]

 It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.

 No allowance for differing purposes.
 No allowance for differing interpretations.
 No allowance for unequal power relations

(2)Berlo model
In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver's 1949 linear model of communication
and created the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication.[5] The
SMCR Model of Communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded
upon by other scholars.

This model stresses on the relationship between the person sending the message and the
receiver.According to this model the message can be properly encoded & decoded only if the
communication skills of both the source & the receiver should be at its best only if they are
skilled.

(3) Schramm’s model : Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message
(what type of things are communicated), source / emissor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in
which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom),
 and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a
message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message.Between parties,
communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands,
and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of
communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together,
communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target
can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of

semiotic rules:

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a
common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some
sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-
talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative
competences within social interactions

Communication major dimensions scheme

(4) Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication.
The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are
simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.

In a slightly more complex form, a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second
attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses
on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be
interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from
one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself.
A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and
the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or
gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of
"communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of
content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem
with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding
imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code-book, and that
these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code
books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many
conceptual difficulties.

Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process,

rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the
theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use
will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves
out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space
Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables
the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and
'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority
generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their
society (Wark, McKe nzie 1997).
(5) Linear Model
It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message
and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. In this model there is no feedback
which may allow for a continuous exchange of information. This form of communication is a
one-way form of communication that does not involve any feedback or response, and noise

This model views the communication as aone way of linear process in which the speaker speaks
and the listener listens.Laswell’s (1948) model was based on the 5 questions

Who said What In what To whom With what

channel effect

(6) Interactive/convergence Model

Schramm (1955) & Wood(2009) cameout with a more interactive model that saw the receiver &
listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker

It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the
receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender.
This model has added feedback, indicating that communication is not a one way but a two way
process. It also has "field of experience" which includes our cultural background, ethnicity
geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the
course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
(7)Constructionist model

Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that
scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events.Because
communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other
disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a
consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.

Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell:

 Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message.

o For example;
 physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as
poorly heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing
some where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
 physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from
communicating competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in
the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the
ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a
cough.
 psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as
thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a
foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
 semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using
the word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
 Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
 Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message
 Decode; translates the sender's spoken idea/message into something the receiver understands
by using their knowledge of language from personal experience.
 Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the
word/message.
 Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral communication
(radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email, text messages)
 Feedback; the receiver's verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for
understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a
question to clarify the message (verbal).
 Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by the
sender which conveys an idea.

Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or
things. -"Language is the source of meaning". -Meaning arises out of the social interaction
people have with each other.

-Meaning is not inherent in objects but it is negotiated through the use of language, hence the
term symbolic interactionism. As human beings, we have the ability to name things. Symbols,
including names, are arbitrary signs. By talking with others, we ascribe meaning to words and
develop a universe of discourse A symbol is a stimulus that has a learned/shared meaning and a
value for people Significant symbols can be nonverbal as well as linguistic.

-Negative responses can consequently reduce a person to nothing. -Our expectations evoke
responses that confirm what we originally anticipated, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy.

(8)Transactional model:

The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each
person in this acts as both speaker & listener, & can be simultaneously sending & receiving
messages. There are three implications in the transactional model:-

1. Transactional means that communication is an ongoing & continuously changing process.

You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing & your
environment is also continuously changing as well
2. In any transactional process each element exists in relation to all other elements. There is
this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver & no message
without a source.
3. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experience, attitudes, culture, beliefs & self-esteem & shares a
common campus ,& culture or personal system (e.g. family, religion, friends etc)
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION:

Communication is a two way process through which two or more than two person
exchange their views and opinions. Thus , it is the chain of identifiable links. These
links include sender, message, encoding, decoding, receiver and feedback.

1. Sender: Sender is the one who conveys the message. A sender may be an
individual or group of individuals who share information for an expected action or
response. The process starts at the moment, when an idea, feeling or information
strikes the mind of the speaker. The sender, who is the promoter of this process,
must have the clear vision of his expectation of the communication process and
the receiver.

2 . Encoding : Encoding means to give a concrete shape to the ideas i.e. , to

transform the ideas into words, symbols, pictures, diagrams etc. The purpose of
encoding is to translate the internal thoughts into a language to make it
underatandable for the receiver .It requires a common media so that both the
sender and the receiver should understand the message. There is a need for the
receiver to interpret the message as the sender intends to, so the language
,symbols , gestures or expressions should be common and mutully
understandable to both.

3 .Message: The message is the physical form of the thoughts of the sender which
can be understood by the receiver by one or more senses. The transmission of the
message can be in the form of words , symbols or any such media which carries
the information to the receiver. Message is not the meaning but indicative of
meaning. It is the actual content of the information that enters the channel.

4. Channel/Media: In this stage ,the message is actually sent. There is a wide

range of telecommunication methods, so the sender must consider all aspects
like, speed, cost, quick, receipt, printer record, confidentially etc. This helps him in
making an intelligent decision before sending his message. If a wrong media is
chosen,time and money both can be wasted.Selection of suitable channel is
essential for effective communication.It assures immediate feedback from the
receiver. It also helps to reduce the barriers in the communication process.

5. Receiver: Receiver is the one who receives the message and attaches some
meaning to it. Communication is not possible without any receiver.
Communication also becomes ineffective in the receiver is unable to understand
the message.

6. Decoding: Decoding is the translation of the message received, into an

understandable language. The communication becomes incomplete and
ineffective if the message is not understood. The receiver decodes the message
after receiving it. If the encoding is not done properly, then the decoding is also
impossible. The receiver must be willing to receive the message, this will lead to
perfect decoding. The communication becomes effective when the message is
decoded as per the expectations of the sender . For this the sender must use the
common language and vocabulary so that the receiver is able to decode the
message easily.

7. Feedback: Feedback is an important part in the process of communication. This

is the response to message received by the receiver, which he sends back to the
sender. This is a process through which the sender comes to know if his message
is received and understood as per his expectations or not. It is here only that all
the major and serious distortions take place in the message, and such distortions
are due to receiver’s perception, value system , attitude, past experience etc.
Normally the message interpreted by the receiver is different from the sender’s
interpretations. Therefore feedback becomes necessary.

8. Noise: Noise is an integral part of the process of communication. This may

influence the process any time. Noise is the hindrance in the normal flow of the
understanding from one person to the other. Noise may be with the receiver , or
the channel, or the message or sometimes with the external environment.The
Psychological noises consist of egotism. Hostility, prejudices etc. that are wiyhin
the sender or the receiver.Noise reduces the effectiveness of communication,
therefore, it is necessary to take some steps to reduce it.
ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY:

Communication is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of messages, information,
and thoughts, as by signals, visuals, writing or behavior. The history of communication dates back to
ancient times, speech which revolutionized the human communication was developed some 200,000 years
ago; symbols were developed about 30,000 years ago while writing about 7,000. Communication is
considered as a natural process for humans as they communicate messages to the outside world routinely.
Without communication, the lives of human beings would be very different as communication is critical
for growing and maintaining everything around us.

Relationship between Communication and Human Society

The relationship between the communication and the human society is immense. They have achieved a
huge growth during their long partnership. Humans simply could not achieve this kind of development
and growth without the existence of communication. In our society, all relationships and social
connections rely on the communication. Humans understood the importance of communications after
their arrival on earth and developed different communication methods and processes. The development of
these processes gave a great boost to the development of human society. This is continuing process as
people always want to develop new communication methods and processes. This process in-return
automatically develops the human society.

Communication and Development of Human Society in Old Times

During the stone ages, the communication was in its initial development stages. There were no languages,
resultantly little communication processes were followed by humans. The swift development of the
human abilities made way for the development of communication and human society. Humans started
using signs and non-verbal communication to communicate with fellow humans. During this period,
communication methods such as runners, birds, arrows, smokes and shouting were used to communicate.
As humans become more and more organized, different kinds of languages and communication methods
were developed. Major developments during the Stone Age were:

(1) Cave paintings

(2) Petro glyphs
(2) Pictograms
(4) Ideograms

Later, during the Bronze Age, human beings invented writing which revolutionized the communication
methods and processes. It helped people to step forward to a new period of communication. Accepted
examples of such writings are of Egyptian hieroglyphs and the Indus Valley script. By 2700 BC Egyptian
writing had a set of some 22 hieroglyphs to represent syllables. Some of the prominent developments of
these times are:

(1) Writing
(2) Alphabet
(3) Paper

Development of Human Society during Communication Revolution

The next major development after the invention writing, alphabet and paper was the discovery of printed
text in Europe in the late 1500s. Before this discovery, the humans could only produce a single document
at a time, but now they could easily produce printed documents at mass level. This discovery also made
way for the mass communication and mass-production of newspapers.
In the nineteenth century, a series of technological innovations powerfully changed the way humans
communicated with each other. This period is called “Era of Communication Revolution” by historians.
New means of communication increased the pace of life and accelerated trade and the exchange of ideas.
During this period, Great Britain, Portugal and France colonized many countries in Africa and Asia.These
colonies were effectively controlled and administered through these newly invented means of
communication. Knowledge, information and inventions were also shared with these colonies which
helped in the development of society of native people. Major technological innovations affecting
communication and human society in this period were:

(1) Postal system

(2) Telegraph
(3) Telephone
(4) Phonograph
(5) Photography
(6) Improved Newspaper presses
(7) Motion pictures
(8) Fiber Optics

Communication and Development of Human Society in Modern Era

Communication is considered extremely important for the growth of human civilization, culture and
society. It plays a cardinal role in the existence and development of human society. As the time
progressed, more developments were made in the field of communication which helped humans to better
understand the fellow human beings living in far-flung areas. New means of communications were
discovered in the 20th century. Prominent ones are:

(1) Radio
(2) Television
(3) Computer
(4) Internet

During the world wars of twentieth century, new mediums of communication were discovered. These
discoveries not only helped the war efforts but also played important role in the development of nations
participating in these wars. The events and developments during these wars were made known to humans
with the help of radio and newspapers. Just before the start of World War 2, Television was introduced to
general public in 1939 and was quickly made an important tool for development of society by Americans.
Television played an important role in connecting the people of Western hemisphere with that of Eastern.
To show the landing of Neil Armstrong, first man on moon, special broadcasting arrangements were
made by America. This move made people of the earth realize that they all are living on the same planet,
thus giving feeling of oneness and unity everyone. In the last quarter of 20th century, cell phones and
internet made its way into mainstream of life. This rapidly changed the global scene as it made
communication between different parts of the world easier than ever. These new ways of communication
opened new chapters in development of human society. It made development in the rural sector much
more convenient as resources could be easily mobilized for effective development. Great progress was
made in the field of education due to advancement in communication techniques. The flow of information
and knowledge has been made much easier. Researches, new studies and improved techniques are being
shared by using advanced means of communication. Now, a researcher living in Canada can easily share
his study or research with people living in South Korea, that too without physical movement. Internet has
made it easy for the people living in first-world and third-world countries to interact; the gap between the
two has been narrowed. Different tools of communication have been used to create awareness and public
understanding of the harmful things such as AIDs and drug-abuse. Communication also helps in transfer
of heritage from old generation to new generations so that it can be preserved for the coming generations.
Today, communication is used for transfer of ideas, education, entertainment, interaction with society and
to update one-self and better understand the world.