σ =√[(d12 + d22 + . . . . d102)/10] = 2.

32 mV
Probable error = 0.675 σ = 1.57 mV
—————————————————————————————
2-18 Reject T5, because T5 >> (all other measurements)
Tav = (T1 + T2 + . . . . T15)/14 = 350.58°C/14 = 25.04°C
|d1| = T1 – Tav = 25.05°C – 25.04°C = 0.01°C
|d2| = 0.02°C, |d3| = 0.01°C, |d4| = 0.03°C, |d6| = 0.02°C,
|d7| = 0°C, |d8| = 0.01°C, |d9| = 0.03°C, |d10| = 0.01°C
|d11| = 0.02°C, |d12| = 0°C, |d13| = 0.02°C, |d14| = 0.01°C
|d15| = 0.01°C
D = (|d1| + |d2| + . . . . |d15|)/14 = 0.014°C
σ =√[(d12 + d22 + . . . . d152)/14] = 0.017°C
Probable error = 0.675 σ = 0.011°C
—————————————————————————————
2-19 Rav = (R1 + R2 + . . R15)/15 = 1493.72 Ω/15 = 99.58 Ω
|d1| = R1 – Rav = 100.06 Ω – 99.58 Ω = 0.48 Ω
|d2| = 0.45 Ω, |d3| = 0.46 Ω, |d4| = 0.5 Ω, |d5| = 0.48 Ω,
|d6| = 0.49 Ω, |d7| = 0.53 Ω, |d8| = 0.54 Ω, |d9| = 0.56 Ω,
|d10| = 0.46 Ω, |d11| = 0.45 Ω, |d12| = 0.54 Ω, |d13| = 0.51 Ω,
|d14| = 0.52 Ω, |d15| = 0.55 Ω
D = (|d1| + |d2| + . . . |d15|)/15 = 0.5 Ω
σ =√[(d12 + d22 + . . . d152)/15] = 0.5 Ω
From Fig. 2-7(c),
for 95% of components to be within tolerance,
tolerance = ±(2 σ) = ±(2 × 0.5 Ω) = ± 1 Ω
specified resistance = 99.58 Ω ± 1 Ω = 99.58 Ω ± 1%
—————————————————————————————
2-20 C = 0.09 µF to 0.11 µF = 0.1 µF ± 0.01 µF,
and Cav = 0.1 µF
From Fig. 2-7(c),
for 68% of components to be within tolerance,
tolerance = ±(1 σ), so σ = ±0.01 µF
From Fig. 2-7(c),
for 95% of components to be within tolerance,
tolerance = ±(2 σ) = ±(2 × 0.01 µF) = ± 0.02 µF
—————————————————————————————
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 3/e David A. Bell

Chapter 3 Problems
—————————————————————————————
3-3.1 TD = TC = K θ = 3 × 10–6 × 50° = 150 µNm
TD = B l I N d
or, I = TD/(B l N d)
= 150 µN.m/[(50 × 10–3)(3 × 10–2)(150)(2.5 × 10–2)
= 27 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-4.1 TD = TC = K θ = 0.75 µN.m × 100° = 75 µN.m

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Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 3/e David A. Bell

I = √(TD dθ/dM) = √[(75 µN.m)(100° × π/180°)/(23.3 mH)]

= 75 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-5.1 TD = 50° × 8 µN.m/1° = 400 µN.m
dL = (TD dθ ) /(0.5 Ι 2 )
= (400 µN.m × 50° × π/180°)/[0.5/(0.5 A)2] = 2.8 mH
—————————————————————————————
3-6.1 TD α (EA – EB)/(2 E1) α (50 V)/(2 × 2 kV),
and, TD α (EA – EB)2
(EA – EB) = √[(50 V)/(2 × 2 kV)] = 447 V
—————————————————————————————
3-7.1 Meter voltage Vm1 = Im1 × Rm = 100 µA × 240 Ω
= 24 mV
Thermocouple voltage VT1 = Vm1/4 = 6 mV
The bridge current is I = 5 A, which splits into
Ih = I/2 = 2.5 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-8.1 DC = G2/R = (8 × 10–3)2/1 kΩ = 64 × 10–9 N.m/rad/s
θ = x/(2 r) = (150 × 10–3)/(2 × 1 m) = 75 × 10–3 rad
Ι = K θ/G = (0.4 × 10–6) × (75 × 10–3)/(8 × 10–3) = 375 µA
—————————————————————————————
3-8.2 θC1 = x/(2 r) = (100 × 10–3)/(2 × 1.5 m)
= 33 × 10–3 rad
Q = θ C1 K T/(2 π G)
= (33 × 10–3 × 5 × 10–6 × 9)/ (2 π × 10 × 10–3) = 23.6 µC
—————————————————————————————
3-1 TD = B l I N d
= 0.15 T × 2 × 10–2 × 500 µA × 300 × 1.25 × 10–2
= 5.6 µN.m
—————————————————————————————
3-2
N = TD /(B l I d)
= 4.5 µN.m/(0.12 T × 2.25 × 10–2 × 100 µA × 1.5 × 10–2)
= 1111
—————————————————————————————
3-3 TD = B l I N d
= 250 mT × 2 × 10–2 × 1 mA × 250 × 2 × 10–2
= 31.25 µN.m
TC = TD = K θ
K = TC /θ = 31.25 µN.m/40° = 0.45 µN.m/degree
—————————————————————————————
3-4 K θ = TC = B l I N d
I = K θ /(B l N d)
= 5 × 10–6 × 60°/(150 mT × 2.5 cm × 200 × 2 cm) = 20 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-5 K = TC/θ = B l I N d/θ
= 300 mT × 2.5 cm × 100 µA × 300 × 3 cm/30°

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Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 3/e David A. Bell

= 0.225 µN.m/degree
—————————————————————————————
3-6 K θ = 1.2 µN.m × 50° = 60 µN.m
K θ = I 2 dM/dθ
I = √(K θ dθ/dΜ) = √[(60 µN.m × 50° × π)/(10 mH × 180°)]
= 72 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-7 K θ = TD = I 2 dM/d θ
dM = TD = K θ d θ/ I 2
= [(0.5 × 10–6 × 90°) × 90°× π/180°]/(100 mA)2
= 7.8 mH
—————————————————————————————
3-8 dθ/dΜ = 4 µH/degree × 180°/π = 229 µH/rad
K θ = If Im dM/dθ, or θ = (If Im dM/dθ)/Κ
θ = (2 A × 15 × 10–3 × 229 × 10–6)/(5 × 10–6)
= 1.374 rad = 78.7°
—————————————————————————————
3-9 For θ = 90°:
TC = K θ = (90°× 7 µN.m/degree × π)/180° = 11 µN.m
K θ = If Im dM/dθ, or Im = K θ /(If dM/dθ)
Im = 11 µN.m/(1 A × 400 µH/rad) = 27.5 mA
For θ = 45°: TC = 5.5 µN.m, and Im = 13.75 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-10 TC = TD = K θ = 3 µN.m × 80° = 240 µN.m
= 0.5 I 2 dL/dθ, or dL/dθ = TC/(0.5 I 2)
dL/d θ = 240 µN.m/[0.5 × (100 mA)2]
= 48 mH/rad = 48 mH × π/180° = 0.84 mH/degree
—————————————————————————————
3-11 (a) TC = TD = K θ = 6 µN.m × 75° = 450 µN.m
TC = 0.5 I 2 dL/dθ, or I = √[TC/(0.5 dL/dθ)]
I = √[450 µN.m /(0.5 × 0.6 mH/rad)] = 1.22 A
(b) K θ = 6 µN.m × 37.5° = 225 µN.m
I = √[225 µN.m /(0.5 × 0.6 mH/rad)] = 0.866 A
—————————————————————————————
3-12 K θ = 0.5 I 2 dL/dθ
= 0.5 (100 mA)2 × 500 µH × 180°/π = 143 µN.m
K = K θ/θ = 143 µN.m/90° = 1.59 µN.m/degree
—————————————————————————————
3-13 K θ = 0.5 I 2 dL/dθ, or dL/dθ = K θ/(0.5 I 2)
dL/dθ = 5 µN.m × 90° /[0.5 × (0.5 A)2] = 3.6 mH/rad
I = √[K θ /(0.5 dL/dθ)] = √[5 µN.m /(0.5 × 3.6 mH/rad)]
= 0.35 A
—————————————————————————————
3-14 TC = K θ = 0.15 µN.m × 80° = 12 µN.m
dC = TC d θ/ (0.5 E 2)
= (12 µN.m × 80° × π/180°)/[0.5 × (500 V)2] = 134 pF

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Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 3/e David A. Bell

—————————————————————————————
3-15 TD α (EA – EB)2 = 2002
TD α (EA – EB)(2 E1)
E1 = TD/[2 (EA – EB)] = 2002/(20) = 2 kV
—————————————————————————————
3-16 TD α (EA – EB)(2 E1) α 100 V × (2 × 1.25 k) α 250 k
TD α (EA – EB)2
EA – EB = √TD = √(250 k) = 500 V
For ½ scale: TD2 = TD/2 = 250 k/2
EA – EB = √(250 k/2) = 353 V
—————————————————————————————
3-17 K θ = TC = TD = 0.5 E 2 dC/dθ
= (0.5 × 4002 × 150 × 10–12)/(90° × π/180°)
= 7.6 µN.m
K = TD/θ = 7.6 µN.m /90° = 0.085 µN.m/degree
—————————————————————————————
3-18 Rm = e1/Im = 8 mV/60 µA = 133.3 Ω
e1 = K Ih12, or K = e1/Ih12,
e2 = Im Rm = 30 µA × 133.3 Ω = 4 mV
Ih2 = √(e2/K) = √(e2 Ih12/e1)
= √{[4 mV(300 mA)2]/8 mV} = 212 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-19 Vm1 = Im1 Rm = 50 µA × 500 Ω = 25 mV
e1 = Vm1/4 = 6.25 mV
and, e1 = K (Ih1/2)2, or K = e1 × 4/Ih12
Vm2 = Im2 Rm = 36 µA × 500 Ω = 18 mV
e2 = Vm2/4 = 18 mV/4 = 4.5 mV
e2 = K (I2/2)2,
I2 = √(4 e2/K) = √[4 e2 I12/(4 e1)] = I1√(e2/e1)
= 5 A × √(4.5 mV/6.25 mV) = 4.24 A
—————————————————————————————
3-20 e1 = 2 e = 2 × 6.4 mV = 12.8 mV
Rs = e1/Im = 12.8 mV/32 µA = 400 Ω
e2 = Im2 R2 = 16 µA × 400 Ω = 6.4 mV
e1 = K Ih12, or K = e1/Ih12
e2 = K Ih22, or
Ih2 = √(e2/K) = I1√(e2/e1)
= 600 mA × √(6.4 mV/12.8 mV) = 424 mA
—————————————————————————————
3-21 θ = x/(2 r) = (300 × 10–3)/(2 × 1.5) = 0.1 rad
I = deflection/Si = 300 mm/(100 mm/µA) = 3 µA
G = K θ/I = (4 × 10–6 × 0.1)/3 µA =0.133 N.m/A
G= B l N D
N = G/(B l D) = 0.133/[(0.15 × (1.5 × 10–2) 2] = 3491
—————————————————————————————
3-22 D = √(4 K J) = √(4 × 4 × 10–6 × 2 × 10–6)
Rc + Rd = G 2/D = (0.133) 2/(5.05 × 10–6) = 3131 Ω

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Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 3/e David A. Bell

Rd = (Rc + Rd) – Rc = 3131 Ω – 131 Ω = 3 kΩ

—————————————————————————————
3-23 θc = (2 π G q)/(K T)
ß = 2 π f = 2 π/T = √(K/J)
T = 2 π/(√(K/J) = 2 π/[√(4 × 10–6)/(2 × 10–6)] = 4.44 s
θc = (2 π × 0.133 × 1 µC)/( 4 × 10–6 × 4.44) = 0.047 rad
θp = 2 θc = 2 × 0.047 = 0.094 rad
Scale deflection x = r θp = 1.5 m × 0.094 rad = 141 mm
—————————————————————————————
3-24 Si(p) = (x/(µA)/r = (150 mm/µA)/1 m = 0.15 rad/µA
Si(c) = Si(p)/2 = 0.075 rad/µA = 75 × 103 rad/A
Si(c) = G/K = 75 × 103 rad/A
Pointer deflection, θp1 = x/r = 120 mm/m = 0.12 rad
Coil deflection, θc1 = θp1/2 = 0.06 rad
q = θc1 K T/(2 π G)
= [θc1 T/(2 π)] × (K/G) = [0.06 × 5/(2 π)]/(75 × 103)
= 0.637 µC
—————————————————————————————
3-25 D = G 2/R = (2 × 10–3) 2/1.5 kΩ
= 0.267 × 10–6 N.m/rad/s
θ = x/(2 r) = 130 mm/(2 × 1 m) = 65 × 10–3 rad
I = K θ/G = (0.6 × 10–6 ) × (65 × 10–3)/(20 × 10–3) = 1.95 µA
—————————————————————————————
3-26 θc1 = x/(2 r) = 90 mm/(2 × 1.2 m) = 37.5 × 10–3 rad
q = θc1 K T/(2 π G)
= (37.5 × 10–3 × 7 × 10–6 × 8)/(2 π ×12 × 10–3) = 27.9 µC
—————————————————————————————
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Chapter 4 Problems
—————————————————————————————
4-1.1 At FSD: Vm = Im Rm = 30 µA × 1.2 kΩ = 36 mV
IS = Vm/RS = 36 mV/133.3 Ω = 270 µA
Measured I = Im + IS = 30 µA + 270 µA = 300 µA
At FSD/2: Vm = Im Rm = 15 µA × 1.2 kΩ = 18 mV
IS = Vm/RS = 18 mV/133.3 Ω = 135 µA
Measured I = Im + IS = 15 µA + 135 µA = 150 µA
At FSD/3: Vm = Im Rm = 10 µA × 1.2 kΩ = 12 mV
IS = Vm/RS = 12 mV/133.3 Ω = 90 µA
Measured I = Im + IS = 10 µA + 90 µA = 100 µA
—————————————————————————————
4-2.1 (a) V1 = 100 V:
R1 = (V1/Im) – Rm = (100 V/75 µA) – 900 Ω = 1.33 MΩ
(b) V2 = 30 V: R2 = (30 V/75 µA) – 900 Ω = 399 kΩ
(c) V3 = 5 V: R3 = (5 V/75 µA) – 900 Ω = 65.8 kΩ
Voltmeter sensitivity = 1/Im = 1/75 mA = 13.3 kΩ/V