CSSBB Instructor Sample PDF

© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA INTRO-1 (1)
CSSBB 2014
THE
SIX SIGMA
BLACK BELT
PRIMER
© by Quality Council of Indiana - All rights reserved
Fourth Edition - September, 2014
Quality Council of Indiana

602 West Paris Avenue
West Terre Haute, IN 47885
TEL: 800-660-4215
FAX: 812-533-4216
qci@qualitycouncil.com
http://www.qualitycouncil.com
000
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA INTRO-7 (2)
CSSBB 2014
CSSBB Primer Contents

I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
CSSBB EXAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-3
CSSBB BODY OF KNOWLEDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-6
II. ENTERPRISE-WIDE DEPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . II-1

ORGANIZATION-WIDE CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . II-2
SIX SIGMA/LEAN FUNDAMENTALS . . . . . . . . . II-2
IMPROVEMENT METHODOLOGIES . . . . . . . . II-34
SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-42
STRATEGIC PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-47
LEADERSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-57
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . II-57
ORGANIZATIONAL ROADBLOCKS . . . . . . . . . II-63
III. PROCESS MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-1

OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-2
STAKEHOLDER IMPACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-8
CRITICAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-11
BENCHMARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-11
BUSINESS MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-15
PERFORMANCE MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . III-15
FINANCIAL MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-20
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA III-16 (138)
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III. PROCESS MANAGEMENT II.C.1

BUSINESS MEASURES/PERFORMANCE MEASURES
Business Level Metrics

Business level metrics are typically financial (external)
and operational (internal) summaries for shareholders
and management.
Business (executive) level metrics comprise summaries

of detailed operations and financial results reported
monthly, quarterly, or annually.
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA III-16 (139)
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III. PROCESS MANAGEMENT II.C.1

BUSINESS MEASURES/PERFORMANCE MEASURES
Operations Level Metrics

Six sigma provides new metrics for managing complex
operations. Business effectiveness measures track how
well products are meeting customer needs (external
focus). Breyfogle indicates that they should have a
longer-term perspective and reflect the total variation
that the customer sees.
Operational efficiency measures relate to the cost and

time required to produce the products. They provide
key linkages between detailed process measures and
summary business results, and help identify important
relationships and root causes.
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA V-7 (320)
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V. DEFINE IV.A.1
VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER/IDENTIFICATION
External Customer Segmentation (Cont’d)

The consumer customer market differs from the
business market as follows:
C The consumer market has a large number of

customers
C The majority of consumer purchases are small in

actual dollar amounts
C The transaction is usually a simple purchase
C Most consumers are not very knowledgeable about

the product
C The supplier does not share proprietary information

with the consumer
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V. DEFINE IV.A.1
External Customer Segmentation (Cont’d)

In contrast, the business customer acts in the following
manner:
C There are a very small number of business

customers
C The amount purchased per transaction is quite large
C The purchase is handled through specialized

personnel
C The customer may know more about the

requirements than the producer
C The supplier may allow the customer access to all

sorts of information
It is also important to look at the market for the next two

to five years and estimate how it will change and grow.
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V. DEFINE IV.A.1
Customer Service
The customer driven company is beginning to emerge in
America. The public demands and expects better
quality products and service. One sample program
follows:
C Listen to the customer and determine needs

C Define a service strategy
C Set standards of performance
C Select and train the right employees
C Recognize and reward accomplishment
There is the need to listen to the customer, provide a

vision, provide training, improve the process, find or
develop response metrics, and measure the results.
About 70% of customers who leave a company do so
because of service quality.
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V. DEFINE IV.A.1
Customer Retention
Most organizations spend the bulk of their resources on
attaining new customers and smaller amounts on
retaining customers. High customer satisfaction
numbers do not necessarily mean the company has
good customer retention and good customer loyalty. It
has been found that current customers are worth as
much as five times more than new customers. The cost
of retaining a current customer is only one-fourth the
cost of acquiring a new customer.
Another study showed that companies will boost profits

by about 100% by just retaining 5% more of their
customers.
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V. DEFINE IV.A.1
Customer Retention (Continued)

Furlong lists some techniques for getting to know
customers better:
C Don’t use your own instincts as data

C See the world from the customer’s side
C People high in the organization are out of touch
C Get customers to talk
C 90% of unhappy customers won’t complain
C Do research to retain customers
C Determine how satisfied customers are
C Conduct research on customer expectations
C Develop a customer profile
C Share the results of customer research studies
C Don’t go overboard on the details and measurement
C Coordinate and use research efforts
C Understand that sometimes research does not help
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V. DEFINE IV.A.1
Customer Loyalty
The value of a loyal customer is not measured on the
basis of one gigantic purchase, but rather on his/her
lifetime worth. Loyal customers account for a high
proportion of sales and profit growth. Customer
retention generates repeat sales, and it is cheaper to
retain customers. Customer loyalty is something that
must be demonstrated through an act of execution,
trust, or delightful service. Customers become partners.
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA VI-33 (473)
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VI. MEASURE - DATA V.A.2

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS/ANALYSIS TOOLS
Circle Diagrams (Continued)
4. ACT 1. PLAN
3. CHECK 2. DO
The PDCA Cycle
Precise, but Unbiased, but Unbiased and

Biased not Precise Precise
Bias and Precision Distinction

© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA VI-34 (474)
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VI. MEASURE - DATA V.A.2

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS/ANALYSIS TOOLS
Circle Diagrams
On occasion, a circle diagram can help conceptualize
the relationship between work elements in order to
optimize work activities. Shown below is a hypothetical
analysis of the work load for a shipping employee using
a Venn (or circle) diagram.
Packing Shipping
0.30 Data
Entry
0.20
0.04
Pulling 0.06
Stock Making
0.25 CDs
0.10
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA VII-43 (623)
CSSBB 2014
VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.E.2

PROBABILITY/OTHER DISTRIBUTIONS
Hypergeometric Distribution (Continued)

From a group of 20 products, 10 are selected at random
for testing. What is the probability that the 10 selected
contain the 5 best units?
N = 20, n = 10, d = 5, (N-d) = 15 and r = 5
C55 C15  n! 
P r  = 5
 note that C n
= 
C1020

r
r!  n - r  ! 
 5!   15! 
  
 5!10!   5!10!   15!   10!10! 
P r  = =    = 0.0163 = 1.63%
 20!   5!10!   20! 
 
 10!10! 
The mean and the variance of the hypergeometric

distribution are:
nm  nm   m  N - n 
= =   1 -  
N  N  N  N - 1
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Choosing A Discrete Distribution
Start
Modeling a rate with Yes

no upper bound for the Poisson
number of successes?
No
Yes Probability of success Yes

Binomial Fixed number of trials?
same on all trials?
No
No
Hypergeometric
Probability of success
No Yes
Negative the same on all trials
Geometric
Binomial and number of
successes = 1?
CSSBB 2014

Bivariate Normal Distribution

The joint distribution of two variables is called a
bivariate distribution. Bivariate distributions may be
discrete or continuous.
The graphical representation of a bivariate distribution

is a three dimensional plot, with the x and y-axis
representing the independent variables and the z-axis
representing the frequency for discrete data or the
probability for continuous data.
A special case of the bivariate distribution is the

bivariate normal distribution shown below:
CSSBB 2014
VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.F.3

PROCESS CAPABILITY/CAPABILITY STUDIES
Identifying Characteristics
The identification of characteristics to be measured in a
process capability study should meet the following
requirements:
C The characteristic should be indicative of a key

factor in the quality of the product or process
C It should be possible to adjust the value of the

characteristic
C The operating conditions that affect the measured

characteristic should be defined and controlled
Selecting one, or possibly two, key dimensions provides

a manageable method of evaluating the process
capability. The characteristic selected may also be
determined by the history of the part and the parameter
that has been the most difficult to control.
Customer purchase order requirements or industry

standards may also determine the characteristics that
are required to be measured.
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Identifying Specifications/Tolerances
The process specifications or tolerances are determined
either by customer requirements, industry standards, or
the organization’s engineering department.
Developing Sampling Plans

The appropriate sampling plan for conducting process
capability studies depends upon the purpose and
whether there are customer or standards requirements
for the study.
If the process is currently running and is in control,

control chart data may be used to calculate the process
capability indices. If the process fits a normal
distribution and is in statistical control, then the
standard deviation can be estimated from:
R
R 
d2
For new processes a pilot run may be used to estimate

the process capability. A design of experiments can be
used to determine the optimum values of the process
variables which yield the lowest process variation.
CSSBB 2014

Verifying Stability and Normality

If only common causes of variation are present in a
process, then the output of the process forms a
distribution that is stable over time and is predictable.
If special causes of variation are present, the process
output is not stable over time.
The Figure below depicts an unstable process with both

process average and variation out-of-control. The
process may also be unstable if either the process
average or variation is out-of-control.
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Verifying Stability and Normality (Cont’d)

The validity of the normality assumption may be tested
using the chi square hypothesis test. To perform this
test, the data is partitioned into data ranges. The
number of data points in each range is then compared
with the number predicted from a normal distribution.
Continuous data may be tested using a variety of

goodness-of-fit tests.
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The Normal Distribution

When all special causes of variation are eliminated,
many variable data processes, when sampled and
plotted, produce a bell-shaped distribution. If the base
of the histogram is divided into six (6) equal lengths
(three on each side of the average), the amount of data
in each interval exhibits the following percentages:
68.27%
95.45%
:-3F :-2F :-1F : :+1F :+2F :+3F
99.73%
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The Z Value
The area outside of specification for a normal curve can
be determined by a Z value.
X - LSL USL - X
ZLOWER  ZUPPER 
S S
The Z transformation formula is:
X-
Z=

This transformation will convert the original values to

the number of standard deviations away from the mean.
The result allows one to use a single standard normal
table to describe areas under the curve (probability of
occurrence).
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Z Value (Continued)
There are several ways to display the normal
(standardized) distribution:
1. As a number under the curve, up to the Z value.
0 1.0
P(Z = -  to 1) = 0.8413
2. As a number beyond the Z value.
0 1.0
P(Z =1 to + ) = 0.1587
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Z Value (Continued)
3. As a number under the curve, and at a distance from
the mean.
P(Z = 0 to 1) = 0.3413
The standard normal table in this Primer uses the

second method of calculating the probability of
occurrence.
CSSBB 2014

Z Value Example
Tenth grade students weights follow a normal
distribution with a mean μ = 150 lb and a standard
deviation of 20 lb. What is the probability of a student
weighing less than 100 lb?
X- μ
μ = 150 Z=
σ
x = 100 100 - 150 50
Z= =- = -2.5
σ = 20 20 20
Since the normal table has values about the mean, a Z

value of - 2.5 can be treated as 2.5.
P(Z = -  to -2.5) = 0.0062. That is, 0.62% of the students

will weigh less than 100 lb.
CSSBB 2014

PROCESS CAPABILITY / CAPABILITY INDICES
Capability Index Failure Rates

There is a direct link between the calculated Cp (and Pp
values) with the standard normal (Z value) table. A Cp of
1.0 is the loss suffered at a Z value of 3.0 (doubled, since
the table is one sided). Refer to the Table below.
Z
Cp ppm
value
0.33 1.00 317,311
0.67 2.00 45,500
1.00 3.00 2,700
1.10 3.30 967
1.20 3.60 318
1.30 3.90 96
1.33 4.00 63
1.40 4.20 27
1.50 4.50 6.8
1.60 4.80 1.6
1.67 5.00 0.57
1.80 5.40 0.067
2.00 6.00 0.002
CSSBB 2014

PROCESS CAPABILITY / CAPABILITY INDICES
Index Failure Rates (Continued)

In the prior Table, ppm equals parts per million of
nonconformance (or failure) when the process:
C Is centered on X
C Has a two-tailed specification
C Is normally distributed
C Has no significant shifts in average or dispersion
When the Cp, Cpk, Pp, and Ppk values are 1.0 or less, Z
values and the standard normal table can be used to
determine failure rates. With the drive for increasingly
dependable products, there is a need for failure rates in
the Cp range of 1.5 to 2.0.
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA X-12 (937)
CSSBB 2014
X. CONTROL VIII.A.4
SPC/CONTROL CHART SELECTION
X̄ - R Control Chart
Chart No. 1
Product Name: Tablets Process Closure Department Operator Bill
Variable: Removal Torques Specification Limits: LSL = 10 LBS USL = 22 LBS Units of Measure: LBS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
18
UCLX =17.5
17
run
16
X = 15.4
15
Averages
14
13 LCLX =13.3
special
12
special
11
10.5
special
8
UCLR = 7.6
7 special
Ranges
6
5
4
3
R = 3.6
2
1
0
LCLR = 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Date Start 1/12/10 1/12 1/13
Time 7:05 7:10 7:35 8:10 8:15 9:10 9:12 9:33 11:40 11:43 12:05 13:05 13:45 13:55 14:20 14:55 7:00 7:55 9:00 9:12 9:32
1 12 15 13 10 13 15 15 15 22 16 16 15 17 16 17 19 16 16 17 19 14
2 12 17 18 12 16 12 16 17 17 15 18 16 15 15 19 17 19 15 13 18 17
3 13 16 14 11 14 13 15 16 15 17 16 17 16 18 17 15 16 17 17 17 16
Sample 4 15 17 14 10 15 15 16 14 17 15 16 17 15 18 15 15 15 16 15 15 14
Measurement 15 11
5 12 18 14 11 15 12 14 18 16 14 16 16 17 17 14 18 14 16 13
Total 64 83 74 54 72 66 77 74 85 81 82 79 79 83 85 83 80 82 76 85 74
Average x 12.8 16.6 14.8 10.8 14.4 13.2 15.4 14.8 17 16.2 16.4 15.8 15.8 16.6 17 16.6 16 16.4 15.2 17 14.8
Range R 3 3 5 2 3 4 1 5 8 3 2 3 2 3 4 4 5 3 4 4 4
This start up process smoothed out from data set 10 on.

The chart would need new control limits from that point.
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA X-35 (962)
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X. CONTROL VIII.A.6
SPC/CONTROL CHART ANALYSIS
Control Chart Interpretation

Five Common Rules
(Rule 2) 4 out of 5 (Rule 4) 8 or more consecutive
points in zone B points on one side of center line
UCL
Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Zone C
Zone B
Zone A
(Rule 3) 2 UCL
(Rule 5) A trend is 6
(Rule 1) A point out of 3 points or more consecutive points
beyond the control limit in zone A increasing or decreasing
Comment: Some authorities say 7 or more consecutive points for both Rules 4 and 5.
Other Unusual Patterns

UCL
Zone A
Zone B
Zone C
Zone C
Zone B
Zone A
(Rule 6) Stratification UCL
(Rule 7) Mixture or
15 or more points in zone C
systematic variation
© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA XII-8 (1055)
CSSBB 2014
XII. APPENDIX
Table V - t Distribution
tα
d.f. t.100 t.050* t.025** t.010 t.005 d.f.

1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 1
2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 2
3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 3
4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 4
5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 5
6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 6
7 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 7
8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 8
9 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 9
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 10
11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 11
12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 12
13 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 13
14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 14
15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 15
16 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 16
17 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 17
18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 18
19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 19
20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 20
21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 21
22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 22
23 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 23
24 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 24
25 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 25
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 26
27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 27
28 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 28
29 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756 29
inf. 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 inf.
* one tail 5% α risk ** two tail 5% α risk

© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA XII-12 (1059)
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XII. APPENDIX
Table IX - Control Chart Factors

CHART FOR CHART FOR STANDARD
CHART FOR RANGES
AVERAGES DEVIATIONS
Sample Center Center

Control limit Control Limit Control Limit
Observations Line Line
Factors Factors Factors
Factors Factors
n A2 A3 c4 B3 B4 d2 D3 D4
2 1.880 2.659 0.7979 0 3.267 1.128 0 3.267
3 1.023 1.954 0.8862 0 2.568 1.693 0 2.574
4 0.729 1.628 0.9213 0 2.266 2.059 0 2.282
5 0.577 1.427 0.9400 0 2.089 2.326 0 2.114
6 0.483 1.287 0.9515 0.030 1.970 2.534 0 2.004
7 0.419 1.182 0.9594 0.118 1.882 2.704 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 1.099 0.9650 0.185 1.815 2.847 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 1.032 0.9693 0.239 1.761 2.970 0.184 1.816
10 0.308 0.975 0.9727 0.284 1.716 3.078 0.223 1.777
15 0.223 0.789 0.9823 0.428 1.572 3.472 0.347 1.653
20 0.180 0.680 0.9869 0.510 1.490 3.735 0.415 1.585
25 0.153 0.606 0.9896 0.565 1.435 3.931 0.459 1.541
X  R Charts X  S Charts
CL x  x  A 2 R CL x  x  A 3 S
UCLR  D4 R UCLR  B4 S
LCLR  D3 R LCLR  B3 S
Approximate capability Approximate capability
 R
  S

d2 c4

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© QUALITY COUNCIL OF INDIANA INTRO-1 (1)

© by Quality Council of Indiana - All rights reserved

Fourth Edition - September, 2014

Quality Council of Indiana

CSSBB Primer Contents

II. ENTERPRISE-WIDE DEPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . II-1

III. PROCESS MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-1

III. PROCESS MANAGEMENT II.C.1

Business Level Metrics

Business (executive) level metrics comprise summaries

III. PROCESS MANAGEMENT II.C.1

Operations Level Metrics

Operational efficiency measures relate to the cost and

External Customer Segmentation (Cont’d)

C The consumer market has a large number of

C The majority of consumer purchases are small in

C The transaction is usually a simple purchase

C Most consumers are not very knowledgeable about

C The supplier does not share proprietary information

External Customer Segmentation (Cont’d)

C There are a very small number of business

C The amount purchased per transaction is quite large

C The purchase is handled through specialized

C The customer may know more about the

C The supplier may allow the customer access to all

It is also important to look at the market for the next two

C Listen to the customer and determine needs

There is the need to listen to the customer, provide a

Another study showed that companies will boost profits

Customer Retention (Continued)

C Don’t use your own instincts as data

VI. MEASURE - DATA V.A.2

Circle Diagrams (Continued)

The PDCA Cycle

Precise, but Unbiased, but Unbiased and

Bias and Precision Distinction

VI. MEASURE - DATA V.A.2

VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.E.2

Hypergeometric Distribution (Continued)

N = 20, n = 10, d = 5, (N-d) = 15 and r = 5

The mean and the variance of the hypergeometric

VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.E.2

Choosing A Discrete Distribution

Modeling a rate with Yes

Yes Probability of success Yes

VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.E.2

Bivariate Normal Distribution

The graphical representation of a bivariate distribution

A special case of the bivariate distribution is the

VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.F.3

C The characteristic should be indicative of a key

C It should be possible to adjust the value of the

C The operating conditions that affect the measured

Selecting one, or possibly two, key dimensions provides

Customer purchase order requirements or industry

VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.F.3

Developing Sampling Plans

If the process is currently running and is in control,

For new processes a pilot run may be used to estimate

VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.F.3

Verifying Stability and Normality

The Figure below depicts an unstable process with both

VII. MEASURE - STATISTICS V.F.3