Intact Stability - Pna PDF

Coun S. Moore BU oe ean an me hE etre Nieced elas Ca INTACT STABILITY J. Randolph Paulling, Editor CyThe Principles of Naval Architecture Series Intact Stability Colin S. Moore J. Randolph Paulling, Editor 2010 Published by ‘The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 601 Pavonia Avenue Jersey City, New Jersey 07306Copyright © 2010 by The Soctety of Naval Architects and Marine Bnyineers, ‘The opinions or assertions ofthe authors herein are not to be construed as oficial or reflecting the views of SNAME or any government agency, {tis understood and agreed that noching éxpressed herein is intended or shall be construed tw ive ary person, rm or corporation any right, remedy, or claim against SNAME or any of ts officers or member. Library of Congress Cataloging: Publication Data Moore, Colin 8 Intact stability Colin &. More. —Isted. pcm. ~ Principles of naval architecture) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978.0650773-74-0 1 Stability of ships. L Tie. "VMI5@.MB22010 (e381 TI=de22 200001344 ISBN oTR-0oSTTS- 740 Printed in the United States of America First Printing, 2010,An Introduction to the Series Foreword...... Preface. Acknowledgments... Author's Biography. Y Table of Contents Elementary Principles . Beene ‘Determining Vessel Weights and Center of Gravity ...... Metacentrie Height. Curves of Stability 60.56... Effect of Free Liquids. ........- = Effect of Changes in Weight on Stability. ...2......+ Evaluation of Stability... Draft, Thim, Heel, and Displacement . ‘The Inclining Experiment . Submerged Equilibrium, ‘The Trim Dive stele Mes ‘Methods of Improving Stability, Drafts, and List Stability When Grounded... . ‘Advanced Marine Vehicles...An Introduction to the Series ‘The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers is experiencing remarkable changes in the Maritime Indus- fry as we enter our 115th year of service. Our mission, however, has not changed over the years... .“an internation. ally recognized . .. technical society . .. serving the maritime industry, dedicated to advancing the art, science and practice of naval architecture, shipbuilding, ocean engineering, and marine engineering . .. encouraging the exchange and recording of information, sponsoring applied research . .. supporting education and enhancing the professional status and integrity of its membership.” In the spirit of being faithful to our mission, we have written and published significant treatises on the subject of naval architecture, marine engineering and shipbuilding. Our most well known publication is the “Principles of Naval Architecture”. First published in 1938, it has been revised and updated three times — in 1967, 1988 and now in 2008. During this time, remarkable changes in the industry have taken place, especially in technology, and these changes have accelerated. The result has had a dramatic impact on size, speed, capacity, safety, quality and environmental protection, ‘The professions of naval architecture and marine engineering have realized great technical advances, They include structural design, hydrodynamics, resistance and propulsion, vibrations, materials, strength analysis using finite element analysis, dynamic loading and fatigue analysis, computer-aided ship design, controllability, stability and the use of simulation, risk analysis and virtual reality. However, with this in view, nothing remains more important than a comprehensive knowledge of “first principles”. Using this knowledge, the Naval Architect is able to intelligently utilize the exceptional technology available to its fullest extent in today’s global maritime industry. It is with this in mind that this entirely new 2008 treatise was developed ~ “The Principles of Naval Architecture : The Series”. Recognizing the challenge of remaining rel- evant and current as technology changes, each major topical area will be published as a separate volume. This Will facilitate timely revisions as technology continues to change and provide for more practieal use by those who teach, learn or utilize the tools of our profession. Its noteworthy that it took a decade to prepare this monumental work of nine volumes by sixteen authors and by a distinguished steering committee that was brought together from several countries, universities, companies and laboratories. We are all especially indebted to the editor, Professor J. Randolph (Randy) Paulling for providing the leadership, knowledge, and organizational ability to manage this seminal work. His dedication to this arduous task embodies the very essence of our mission . .. “to serve the maritime industry", Itis with this introduction that we recognize and honor all of our colleagues who contributed to this work. Authors: Dr. John S. Letcher Hull Geometry Dr. Colin S. Moore Intact Stability Robert D, Tagg Subdivision and Damaged Stability Professor Alaa Mansour and Dr. Donald Liu Strength of Ships and Ocean Structures Dr: Lars Larson and Dr. Hoyte Raven Resistance Professors Justin E. Kerwin and Jacques B. Hadler Propulsion. Professor William S, Vorus Vibration and Noise Prof. Robert 8. Beck, Dr. John Dalzell (Deceased), Prof, Odd Faltinsen Motions in Waves and Dr. Arthur M. Reed Professor W. C. Webster and Dr, Rod Barr Controllability Control Committee Members are: Professor Bruce Johnson, Robert G. Keane, Jr, Justin H. McCarthy, David M. Maurer, Dr. William B. Morgan, Pro- fessor J. Nicholas Newman and Dr. Owen H. Oakley, Jr I would also like to recognize the support staff and members who helped bring this project to fruition, especially Susan Evans Grove, Publications Director, Phil Kimball, Executive Director and Dr. Roger Compton, Past President, Inthe new world's global maritime industry, we must maintain leadership in our profession if we are to continue to be true to our mission. The “Principles of Naval Architecture: The Series”, is another example of the many ways our Society is meeting that challenge, ‘AvnanaL Rosser E. Krawex Past President (2007-2008)Foreword Since it was first published 70 years ago, Principles of Naval Architecture (PNA) has served as a seminal text on naval architecture for both practicing professionals and students of naval architecture. This is a challenging task — to explain the fundamentals in terms understandable to the undergraduate student while providing sufficient rigor to satisfy the needs of the experienced engineer ~ but the initial publication and the ensuing revisions have stood the test of time. We believe that this third revision of PNA will carry on the tradition, and continue to serve as an invaluable reference to the marine community, In the Foreword to the second revision of PNA, the Chairman of its Control Committee, John Nachtsheim, la- mented the state of the maritime industry, noting that there were *,.. too many ships chasing too little cargo," and with the decline in shipping came a .. corresponding decrease in technological growth.” John ended on a some- ‘what optimistic note: “Let's hope the current valley of worldwide maritime inactivity won't last for too long. Let's hope for better times, further technological growth, and the need once more, not too far away, for the next revision of Principles of Naval Architecture.” Fortunately, better times began soon after the second revision of PNA was released in 1988, Spurred by the expanding global economy and a trend toward specialization of production amongst nations around the world, seaborne trade has tripled in the last twenty years. Perhaps more than ever before, the economic and societal well being of nations worldwide is dependent upon efficient, safe, and environmentally friendly deep sea shipping. Continuous improvement in the efficiency of transportation has been achieved over the last several decades, facili- tating this growth in the global economy by enabling lower cost movement of goods. These improvements extend over the entire supply train, with waterborne transportation providing the critical link between distant nations. ‘The ship design and shipbuilding communities have played key roles, as some of the most important advancements have been in the design and construction of ships. With the explosive growth in trade has come an unprecedented demand for tonnage extending over the full spectrum of ship types, including containerships, tankers, bulk carriers, and passenger vessels. Seeking increased throughput and efficiency, ship sizes and capacities have increased dramatically. Ships currently on order include 16,000 TEU containerships, 260,000 m3 LNG carriers, and 5,400 passenger cruise liners, dwarfing the prior generation of designs. The drive toward more efficient ship designs has led to increased sophistication in both the designs themselves and in the techniques and tools required to develop the designs. Concepts introduced in Revision 2 of PNA such as finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, and probabilistic techniques for evaluating a ship's stability and structural reliability are now integral to the overall design process. The classification societies have released. the common structural rules for tankers and bulk carriers, which rely heavily on first principles engineering, use of finite element. analysis for strength and fatigue assessments, and more sophisticated approaches to analysis such as are used for ultimate strength assessment for the hull girder. The International Maritime Organization now relies on probabilistic approaches for evaluating intact and damage stability and oil outflow. Regulations are increasingly performance-based, allowing application of creative solutions and state-of-the-art tools. Risk assessment techniques have become essential tools of the practicing naval architect. ‘The cyclical nature of shipbuilding is well established and all of us who have weathered the ups and downs of the marine industry recognize the current boom will not last forever. However, there are reasons to believe that the need for technological advancement in the maritime industries will remain strong in the coming years. For example, naval architects and marine engineers will continue to focus on improving the efficiency of marine trans- Portation systems, spurred by rising fuel oil prices and public expectations for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. AS a consequence of climate change, the melting Arctic ice cap will create new opportunities for exploration and production of oil and other natural resources, and may lead to new global trading patterns. SNAME has been challenged to provide technical updates to its texts on a timely basis, in part due to our reli- ‘ance on volunteerism and in part due to the rapidly changing environment of the maritime industry. This revision of PNA emphasizes engineering fundamentals and first principles, recognizing that the methods and approaches for applying these fundamentals are subject to constant change. Under the leadership of President Bob Kramek, SNAME is reviewing all its publications and related processes. As the next SNAME President, one of my goals is to begin strategizing on the nextrevision of PNA justas this third revision comes off the presses, Comments and ideas you may have on how SNAME can improve its publications are encouraged and very much appreciated,vil FOREWORD PNA would not be possible without the contributions of SNAME members and other marine professionals worldwide, who have advanced the science and the art of naval architecture and then shared their experiences through technical papers and presentations, For these many contributions we are indebted to all of you. We are especially indebted to its editor, Dr. J. Randolph Paulling, the Control Committee, the authors, and the reviewers who have given so generously of their time and expertise. R. Kerra Mice, President (2000-2010) aePreface Intact Stability ‘During the twenty years that have elapsed since publication of the previous edition of this book, there have been remarkable advances in the art, science and practice of the design and construction of ships and other floating structures. In that edition, the increasing use of high speed computers was recognized and computational methods ‘were incorporated or acknowledged in the individual chapters rather than being presented in a separate chapter. Today, the electronic computer is one of the most important tools in any engineering environment and the laptop ‘computer has taken the place of the ubiquitous slide rule of an earlier generation of engineers, Advanced concepts and methods that were only being developed or introduced then are a part of common ‘engineering practice today. These include finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, random process ‘methods, numerical modeling of the hull form and components, with some or all of these merged into integrated design and manufacturing systems. Collectively, these give the naval architect unprecedented power and flexibility to explore innovation in concept and design of marine systems. In order to fully utilize these tools, the modern naval architect must possess a sound knowledge of mathematics and the other fundamental sciences that form a basic part of a modern engineering education. In 1997, planning for the new edition of Principles of Naval Architecture was initiated by the SNAME publications manager who convened a meeting of a number of interested individuals including the editors of PNA and the new edition of Ship Design and Construction on which work had already begun. At this meeting it was agreed that PNA would present the basis for the modern practice of naval architecture and the focus would be principles im preference to applications. The book should contain appropriate reference material but it was not a handbook with extensive numerical tables and graphs. Neither was it to be an elementary or advanced textbook although it ‘was expected to be used as regular reading material in advanced undergraduate and elementary graduate courses. It ‘would contain the background and principles necessary to understand and to use intelligently the modern analytical, ‘numerical, experimental and computational tools available to the naval architect and also the fundamentals needed for the development of new tools. In essence, it would contain the material necessary to develop the understanding, ‘insight, intuition, experience and judgment needed for the successful practice of the profession. Following this initial meeting, a PNA Control Committee, consisting of individuals having the expertise deemed necessary to oversee and Buide the writing of the new edition of PNA, was appointed. This committee, after participating in the selection of authors for the various chapters, has contintied to contribute by critically reviewing the various component parts as they are written. In an effort of this magnitude, involving contributions from numerous widely separated authors, progress has not been uniform and it became obvious before the halfway mark that some chapters would be completed before others. In order to make the material available to the profession in a timely manner it was decided to publish each major subdivision as a separate volume in the “Principles of Naval Architecture Series” rather than treating each as a separate chapter of a single book. Although the United States committed in 1975 to adopt SI units as the primary system of measurement the trans tion is not yet complete. In shipbuilding as well as other fields, we still ind usage of three systems of units: English or foot-pound-seconds, SI or meter-newton-seconds, and the meter-kilogram (force)-second system common in engineer- {ing work on the European continent and most of the non-English speaking world prior to the adoption of the SI system. In the present work, we have tried to adhere to SI units as the primary system but other units may be found particularly in illustrations taken from other, older publications, The symbols and notation follow, in general, the standards developed by the International Towing Tank Conference. Several changes from previous editions of PNA may be attributed directly to the widespread use of electronie com putation for most of the standard and nonstandard naval architectural computations. Utilizing this capability, many computations previously accomplished by approximate mathematical, graphical or mechanical methods are now carried out faster and more accurately by digital computer. Many of these computations are carried out within more comprehensive software systems that gather input from a common database and supply results, often in real time, to the end user orto other elements of the system. Thus the hydrostatic and stability computations may be contained in a hull form design and development program system, intact stability is often contained in a cargo loading analysis system, damaged stability and other flooding effects are among the capabilities of salvage and damage control systems.x PREFACE Inthis new edition of PNA, the principles of intact stablityin calm water are developed starting from initial stability at small angles of heel then proceeding to large angles. Various effects on the stability are discussed such as changes in hull geometry, changes in weight distribution, suspended weights, partial support due to grounding or drydocking, and free liquid surfaces in tanks or other internal spaces. The concept of dynamic stability is introduced starting from. the ship's response to an impulsive heeling moment, The effects of waves on resistance to capsize are discussed noting that, in some cases, the wave effect may result in diminished stability and dangerous dynamic effects. Stability rules and criteria such as those of the International Maritime Organization, the US Coast Guard, and other. regulatory bodies as well as the US Navy are presented with discussion of their physical bases and underlying assump- tions. The section includes a brief discussion of evolving dynamic and probabilistic stability criteria. Especial attention is given to the background and bases of the rules in order that the naval architect may more clearly understand their scope, limitations and reliability in insuring vessel safety. ‘There are sections on the special stability problems of craft that differ in geometry or function from traditional ‘seagoing ships including multihulls, submarines and oil drilling and production platforms. The final section treats the stability of high performance craft such as SWATH, planing boats, hydrofoils and others where dynamic as well as static effects associated with the vessel's speed and manner of operation must be considered in order to insure adequate stability, J. Ranpowra Paving Editorail * Acknowledgments Colin Moore wishes to acknowledge J. Randolph Paulling, Herbert Engineering Corp., and Mike Strange for contributions to the book, and William Peters, Christopher Barry, and Jeffery Stettler for thelr review efforts. The basic principles of intact stability have not changed since the previous editions of PNA, and much of this book is, incorporates the work of previous PNA authors C.S. Moore of the 1967 edition and Lawrence I.. Goldberg of the 1988 edition. Finally, the Editor extends his thanks to the author for his time and monumental efforts in writing the volume, to the Control Committee, and to the individuals listed above as well as others whose advice and assistance was essential to the successful completion of the task. He is especially grateful to Susan Evans, SNAME's Director of Publications, for her patience, ready advice, and close attention to detail without all of which this work could not have been accomplished.Biography of Colin S. Moore Author of Intact Stability Dr. Colin Moore is Manager, Advanced Analysis and Salvage Engineering at Herbert Engineering Corp. located in the San Francisco Bay area, He has been a member of SNAME ad hoc committees on Double Hull Intact ‘Stability and Parametric Rolling, He received his Bachelor of Science degree with combined honors in Astronomy and Phys- ics from the University of British Columbia (1975) and has MS (1978) and PhD (1988) degrees in Naval Architecture and Offshore Engineering from the University of California, Berkeley. Dr, Moore's analysis experience includes static and dynamic analyses of offshore structures, ships, cables, and foundations including stability analysis, hydrodynamic and motions analyses, and structural analysis at preliminary and detail design levels. His experience includes extensive software development and implementation including salvage response, structural reliability, environmental risk analysis, finite-element analysis, ship design, ship and platform motion, and cable dynamics: programs.B RRES ERE PeoEmss a g googg was egeepgegoe aaa = Per 5 Nomenclature stands for area, generally ‘area of waterplane after perpendicular ‘maximum molded breadth center of buoyancy etc., changed positions of center of buoyancy molded baseline transverse metacentric radius, or height of Mt above B longitudinal metacentric radius, or height of My, above B ‘width of a compartment or tank constant or coefficient centerline; a vertical plane through centerline block coefficient, ViLBT center of gravity waterplane area coefficient, A./LB molded depth diameter, generally deadweight energy, generally ‘base of Naperian logarithms, 2.7183 force, generally center of flotation (center of area of ‘waterplane) forward perpendicular fresh water center of gravity of ship's mass ctc., changed positions of the center of gravity transverse metacentric height, height of M above G longitudinal metacentric height, height of M; above G righting arm; horizontal distance from G to Z acceleration due to gravity center of gravity of a component. head depth of water or submergence moment of inertia, generally longitudinal moment of inertia of waterplane transverse moment of inertia of waterplane Jongitudinal moment of inertia of free surface in compartment or tank transverse moment of inertia of free surface in a compartment or tank any point in a horizontal plane through the baseline height of B above the baseline height of G above the baseline height of M above the baseline height of M, above the baseline radius of gyration length, generally length of ship length between perpendiculars length between perpendiculars length overall length on designed load waterline length of a wave, from crest to crest Jongitudinal position of center of buoyancy longitudinal position of center of flotation longitudinal position of center of gravity load, or design, waterline length of a compartment of tank moment, generally trimming moment. moment to trim Lem moment to trim 1 inch ‘mass, generally (W/ or w/a) ‘transverse metacenter of liquid in atank or compartment longitudinal metacenter of liquid in a tank or compartment origin of coordinates longitudinal axis of coordinates transverse axis of coordinates vertical axis of coordinates (upward) force of keel blocks pressure (force per unit area) in a fluid probability, generally fore and aft distance on a waterline radius, generally wetted surface of hull salt water draft period, generally period of a wave ‘transverse position of center of buoyancy transverse position of center of gravity tons per em immersion ‘tons per inch immersion thickness, generally time, generally linear velocity in general, speed of the ship speed of ship, knots speed of a surface wave (celerity) vertical position of center of buoyancy vertical position of center of gravity vertical position of ‘weight of ship equal to the displacement (agV) ‘of a ship floating in equilibrium any waterline parallel to baseline etc., changed position of WL volume of an individual item linear velocity weight of an individual itemO>p NNEe NOMENCLATURE distance from origin along X-axis 6 distance from origin along Yeaxis M distance from origin along Z-axis eo point vertically over B, opposite G ¢ v displacement mass = pV v displacement force (buoyancy) = pgV o specific volume, or indicating a small change angle of piteh or of trim (about O¥-axis) permeability density; mass per unit volume angle of heel or roll (about OX-axis) angle of yaw (about OZ-axis) displacement volume circular frequency, 27/7, radiansElementary Principles 1.1 Gravitational Stability. A vessel must. provide adequate buoyancy to support itself and its contents or ‘working loads. Itis equally important that the buoyancy be provided in a. way that will allow the vessel to float in the proper attitude, or trim, and remain upright. This involves the problems of gravitational stability and trim. ‘These issues will be discussed in detail in this chapter, primarily with reference to static conditions in calm water. Consideration will also be given to criteria for judging the adequacy of a ship's stability subject to both internal loading and external hazards. It is important to recognize, however, that a ship or offshore structure in its natural sea environment is subject to dynamic forces caused primarily by waves, wind, ‘and, to a lesser extent, the vessel's own propulsion sys- ‘tem and control surfaces. The specific response of the ‘vessel to waves is typically treated separately as a ship motions analysis. Nevertheless, itis possible and advis- able to consider some dynamic effects while dealing with stability in idealized calm water, static conditions. This enables the designer to evaluate the survivability of the vessel at sea without performing direct motions analyses and facilitates the development of stability criteria. Evaluation of stability in this way will be ad- ‘dressed in Section 7, ‘Another external hazard affecting a ship's stability is that of damage to the hull by collision, grounding, or other accident that results in flooding of the hull. The ‘stability and trim of the damaged ship will be considered in Subdivision and Damage Stability (Tagg, 2010). Finally, it is important to note that a floating structure may be inclined in any direction. Any inclination may be considered as made up of an inclination in the athwartship plane and an inclination in the longitudinal plane. In ship ealculations, the athwartship inclination, called heel or list, and the longitudinal inclination, called trim, are usually dealt with separately. For floating platforms and other structures that have length to beam ratios of nearly 1.0, an off axis inclination is also often critical, since the vessel is not clearly dominated by either a heel or trim direction. This volume deals primarily with athwartship or transverse stability and lon- sgitudinal stability of conventional ship-like bodies having length dimensions considerably greater than their ‘width and depth dimensions. The stability problems of bodies of unusual proportions, including off-axis stability, are covered in Sections 4 and 7. 1.2 Concepts of Equilibrium. In general, a rigid body is considered to be in a state of static equilibrium when the resultants of all forces and moments acting on the body are zero, In dealing with static floating body stability, we are interested in that state of equilibrium associated with the floating body upright and at rest in a still liquid. In this ease, the resultant of all gravity forces (weights) acting downward and the resultant of the buoyancy forces acting upward on the body are of equal magnitude and are applied in the same vertical line, 12.1 Stable Equilibrium. If a floating body, initially at equilibrium, is disturbed by an external moment, there will be a change in its angular attitude, If ‘upon removal of the external moment, the body tends to return to its original position, it is said to have been in stable equilibrium and to have positive stability. 1.2.2 Neutral Equilibrium. If, on the other hand, a floating body that assumes a displaced inclination because of an external moment remains in that displaced position when the external moment is removed, the body is said to have been in neutral equilibrium and has neutral stability. A floating cylindrical homogeneous log ‘would be in neutral equilibrium in heel. 12.3 Unstable Equilibrium. If, for a floating body displaced from its original angular attitude, the displacement continues to increase in the same direction after the moment is removed, itis said to have been in unstable equilibrium and was initially unstable. Note that there may be a situation in which the body is stable with respect to “small” displacements and unstable with respeet to larger displacements from the equilibrium position. This is a very common situation for aship, and ‘we will consider cases of stability at small angles of heel initial stability) and at large angles separately. 1.3 Weight and Center of Gravity. This chapter deals with the forces and moments acting on a ship afloat in calm water. The forces consist primarily of gravity forces (weights) and buoyancy forces. Therefore, ‘equations are usually developed using displacement, ‘4, weight, W, and component weights, w, In the “Eng- lish’ system, displacement, weights, arid buoyant forces are thus expressed in the familiar units of long tons (or 1b). When using the International System of Units (SI), the displacement or buoyancy force is still expressed as A=pg¥, but this is units of newtons which, for most ships, will be an inconveniently large number. In order to deal with numbers of more reasonable size, we may express displacement in kilonewtons or meganewtons. Anon-SI force unit, the “metric ton force” or “tonnef,” is defined as the force exerted by gravity on a mass of 1000 KG. If the weight or displacement is expressed in tonnef, its numerical value is approximately the same as the value in long tons, the unit traditionally used for ex: pressing weights and displacement in ship work. Since the shipping and shipbuilding industries have a long history of using long tons and are familiar with the numerical values of weights and forces in these units, the tonnef (often written as just tonne) has been and is still commonly used for expressing weight and buoyancy.2 INTACT STABIUTY With this convention, righting and heeling moments are then expressed in units of metric ton-meters, t-m. The total weight, or displacement, of a ship ean be determined from the draft marks and curves of form, as discussed in Geometry af Ships (Letcher, 2009). The position of the center of gravity (CG) may be either calculated or determined experimentally. Both methods are used when dealing with ships. The weight and CG of a ship that has not yet been launched can be established only by a weight estimate, which is a summation of the estimated weights and moments of all the various items that make up the ship. In principle, all of the component parts that: make up the ship could be weighed and recorded during the construction process to arrive at a finished weight and CG, but this is seldom done except for a few special craft in which the weight and CG are extremely critical. Weight estimating is discussed in Section 2. Arter the ship is afloat, the weight and CG can be accurately established by an inclining experiment, as described in detail in Section 9 To calculate the position of the CG of any object, it is assumed to be divided into a number of individual components or particles, the weight and CG of each being known. The moment of each particle is calculated by multiplying its weight by its distance from a reference plane, the weights and moments of allthe particles added, and the total moment divided by the total weight of all particles, W, The result is the distance of the CG from the reference plane. The location of the CG is completely determined when its distance from each of three planes has been established. In ship caleulations, the three reference planes generally used are a horizontal plane through the baseline for the vertical location of the center of gravity (VCG), a vertical transverse plane either through amidships or through the forward perpendicular for the longitudinal location (LCG), and a vertical plane through the centerline for the transverse position (TCG). (The TCG is usually very nearly in the centerline plane and is often assumed to be in that plane.) 1.4 Displacement and Center of Buoyancy. In Sec- tion’, it has been shown that the force of buoyancy is, equal to the weight of the displaced liquid and that the resultant of this force aets vertically upward through a point called the center of buoyancy, which is the CG of the displaced liquid (centroid of the immersed volume). Application of these principles to a ship, submarine, o other floating structure makes it possible to evaluate the effect of the hydrostatic pressure acting on the bull and appendages by determining the volume of the ship below the waterline and the centroid of this volume. ‘The submerged volume, when multiplied by the specific ‘weight of the water in which the ship floatsis the weight of displaced liquid and is called the displacement, denoted by the Greek symbol . 1.5 Interaction of Weight and Buoyancy. The attitude of a floating object is determined by the interaction of the forces of weight and buoyancy. Ifno other forces are acting, it will settle to such a waterline that the force of ‘buoyaney equals the weight, and it wil rotate until two conditions are satisfied: 1. The centers of buoyancy B and gravity G are in the same vertical line, as in Fig, 1(a), and 2, Any slight clockwise rotation from this position, as from WL to WiL, in Fig. 1(b), will cause the center of buoyancy to move to the right, and the equal forces of weight and buoyancy to generate a couple tending to move the object back to float on WL (this is the condition of stable equilibrium). For every object, with one exception as noted later, at least one position must exist for which these conditions are satisfied, since otherwise the object would continue to rotate indefinitely. There may be several such post- tions of equilibrium. The CG may be either above or below the center of buoyancy, but for stable equilibrium, the shift of the center of buoyancy that results from a small rotation must be such that a positive couple (in @ direction opposing the rotation) results. ‘An exception to the second condition exists when the object is a body of revolution with its CG exaetly on the Fig. 1 Stable equlisrim of fooing body oo BBM Ae se sae e es poe eee coneopINTACT STABIUTY a Fig. 2 Nevtal equilbrum ct focing bod} axis of revolution, as illustrated in Fig, 2. When such an object is rotated to any angle, no moment is produced, since the center of buoyancy is always directly below the CG, It will remain at any angle at which itis placed (this is a condition of neutral equilibrium). ‘A submerged object whose weight equals its buoyancy that is not in contact with the seafloor or other ob- Jects can come to rest in only one position. It will rotate ‘until the CG is directly below the center of buoyancy. If its CG coincides with its center of buoyancy, as in the case of a homogeneous object, it would remain in any position in which it is placed since in this case it is in neutral equilibrium. The difference in the action of floating and submerged objects is explained by the fact that the center of buoyancy of the submerged object is fixed relative to the body, while the center of buoyancy of a floating ob- Ject will generally shift when the object is rotated as a result of the change in shape of the immersed part of the body. ‘As an example, consider a watertight body having a rectangular section with dimensions and CG as illustrated in Fig. 3. Assume that it will float with half its volume submerged, as in Fig, 4. It can come to rest in either of two positions, (a) or (c), 180 degrees apart. In cither of these positions, the centers of buoyancy and gravity are in the same vertical line. Also, as the body is Inclined from (a) to (b) or from (c) to (A), a moment is developed which tends to rotate the body back to its original position, and the same situation would exist if ‘it were inclined in the opposite direction. Tr 2.5em Fig. 3 Example of sabity of watertight reciongule body. Ifthe 20-em dimension were reduced with the CG still ‘on the centerline and 2.5 cm below the top, a situation ‘would be reached where the center of buoyancy would no longer move far enough to be to the right of the CG as the body is inclined from (a) to (b). Then the body could come to rest only in position (c). ‘As an illustration of a body in the submerged con tion, assume that the weight of the body shown in Fig. 3 is increased so that the body is submerged, as in Fig. 5. In positions (a) and (c), the centers of buoyancy and gravity are in the same vertical line, An inclination from {@) ineither direction would produce a moment tending to rotate the body away from position (a), as illustrated in Fig. 6(b). An inclination from (¢) would produce amo- ‘ment tending to restore the body to position (c). There- fore, the body can come to rest only in position (c).. A ship or submarine is designed to float in the upright position. This fact permits the definition of two classes of hydrostatic moments, illustrated in Fig, 6, as follows: Righting moments: A righting moment exists at any angle of inclination where the forces of weight and buoyancy act to move the ship toward the upright position. Overturning moments: An overturning moment exists at any angle of inclination where the forces of ‘weight and buoyancy act to move the ship away from the upright position. ‘The center of buoyancy of a ship or a surfaced submarine moves with respect to the ship, as the ship is inclined, in a manner that depends upon the shape of the ship in the vicinity of the waterline. The.center of buoyancy of a submerged submarine, on the contrary, does not move with respect to the ship, regardless of the inclination or the shape of the hull, since it is stationary at the CG of the entire submerged volume. This con- stitutes an important difference between floating and submerged ships. The moment acting on a surface ship can change from a righting moment to an overturning moment, or vice versa, as the ship is inclined, but this cannot occur on a submerged submarine unless there is ashift of the ship's CG. It can be seen from Fig, 6 that lowering of the CG along the ship's centerline increases stability. When a righting moment exists, lowering the CG along the cen-5 a 4 INTACT STABIUTY ; , (c) (4) Fg 4 Alsen tbl eben Ron boy terline increases the separation of the forces of welght a righting moment, changing the stability of the initial and buoyancy and increases the righting moment. When upright equilibrium from unstable to stable. an overturning moment exists, sufficient lowering of the In problems involving longitudinal stability of undam- CG along the centerline would change the moment to aged surface ships, we are concerned primarily with de- jee > (a) (b) 1A 2 J z (c) (4) Fig. 5 Single condition of sable equim for eubmerged floating bodyINTACT STABILITY 5 SURFACE SHIP POSITIVE STABILITY ' - 7 NEGATIVE stapiity (a) RIGHTING MOMENT WHEN HEELED (b) OVERTURNING MOMENT WHEN HEELED f/f SUBMERGED ‘SUBMARINE POSITIVE NEGATIVE STABILITY 4 ‘STABILITY, (c) RIGHTING MOMENT WHEN HEELED (d) OVERTURNING MOMENT WHEN HEELED Fig. 6 Bile of height of CG on sbi termining the ship's draft and trim under the influence of various upsetting moments, rather than evaluating the possibility of the ship capsizing in the longitudinal direction. If the longitudinal centers of gravity and buoyancy are notin the same vertical line, the ship will change trim as discussed in Section 8 and will come to rest as illustrated in Fig. 7, with the centers of gravity and buoyancy in the same vertical line. A small longitudinal inclination ‘will cause the center of buoyancy to move so far in a fore and aft direction that the moment of weight and buoyancy would be many times greater than that produced by the same inclination in the transverse direction. The lon- _gitudinal shiftin buoyancy creates such a large longitudinal righting moment that longitudinal stability is usually ‘very great compared to transverse stability. Thus, if the ship's CG were to rise along the centerline, the ship would capsize transversely long before there would be any danger of capsizing longitudinally. However, a surface ship could, theoretically, be made to founder by a downward external force applied toward ‘one end, at a point near the centerline, and at a height near or below the center of buoyancy without capsizing. Itis unlikely, however, that an intact ship would encounter a force of the required magnitude. Surface ships can, and do, founder after extensive flooding as a result of damage at one end. The loss of ‘buoyancy at the damaged end eauses the center of buoyancy to move so far toward the opposite end of the ship that subsequent submergence of the damaged end is not A Fig. 7 Longtudial equim,6 INTACT STABIUTY adequate to move the center of buoyancy back to a position in line with the CG, and the ship founders, or cap- sizes longitudinally. The behavior of a partially flooded ship is discussed in Tagg (2010). In the case of a submerged submarine, the center of buoyancy does not move as the submarine is inclined in a fore-and-aft direction, Therefore, capsizing of an taet submerged submarine in the longitudinal direction is possible and would require very nearly the same mo- ‘ment as would be required to capsize it transversely. If the CG of a submerged submarine were to rise to a position above the center of buoyancy, the direction, longi- ‘tudinal or transverse, in which it would capsize would depend upon the movement of liquids or loose objects within the ship. The foregoing discussion of submerged submarines does not take into account the stabilizing effeet of the bow and stern planes which have an important effect on longitudinal stability while the ship is un- erway with the planes producing hydrodynamic lift, 1.6 Upsetting Force. The magnitude of the upsetting forces, or heeling moments, that may act on a ship deter- ‘mines the magnitude of moment that must be generated by the forces of weight and buoyancy in order to prevent capsizing or excessive heel. External upsetting forces affecting transverse stability may be caused by: * Beam winds, with or without rolling * Lifting of heavy weights over the side. * High-speed turns. jrounding. * Strain on mooring lines. + Towline pull of tugs. Internal upsetting forces include: + Shifting of on-board weights athwartship. + Entrapped water on deck. Section 7 discusses evaluation of stability with re- gardito the upsetting forces listed above. The discussion below is general in nature and illustrates the stability principles involved when a ship s subjected to upsetting forces. When a ship is exposed to a beam wind, the wind pressure acts on the portion of the ship above the waterline, and the resistance of the water to the ship's lateral ‘motion exerts a force on the opposite side below the waterline, The situation is illustrated in Fig. 8. Equilibrium with respect to angle of heel will be reached when: * The ship is moving to leeward with a speed such that the water resistance equals the wind pressure, and + The ship has heeled to an angle such that the moment produced by the forces of weight and buoyancy equals the moment developed by the wind pressure and the water pressure. As the ship heels from the vertical, the wind pressure, water pressure, and their vertical separation re~ ‘main substantially constant. The ship's weight is con- WIND, PRESSURE, WATER PRESSURE cL Fig. 8 Efecto beam win. stant and acts at a fixed point. The force of buoyancy also is constant, but the point at which it acts varies with the angle of heel. Equilibrium will be reached when sufficient horizontal separation of the centers of gravity and buoyancy has been produced to cause a balance ‘between heeling and righting moments. ‘When a weight is lifted over the side, as illustrated in Fig. 9, the force exerted by the weight acts through the outboard end of the boom, regardless of the angle of heel or the height to which the load has been lifted. ‘Therefore, the weight of the sidelift may be considered to be added to the ship at the end of the boom. If the ship's CG is initially on the ship's centerline, as at G in Fig. 9, the CG of the combined weight of the ship and the sidelift will be located along the line GA and will move to a final position, G,, when the load has been lifted clear of the pier. Point G, will be off the ship's centerline ‘and somewhat higher than G. The ship will heel until the Fig. 9 fing a weight over he edeeee a INTACT STABILITY. 7 a Fig. 10 Efe offside weigh, center of buoyancy has moved off the ship's centerline to a position directly below point G;. Movement of weights already aboard the ship, such ‘as passengers, liquids, ot cargo, will cause the ship’s CG to move. If a weight is moved from A to B in Fig. 10, the ship’s CG will move from G to G; in a direction parallel to the direction of movement of the shifted weight. The ship will heel until the center of buoyaney is directly below point G, When a ship is executing a turn, the dynamic loads from the control surfaces and external pressure accel- erate the ship towards the center of the turn, In a static evaluation, the resulting inertial force can be treated as centrifugal force acting horizontally through the ship's CENTRIFUGAL FORCE (a) EFFECT OF ATURN Fig. 17 Effect of tun and grounding, WATER, PRESSURE CG. This force is balanced by a horizontal water pressure on the side of the ship, as illustrated in Fig. 11(a. Except for the point of application of the heeling force, the situation is similar to that in which the ship is acted upon by a beam wind, and the ship will heel until the moment of the ship's weight and buoyancy equals that of the centrifugal force and water pressure. Ifa ship runs aground in such a manner thal contact, ‘with the seafloor occurs over a small area (point contact), the sea bottom offers little restraint to heeling, as l- lustrated in Fig. 11(b), and the reaction between ship and seafloor of the bottom may produce a heeling moment. As the ship grounds, part of the energy due to its forward ‘motion may be absorbed in lifting the ship, in which case reaction, R, between the bottom and the ship would develop. This reaction may be increased later as the tide bbs. Under these conditions, the foree of buoyancy ‘would beless than the weight of the ship because the ship ‘would be supported by the combination of buoyancy and the reaction at the point of contact. The ship would heel ‘until the moment of buoyaney about the point of contact became equal to the moment of the ship's weight about the same point, when (W— R) x a equals W'x d, There are numerous other situations in which external forces can produce heel. A moored ship may be heeled by the combination of strain on the mooring lines and pressure produced by wind or current, Tow- line strain may produce heeling moments in either the towed or towing ship. In each ease, equilibrium would be reached when the center of buoyancy has moved to a point where heeling and righting moments are balanced. mn any of the foregoing examples, itis quite possible that equilibrium would not be reached before the ship (b) EFFECT OF GROUNDING8 INTACT STABLUTY ‘capsized. Itis also possible that equilibrium would not be reached until the angle of heel became so large that ‘water would be shipped through topside openings, and that the weight of this water, running to the low side of the ship, would contribute to capsizing which otherwise ‘would not have occurred. Upsetting forces act to incline a ship in the longitudinal as well as the transverse direction. Since a surface ship Is much stiffer, however, in the longitudinal direction, many forces, such as wind pressure or towline strain, would not have any significant effect in inclining the ship longitudinally. Shifting of weights aboard in a longitudinal direction can cause large changes in the attitude of the ship because the weights can be moved much farther than in the transverse direction. When very heavy lifts are to be attempted, as in salvage work, they are usually made over the bow or stern rather than over the side, and large longitudinal inclinations may be involved in these operations, Stranding at the bow or stern can produce substantial changes in trim, In cach ease, the principles are the same as previously discussed for transverse inclinations. When a weight is shifted longitudinally or lifted over the bow orstern, the G of the ship will move, and the ship will trim until the center of buoyaney is directly below the new position of the CG. Ifa ship is grounded at the bow or stern, it will assume an attitude such that the moments of weight and ‘buoyancy about the point of contact are equal. In the case of a submerged submarine, the center of buoyancy is fixed, and a given upsetting moment: pri duces very nearly the same inclination in the longitudinal direction as it does in the transverse direction (Fig, 12). The only difference, which is trivial, is because of the effect of liquids aboard which may move to a different extent in the two directions. A submerged submarine, however, is comparatively free from large upsetting forces. Shifting of the CG as the result of weight changes is carefully avoided. For example, when a tor- pedo is fired, its weight is immediately replaced by an ‘equal weight of water at the same location. 1.7 Submerged Equilibrium. Before a submarine is submerged, considerable effort has been expended, both in design and operation, to ensure that: * The weight of the submarine, with its loads and ballast, will be very nearly equal to the weight of the water itwill displace when submerged. + The CG of these weights will be very nearly in the same longitudinal position as the center of buoyancy of the submerged submarine, = The CG of these weights will be lower than the center of buoyancy of the submerged submarine, ‘These precautions produce favorable conditions that are described, respectively, as neutral buoyancy, zero ‘trim, and positive stability. A submarine on the surface, with weights adjusted so that the first two conditions will be satisfied upon filling the main ballast tanks, is said to be in diving trim, imaLposmion = (7 “AWG, ZERO HEEL, UPSETTING New NEUTRAL BUOYANCY MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM a) TRANSVERSE STABILITY ey INITIAL ZERO TRIM POSITION - NEUTRAL BUOYANCY NEW EQUILIBRIUM POSITION b) LONGITUDINAL STABILITY Fig. 12 Eft of weight shit on the nansverse and longitudinal stbiy of 1 submerged submarine The effect of this situation is that the submarine, sofar as transverse and longitudinal stability are concerned, acts in the same manner as a pendulum. This imaginary pendulum is supported at the center of buoyancy, has a length equal to the separation of the centers of buoyancy and gravity, and a weight equal to the weight of the submarine.mn nis oy he INTACT STABIUTY 9 It is not practical to achieve an exact balance of weight and bueyaney or to bring the CG precisely to the same longitudinal position as the center of buoyancy, Ibis also not necessary, since minor deviations can be counteracted by the effect of the bow and stern planes when underway submerged. 2 Determining Vessel Weights and Center of Gravity 2.1 Weight and Location of Center of Gravity. It is important that the weight and the location of the CG be estimated at an early stage in the design of a ship. The weight and height of the CG are major factors in determining the adequacy of the ship's stability. The weight and longitudinal position of the CG determine the drafts at which the ship will float. The distance of the CG from the ships centerline plane determines whether the ship will have an unacceptable list. It will be clear that this calculation of weight and CG, although laborious and tedious, is one of the most important steps in the sue- cessful design of ships. During the early stages of design, the weight and the height of CG for the ship in light condition are estimated by comparison with ships of similar type or from coef- ficients derived from existing ships. At later stages of design, detailed estimates of weights and CGs are required. Its often necessary to modify ship dimensions or the distribution of weights to achieve the desired op- timum combination of a ship's drafts, trim, and stability, as well as to meet other design requirements such as motions in waves and powering, Sample lightship, full oad, and ballast load conditions are shown in Table 1. 2.2 Detailed Estimates of Weights and Position of Cen- ter of Gravity. The reader is referred to Chapter 12, by W. Boze, of Ship Design and Construction (Lamb, 2003) for a detailed discussion of the methodology of ‘weight estimating for each design stage, starting with concept design and ending with detail design. Ordinarily in design, the horizontal plane of reference is taken through the molded baseline of the ship, described in Letcher (2009). The height of the CG above Table 1 Sample summaries f loading condition weights ond centes. this base is referred to as KG and its position as VCG. Sometimes, after a ship's completion, the reference plane is taken through the bottom of the keel, which, depending on the definition of the molded surface, may bea few centimeters below the molded surface ‘The plane of reference for the longitudinal position of the CG may be the transverse plane at the midship section, which is midway between the forward and after perpendiculars. In this ease, the LCG is measured forward or abaft the midship section, This practice involves the possibility of inadvertently applying the mea- surements aft instead of forward, or vice versa, and a more desirable plane of reference is one through the after orforward perpendicular ‘The plane of reference for the transverse position of the OGis the vertical centerline plane of the ship, the transverse position of the CG being measured to port or ‘starboard of this plane. In weight estimates, itis essential that an orderly and systematic classification of weights be followed. Two such classifications are in general use in this country: Classification of Merchant Ship Weights by the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD, 1995), and Expancled Ship Work Breakdown Structure (ESWBS) by the U.S. Navy (NAVSEA, 1985). The MARAD system uses three broad classifications of hull (steel, outfit, and machinery) each further subdivided into 10 subgroups. The ESWBS uses nine major classifications reflecting the mission requirements of military vessels. Further recommendations on weight control techniques can be found in the Recommended Practice No. 12 produced by the International Society of Allied Weight Engineers os Panama Cntninership ‘Arama Tanker 73,00 LNG (Membrane Tipe) Carer Mass? Dinos VOW? LOG Mass Digace WOE L0G Mame Dice COLE ane Tidak 24510 tangzs ike 90D Lasaee aK aR CT_aTagOG ORS lod Tels Troms TX HBAS STK aS OTRO TOS ast 0215 pK KOT] SKIN TRBGL TANTS cae Lem) a» m0 w Dep 248 10 mu 18 © ‘mente et mas (ors a,10 INTACT STABIUTY (ISAWE, 1997). Some design offices may use systems 4iffering in detail from either of these, but the general classification will be similar. 2.3 Weight and Conter of Gravity Margins. The ‘weight estimate will of necessity contain many approxi- ‘mations and, it may be presumed, some errors. The et= rors will generally be errors of omission. The steel as received from the mills is usually heavier, within the ‘mill tolerance, than the ordered nominal weight. It is impossible, inthe design stages, to calculate in accurate detail the weight of many groups such as piping, wiring, auxiliary machinery, and many others, For these and similar reasons, itis essential that margins for error be inchided in the weight estimate. The amount of these margins is derived from the experience of the estimator and varies with the accuracy and extent of the available information. ‘Table 2 is a composite of the usual practice of sev- ral design offices. In each instance, the smaller values apply to conventional ships that do not involve unusual features and for which there is a reliable basis for the estimate. Ifthe estimate is reviewed by several independent interested agencies, there is less chance of Substantial error and smaller margins are in order. The Table 2 Weight margins. ‘Margi of Welt (in percent of lighthip welt) arg ships 1525 "unkers fey) ‘cargp-pasenger ships 20-80 Lage passenger shins 2595 Small naval vessels e090 Lane naval vesels 3570 ‘lagi in VOG Meters ‘Gara hips on-025 ‘unkers ous, ‘cango-pasenger sips oas-028 ‘ange passer ships 023-090 Smal naval sels ns-093 Lae nara vesels nus-028 larger values apply to vessels with unusual features or in which there is considerable uncertainty as to the ult: mate development of the design. ‘The amount of margin will also depend on the seri- ‘ousness of misestimating weight or CG. For example, until the advent of the double bottom for tankers, there ‘was no real need for any margin at all in the VCG of a conventional tanker because such ships generally have considerably more stability than is needed. On the other hand, ifthere were a substantial penalty in the contract, for overweight or for a high VCG, a correspondingly substantial margin in the estimate would be indicated, ‘The above margins apply to estimates made in the contract-design stage, where the calculations are based primarily on a midship section, arrangement drawings, ‘and the specifications. In a final, detailed sinished- ‘weight calculation, made mostly from working draw. ings, a much smaller margin, of 1% or 2%, ot even, if extremely detailed information is available, no margin ‘Margins assigned to U.S. military ships (NAVSEA, 2001) are called acquisition margins and include Pre~ liminary and Contact Design Margins, Detail Design and Build Margins, Contract Modifications Margin, and Government Furnished Material Margin. The U.S, Navy also includes Service Life Allowances that range from 59% to 10% for weight and 0.5 to 2.5 ft (0.15 to 0.75 m) for the VCG to allow for future modifications and additions to the ship. For more detailed information on margins and allowances, the reader is referred to Chapter 12 in Ship De- sign and Construction (Lamb, 2003), 2.4 Variation in Displacement and Position of Center of Gravity With Loading of Ship. ‘The total weight (displacement) and position of the CG of any ship in service will depend greatly on the amount and location of the dead ‘weight items discussed in Letcher (2008): cargo, fuel, fresh water, stores, etc. Hence, the position of the CG is determined for various operating conditions of the ship, the conditions depending upon the class of ship (see Sec- tion 38). These are usually calculated using an onboard loading computer that has capabilites for tracking cargo weight, ship stability, and strength (Fig. 13).a arian tna tiaiinie - PES INTACT STABILITY W Fig. 13 Sample loading 3 Metacent: 3.1 The Transverse Metacenter and Transverse Meta- centric Height. Consider a symmetric ship heeled to a very small angle, &¢, shown, with the angle exagger- ated, in Fig. 14. The center of buoyancy has moved off the ship's centerline as the result of the inclination, and the lines along which the resultants of weight and ‘buoyancy act are separated by a distance, GZ, the righting arm. In the limit 64 — 0, a vertical line through the Pree Fig. 14 Metacetar and ghing om, 1g computer displ. center of buoyancy will intersect the original vertical through the center of buoyancy, which is normally in the ships centerline plane at a point-M, called the transverse metacenter. The location of this point will vary with the ship's displacement and trim, but, for any given drafts, t will always be in the same place. Unless there is an abrupt change in the shape of the shipn the vicinity ofthe waterine, point wil remain practically stationary with respect to the ship as the ship is inclined to small angles, up to about 7 degrees. ‘As can be seen from Fig. If, ithe locations of @ and ‘Mare known, the righting arm for small angles of heel can be calculated readily, with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes, by the formula GZ=TMsin 84 @ ‘The distance Gifs therefore important as an index of transverse stability at small angles of heel, and is called the transverse metacentric height, Since GZ is considered postive when the moment of weight and buoyancy tends to rotate the ship toward the upright position, GMT is positive when If is above G, and negative when M is below G. ‘Metacentric Height (GM) is often used as an index of stability when preparation of stability curves for large an-12 INTACT STABIUTY Fig. 15 locating he rorsvase melocere. sles (Section 4) has not been made. Its use is based on the assumption that adequate GI, in conjunction with adequate freeboard, will assure that adequate righting mo- ‘ments will exist at both small and large angles of heel. 3.2 Location of the Transverse Metacenter. When a ‘symmetric ship is inclined toa small angle, as in Fig. 15, the new waterline will intersect the original waterline at the ship's centerline plane if the ship is wal-sided in the vicinity of the waterline because the volumes of the two wedges between the two waterlines will then be equal, and there will be no change in displacement. If v is the volume of each wedge, V the volume of displacement, and the CGs of the wedges are at g, and g2, the ship's center of buoyancy will move: * Ina direction parallel to aline connecting g, and g,. * Adistance, BB, equal to (v- g.g:/V. As the angle of heel approaches zero, the line Jr, and therefore BB;, becomes perpendicular to the ship's centerline. Also, any variation from wall-sidedness becomes negligible, and we may say py = BBL = Xo, Ba ac ee eles tandé — Vtandh If y is the half-breadth of the waterline at any point of the ship's length at a distance x from one end, and if the ship's length is designated as L, the area of a section through the wedges is 1(y)(y tan 58) and its centroid is at a distance of 2 x# y from the centroid of the corresponding section on the other side v* Tg. = fa sey) or Tih _ 26 Saoneatan 56302 tude of TE = 5 uta. The right hand side of this expression, } ff »° da, is recognized as the moment of inertia of an area bounded by acurve and astraight line with the straight line as the axis. If we consider the straight line to be the ship's centerline, then the moment of inertia of the entire waterplane about the ship's centerline (both sides) designated 2F XIdy yee ae and, therefore, when 2 ‘This theorem was derived by the French hydrographer Pierre Bouger while on an expedition to Peru to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator, It ap- peared in his Traité du Navire, published in Paris in 1746. It can be shown that BIY is equal to the radius of curvature of the locus of B as 64 + 0 ‘The height of the transverse metacenter_ above the eel, usally called RW, is just the sum of BM, or Ie/¥, and KB, the height of the center of buoyancy above the keel. The height of the center of gravity above the keel, G, is found from the weight estimate or inclining experiment. Then, Gil = KM-KG = KE + EM-KG @ 3.3 The Longitudinal Metacenter and Longitudinal Metacentric Height. The longitudinal metacenter is similar to the transverse metacenter except that it involves longitudinal inclinations. Since ships are usually not symmetrical forward and aft the center of buoyancy al various even keel waterlines does not always lie in a fixed transverse plane but may move forward and aft ‘with changes in draft. For a given even keel waterline, the longitudinal metacenter is defined as the intersection of a vertical line through the center of buoyancy in the even keel attitude with a vertical line through the new position of the center of buoyancy after the ship has been inclined longitudinally through a small angle. The longitudinal metacenter, like the transverse metacenter, is substantially fixed with respect to the ship for moderate angles of inclination if there is: no abrupt change in the shape of the ship in the vicinity of the waterline, and its distance above the ship's CG, or the longitudinal metacentric height, is an index of the ship's resistance to changes in trim. For a normal surface ship, the longitudinal metacenter is always far above the CG, and the longitudinal metacentric height is always positive. 3.4 Location of the Longitudinal Metacenter. Locating the longitudinal metacenter is similar to, but somewhat more complicated than, locating the transverse meta- ‘enter. Since the hull form is usually not symmetrical in the fore-and-aft direction, the immersed wedge and the emerged wedge usually do not have the same shape. ‘To maintain the same displacement, however, they must have the same volume. Fig. 16 shows a ship inclined longitudinally from an even keel waterline WL, through a small angle, 8, to waterline WL, Using the intersection of these two waterlines, point F, as the reference for fore and aft distances, and letting: L=length of waterplane Q= distance from F to the forward end of waterplane y=breadth of waterline WL at any distance « from F») a attaaestatieaaliianie naiiatiadilinns eore = BRESMP Soest cael ee ng at e "ew INTACT STABIUTY 13 Fig. 16 Longitudinal melocerter. the volume of the forward wedge is v= fo cuetan 60)dr and the volume of the after wedge is =f once aie ‘Equating the volumes. tan d0 fay de = tan BJ oy de @ 0 Sie: ae = fry ae These expressions are, respectively, the moment of the area of the waterplane forward of F and the mo- ‘ment of the area aft of F, both moments being about a transverse line through point F. Since these moments are equal and opposite, the moment of the entire waterplane about a transverse axis through F is zero, and therefore F lies on the transverse axis through the centroid of the waterplane, called the center of flotation. In Fig. 16, AB is a transverse vertical plane through the initial position of the center of buoyancy, B, when the ship was floating on the even keel waterline, WL. With longitudinal inclination, B will move paraliel to {9d 0F as the inclination approaches zero, perpendicu- larto plane AB, toa point B,. The height ofthe metacenter above B will be BB, _v-og, tan 36 Vian 30 The distance of g,, the centroid of the after wedge, from F is equal to the moment of the after wedge about F divided by the volume of the wedge, and a similar for- ‘mula applies to the forward wedge. If the moments of BM.= the after and forward wedges are designated as m, and ‘ma, respectively, then the distance ey) mae vee aa »-Tigi=m, +m ‘The moments of the volumes are obtained by integrating, forward and aft, the product of the section area ata distance x from F and the distance «x, or my = J. canGetan 80)(a)ae = tan 80 fr? yo: mm, =tan 80 fs? ye ‘The integrals in the expressions for m, and mz are recognized as giving the moment of inertia of an area about the axis corresponding to. = 0, a transverse axis ‘through F, the centroid of the waterplane. Therefore, the ‘sum of the two integrals is the longitudinal moment of inertia, /,, of the entire waterplane, about a transverse ‘axis through its centroid, Then m+ ma=v Me= I. tan 36 or tai »- 09, an 0 In the limit when 5p —» 0 Setar oh PM an 50" 0 Ko ‘where J; is the moment of inertia of the entire waterplane about a transverse axis through its centroid, or center of flotation,“4 INTACT STABIUTY ‘The height of the longitudinal metacenter above the keel is given by an expression similar to equation (3) by replacing the transverse metacentric radius by the longitudinal metacentric radius. KM, = KB, + KB and GM, = KM, - KG 3.5 Metacenter for Submerged Submarines. When a submarine is submerged, as noted in Seetion 1, the center ‘of buoyancy is stationary with respect to the ship at any inclination. It follows that the vertical through the center of buoyancy in the upright position will intersect the vertical through the center of buoyancy in any inclined position at the center of buoyancy, and the center of buoyancy is, therefore, both the transverse and longitudinal metacenter. ‘To look at the situation from a different. viewpoint, the KM of a surfaced submarine is equal to KM plus BM, or KB plus 1/V. As the ship submerges, the waterplane disappears, and the value of [, and hence BW, is reduced to zero. The value of KM becomes KB plus zero, and B and M coincide. ‘The metacentric height of a submerged submarine is usually denoted GB rather than GM. 6 Effects of Trim on the Metacenter. The discussion and formulas for BM, KM, and GM all assumed that the waterline at each station was the same; namely, no trim existed. In cases where substantial trim exists, values for BM, KM, and GM will be substantially different from those calculated for the zero trim situation, It is important to caleulate metacentrie values for trim for many ship types, and tables for various trims are often inchuded in trim and stability books, The use of computers makes these tables Jess useful as the effects of trim are included directly in the computation of the righting arm by maintaining longitu inal moment equilibrium; thus, HIV is computed directly when needed, Section 44 includes the effects of trim in computing cross curves. Letcher (2009), in deseribing the calculation of KM, also discusses the effects of trim. 3.7 Applications of Metacentric Height 3.7.1 Moment to Heel 1 Degree. A convenient and frequently used concept is the moment to heel 1 degree. This is the moment of the weight buoyancy couple, or WGZ, when the ship is heeled to 1 degree, and is equivalent to the moment of external forces required to produce a L-degree heel. For a small angle, the righting arm is given by GM sin d and, after thisis substituted for @Z, we have Moment to heel I degree = AGM sin(ldeg) (6) Within the range of inclinations where the metacenter is stationary, the change in the angle of heel produced bby agiven external moment can be found by dividing the moment by the moment to heel 1 degree. 3.7.2 Moment to Trim 1 Degree. The same theory and formula apply to inelinations in the longitudinal direction, and we may say: Moment to trim 1 degree= 42M, sin( deg) (6) where Gif, is the longitudinal metacentric height. We are more interested, however, in the changes in draft produced by a longitudinal moment than in the angle of ‘trim, The expression is converted to moment to trim 1 ‘emby substituting 1 cm divided by the length of the ship in centimeters for sin 1 deg. The formula becomes, with ‘metric ton units, SGM Mrem= t-m a where L is ship length in meters, As appractical matter, ‘GM, susually so large compared to KB that only anegl- gible error would be introduced if BM, were substituted for GM, Then 1:/V may be substituted for BM, where zis the moment of inertia of the waterplane about a transverse axis through its centroid, and A =p, where p is density. Then, moment to trim I em: rein Fromm py tm ge i ey “Toon 100L i For fresh water, p = 1.0; for salt water, p = L025 (tm Since the value of this function is independent of the position of G but depends only on the size and shape of the waterplane, itis usually calculated together with the displacement and other curves before the location of @ is known, Although approximate, this expression may be used for calculations involving moderate trim with satisfactory accuracy for ships of normal proportions. (3.7.3 Period of Roll. The period of roll in still water, ifnot influenced by damping effects, is given by: Period = Constantxk _ OxB vom om where kis the radius of gyration ofthe ship's mass about afore and aft axis through its CG. ‘The factor “constant = k" is often replaced by Cx B, where C is a constant obtained from observed data for Aifferent types of ships. ‘This formula may be used to estimate the period of roll when data for ships ofthe same type are available, if itis assumed that the radius of gyration is the same per- centage of the ship’s beam in each case. For example, if ship with a beam of 15.24 m and a Gif of 1.22 m has a period of roll of 10.5 seconds, then 10.5 xV1.22 15.24 If another ship of the same type has a beam of 13:72 m @ ai = 0.76 secim'* and a GM of 1.52 m, the estimated period of roll would wal pa0TS X13-72_ 95 socINTACT STABIUTY 15 ‘The variation ofthe value of Cforships of differenttypes is not large; a reasonably close estimate can be made if 0,80 is used for surface types and 0.67 is used for submarines. In almost all cases, values of C for conventional, homogeneously loaded surface ships are between 0.72 and 0.91. This formula is useful also for estimating GM ‘when the period of roll has been observed. ‘A snappy, short period roll may be interpreted as indicating that a ship has moderate to high stability, while a sluggish, slow roll (long period) may be interpreted as an indication of lesser stability, or that other factors such as free surface or liquids in systems may be in- fluencing the roll period. However, the external rolling forces due to waves and wind and the effects of forward speed through the water tend to distort the relationship of 7 =... Hence, caution must be exercised in cal- vom culating GH values from periods of roll observed at sea, particularly for small and/or high-speed craft. ‘The case of the ore carrier is an interesting illustration of the effect of weight distribution on the radius of gyration, and therefore on the value of C. The weight of the ore, which is several times that of the lightship, is ‘concentrated fairly close to the CG, both vertically and transversely. When the ship is in ballast, the ballast water is carried in wing tanks at a considerable distance outboard of the CG, and the radius of gyration is greater than that for the loaded condition. This can result in variation in the value of C from 0.69 for a particular ship in the loaded condition to 0.94 when the ship is in ballast. For most ships, however, there is only a minor ‘change in the radius of gyration with the usual changes in loading. If no other information is available, the metacentric height, in conjunction with freeboard, is a reasonably 00d measure of a ship's initial stability, although it ‘must be used with judgment and caution. On ships with ample freeboard, the moment required to heel the ship to 20-degrees may be larger than 20 times the moment to heel | degree, but on ships with but little freeboard it ‘may be considerably less. Little effort may be required to capsize a ship with large GM but with small freeboard. When the metacentric height is zero or negative, certain types of ship would capsize, while other types might develop fairly large righting moments at the larger angles of heel. The metacentric height may be used, however, as an approximate index of stability for an undamaged ship with reasonable confidence if the ship can be compared to another with similar lines and freeboard for which the stability characteristics are known. 3.8 Conditions of Loading. A ship's stability, and hence GM, may vary considerably during the course of voyage or from one voyage to the next, and it is nec- ‘essary during its design to determine which probable condition of loading is the least favorable and will therefore govern the required stability. (The general effect of variations in cargo and liquid load during a ship's operation is further discussed in Section 6), It is custom ary to study, for each design, a number of loaded conditions with various quantities, locations, and densities of cargo and with various liquid loadings. When a ship is completed, the builder usually provides such information for the guidance of the operator in the form of a ‘trim and stability booklet. Typical booklets contain a general arrangement of the ship, curves of form, eapaci- ties and centers, and calculations of GM and trim for a number of representative conditions and blank forms for calculating new conditions. The information contained ‘in such a booklet is required for all general cargo ships, tankers, and passenger ships by international conven: tions, including both the International Convention on Load Lines and International Convention for the Safety of Life at-Sea (SOLAS) (IMO, 2006). Similar information furnished for naval ships and mobile offshore drilling units where it is often referred to as the operating manual. An onboard loading computer is allowed as a supplement to the trim and stability booklet, but cannot replace it. Type approval requirements for loading computer software or systems vary internationally from none to explicit version approvai ‘The range of loading conditions that a ship might ex: perience varies with its type and the service in which it is engaged. Typical conditions usually included in the ship's trim and stability booklet are: + Full load departure condition, with full allowance of cargo and variable loads. All the ship's spaces are filled to normal capacity with load items intended to be ear- ried in these spaces, which usually implies minimum density homogeneous cargoes, whether general, dry bulk, liquid, or containerized. A typical example is given in Table 3. Naval combatant ships do not carry cargo in the ‘usual sense. Instead, cargo equivalent variable load on such ships would be ammunition or fuel for onboard ait- craft. ‘Additional conditions may be included for other heavier cargo densities, involving partially filled or empty holds or tanks. For ships that carry deck cargoes such as container ships and timber carriers, conditions ‘with cargo on deck should be included, since they may bbe critical for stability. Some ships may have minimum draft requirements, which may include immersion of propulsors or minimum draft forward to limit slamming in heavy seas. * Partial load departure conditions, such as half cargo or no cargo. When no cargo is carried, solid or liquid ballast may be required, located so as to provide sufti- cient draft and satisfactory trim and stability. + Arrival or minimum operating conditions. These describe the ship after an extended period at sea and are usually the lowest stability conditions consistent with the liquid loading instructions (see Section 6,8). Certain cargo ships might be engaged in point-to-point service, while others might make many stops before returning16 INTACT STABILITY ‘able 3 Typical full load departure condiion—postPanamax com tainership Tem Welt VOG(m) 10d TOG” FaMom (kN) Uigiship STITT aA camo Contant «2550 4HA gon Low Sulphur 7080 L895 IATA ASSP 60 Plot go T32 TOP ATS aN Diewlol 280418254 BRWA IROTAS| 96H abe oi 306011557 L2HA LOLs PreshWater $266 1208 SANG aR ‘SW/elast gos 4155 MSIE LOTS LL 08 Mis, om aT =BRMUTA aS ase Info 2W5575— 1540S aBGA = OnDeck NAMB = Mise Weiis 0 ree ironed stra 8 aie Displacement 716708 16400 625A __UARTP__1TOAO6 ‘Stability Calelation ‘iim Calenlation a 450m —LOPda —1L9eT vou 18.400 LCB(even 60254 mS kee) teed) 806m LOR LNAMA mS Be 05m MTlem LATO mike ate ze om” mA (Corrected) ‘ae meres (equ) Gears) 220m Propel {immersion to home port. The amount of eargo and consumables would vary, depending on the service. Conditions for naval ships would reflect the most adverse distribution ‘of ammunition, along with reduced amounts of other consumables, In all of the above conditions of loading, it is necessary to make appropriate allowances for the effects on stability of the free surface of liquids in tanks, as explained in Section 5. US. Coast Guard (USCG) stability requirements are given in the Code of Federal Regulations (2006). 3.9 Suitable Metacentrie Height. The stability of a ship design, as evidenced approximately by its metacentric height (Gif), should meet at least the following requirements in all conditions of loading anticipated: * It should be large enough in passenger ships to prevent capsizing or an excessive list in case of flooding a portion of the ship as a result of an accident. The effect of flooding is described in Tagg (2010). * Itshould be large enough to prevent listing to unpleas- ant or dangerous angles in case all passengers crowd to one side. This may require considerable GM in light displacement ships, such as excursion steamers carrying large numbers of passengers. * It should be large enough to minimize the possibility of a serious list under pressure from strong beam winds. For passenger ships, the first bullet pointis often the controlling consideration. The International Convention requirements for stability after damage, or other criteria for sufficient stability, may result in a metacentric height that is larger than that desirable from the stand- point of rolling at sea. Since the period of roll in still water varies inversely asthe square root of the metacentric height, larger metacentric heights produce shorter periods of roll, resulting in greater acceleration forces which can become objectionable. The period of roll may also be a factor in determining the amplitude of roll, since the amplitude tends to increase as the period of roll approaches the period of encounter of the waves. Of these two conflicting considerations, that of safety ‘outweighs the possibility of uncomfortable rolling, and adequate stability for safety after damage must be pro- ‘vided for passenger ships and is desirable for cargo ships. However, the metacentric height should not be permitted to exceed that required for adequate stability by more than a reasonable margin, Numerous international and national maritime orga- nizations have established stability criteria whieh cover to some degree almost all types of ships, be they commercial or military. These are discussed further in Sec- tion 7 Since the required stability will vary with displace- ‘ment, itis convenient to express the required stability as a curve of required Gif plotted against displacement or draft. Actual GM values for various loading conditions including corrections for free surface of liquids in tanks (Section 5) are compared to the required GM. Condi- tions of loading that are unsatisfactory must avoided by issuing loading instructions that will prevent a ship from loading to an unsatisfactory stability condition, Required GM curves must be used with caution since analysis of the righting arm curve, which defines the stability at large angles, is the only rigorous method of evaluating adequacy of stability. The righting arm curve takes into account freeboard, range of stability, and the other features discussed in Section 4. Hence, stability criteria are usually based on righting arm curves, rather than on Gif alone. Further recent positions taken by national authorities are increasingly requiring the direct evaluation of stability for the specific loading condition rather than a single criterion for a specific draft (See Section 7) Navy ships must meet all the stability requirements of commercial ships, including the ability to operate safely in severe weather. In addition, they must have the ea- ability of withstanding considerable underwater hull damage as a result of weapons effects, For these rea- |INTACT STABIUTY sons, navy ships may have larger initial Gif than similar sized commercial ships. ‘An alternative approach is to make use of the “allowable KG” curve, derived from the righting arm curves, which has the advantage that no stability calculations are necessary to judge the suitability of a loading condition. Thus, itis more amenable to implementation as a criterion in load-planning software that does not have ‘access to the hull geometry information, ‘While loading computer software can rapidly evalu- ‘ate a potential loading condition against stability erite- ria, a useful tabulation (NAVSEA,1975), can be prepared for ships to permit a quick judgment as to whether a proposed weight change will generally be acceptable or unacceptable with regard to the limits on draft and stability: The most useful part of this is the gauge on sensitivity of the ship stability to weight changes. This tabulation is titled Ship Status for Proposed Weight ‘Changes and takes on the following format: ‘Ship Status [ Allowable KG for Governing Loading Conditions sm om 4am sm * Status ! means that the ship has adequate weight and stability margins with respect to these limits. Thus, a 4 v reasonable weight change at any height is generally acceptable. * Status 2 means that a ship is very close to both the limiting drafts and the stability (KG) limits, Thus, any weight increase or rise in the CG is unacceptable. * Siatus 3 means that a ship is very close to the stability limit but has adequate weight margin. Ifa weight addition is above the allowable KG value and would thus cause a rise in the ship's CG, the addition of solid ballast low in the ship may be a reasonable form of compens. tion. * Status 4 means that adequate stability margin exists but that the ship is operating at departure very close to its limiting drafts. Tankers and beach landing ships usually fall into this category. A weight addition is at the expense of cargo deadweight, or else may adversely affect the ability of a landing ship to land at-a designated beach site. To reduce any necessary compromise between the requirements of a large amount of initial stability to withstand underwater hull damage and the desire to reduce GM to obtain more comfortable rolling ché acteristics, many large ships have antirolling tanks or fin stabilizers which operate to reduce roll amplitude, Antiroll tanks operate on the principle of active or passive shifting of liquids from side to side out of phase with the ship's rolling. The liquids may cause a free surface effect problem (discussed in Section 5) ‘which must be taken into account when evaluating a ship's stability. Curves of Stability 4Neishting Arm. To determine the moment of weight and buoyancy tending to restore the ship to the “upright position at large angles of heel, it is necessary to know the transverse distance between the weight vec- {or and the buoyancy vector. This distance is called the righting arm and is usually referred to as GZ. An illustration of the ship drawn with waterlines inclined at angles , and dy is shown in Fig. 18. The figure shows the intial upright eenter of buoyancy By and new centers of buoyancy B, and B., corresponding to and by respectively. The corresponding righting arms are then GZ, and GZ,, computed for reference point O. The reference point O would normally be the CG. Sometimes, righting arms are calculated for an assumed location of the reference point O (usually taken at the Keel), and in this case they are often referred to as righting arms for a poleheight of zero. Fig. 17 Trsve righting arms18 INTACT STABIUTY Fg. 18 Tensvese sighing arms for two wotetnes Ifthe ship's weight distribution is asymmetric, its CG will be displaced from the centerline by a distance b, In Fig. 19, itis seen that this causes the righting arm to be decreased by the amount cos ¢ when the ship heels towards the off-center G and increased by alike amount ‘when the heel is in the opposite direction. 4.2 Curves of Statical Stability (Righting Arm Curve). The statical stability curve is a plot of righting arm or righting moment against angle of heel for a given condition of loading. For any ship, the shape of this curve will, vary with the displacement, the vertical and transverse position of the CG, the trim, and the effect of free liquids. Section 5 discusses the methods for determining the effect of free liquid on the righting arm. ‘The values of the righting arm, plotted against angle of heel, form the statical stability curve, shown in Fig. 20. The lower curve in this figure illustrates the general case, in which the CG is not on the ship's centerline, creating an initial list. The upper curve in Fig, 20 is the statical stability curve for the same ship, at the same displacement, with the same and free liquids, but with the CG on the ship's centerline. | Statial Stabitty Curves Fo. 19 Effet of fear location of 8. 4.3 Computation of Righting Arm Curves. Righi- ing arm curves (and cross curves, see Section 4.4) are usually computed on the assumption that there is a complete watertight envelope consisting of bottom, side shel, and weather deck (or bulkhead deck if the ‘weather deck is not watertight). Superstructures and deckhouses having watertight sides, ends, and overhead (Gnchuding poops and forecastles) may contribute to intact stability, but in most cases they are not taken into consideration because there will usually be openings not properly closed even if nominally watertight. On the other hand, if there are openings not properly closed in the weather (or bulkhead) decks or side shell below the heeled waterline, there is a likelihood of downflooding which would put the ship in a damaged condition. The effect of partial flooding might either reduce or improve stability. Inthe case of marginal stability, advantage can sometimes be taken of the watertight superstructure. In ex) “Angle (eg) Fg. 20 Typical store stably cures: CG on ond off canineINTACT STABIUTY 1° both cases, the angle up to which a benefit may betaken would be the downflooding angle at which water might center the superstructure through a door or other opening. Other vessels where the superstructure is included are lifeboats and ocean racing yachts which have to be self-righting after capsize. Righting arm curves are constructed by computing the righting arm for a given reference point Q for a range of heel angles. Hydrostatic calculation software achieves this by integrating the volume and volumetric ‘moments of the underwater intact portion of the hull and determining the location of the center of buoyancy. Ina typical approach, at each heel angle, the trim and submergence (i.e., drafts) of the hull are adjusted until the buoyancy equals the weight and there is equilibrium between the weight and buoyancy trimming moments. ‘The transverse imbalance in moment about a longitudinal axis through the reference point 0 between the weight and buoyancy determines the righting (or overturning) moment. The equilibrium angle is found by ft- ting a curve through the computed points and solving for the angle at which the righting moment is zero. This curve of righting moments is converted to a righting arm (GZ) curve by dividing by the displacement. ‘The computation of the righting arm should include the effects of items which are appendages to the main body of the ship and contribute to its buoyancy. Exam- ples of these are: + Fittings such as propellers, rudders shafts, shaft ossings, and sonar domes which protrude from the main body. In most cases, these items are symmetrical ‘with respect to the ship's centerline and their center of buoyancy lies on centerline. If they remain submerged ‘until large angles of heel are reached, they may be taken ‘asa single-point buoyancy for the purpose of making an ‘adjustment to the righting arm calculations. * Portions of the ship forward or aft of the perpendiculars that may be submerged as the ship heels, For offshore platforms, these may include deck structures that immerse as the vessel heels + Free-flooding volumes within the fair main body. In certain vessel types, they may have a significant impact on stability. Examples are unusually large sea chests, wells ‘or moonpools, thruster tunnels, and free-flooding spaces ‘within the fair lines on submarines. These are usually treated asnegative appendages. This treatment must, however, be consistent with the weight estimate; if they are considered as negative appendages, the weight of water ‘they contain must not be inchided in the weight estimate. 4.4 Cross Curves of Stability. Priorto the widespread application of computers to naval architectural calculations, the primary method of evaluating intact stability involved computation of the cross curves of stability. They are often still used in on-board loading computer software since the tabular lookup-based calculations ‘using cross curves are faster than direct integration of hull geometry. Cross curves of stability consist ofa series of curves, of the righting arms versus displacement, each curve being constructed for a constant angle of heel. They can be used to develop the curves of statical stability discussed in Section 4.2. It is not practical in general to caleulate the actual righting arm for all conditions cl oeding, eines theloonticn'of the OC rare tae Toading of the ship. Instead, itis eommon practice to assume a location for the CG, such as point O in Fig. 17, on the ship's centerline, compute the righting arms for this assumed position of G, and correct the values so obtained for the actual position of the CG later. This point or pole may be either in the vicinity of the actual location of the CG, of, for convenience, at the baseline The distance win Fig 17 from this point to the buoyaney vector is caleulated for a number of different waterlines and repeated for a series of heel angles. An illustration of this with the ship drawn upright and the waterlines inclined at angles and (is shown in Fig. 18. The figure shows the initial center of bnoy- ancy By and new centers of buoyancy B, and Bz, corresponding to # and ¢s, respectively, with a fixed reference pole 0, The two distances a, and a, correspond to ¢, and », and represent the righting arms if the CG were at the point O. The displacements for the two in- ‘lined waterlines are not necessarily the same. Thus, each inclined waterline, a displacement 4, an arm (GZ) between the buoyant force vector, and the weight force vector is determined, This process is repeated for sev- tral waterlines parallel to and spaced above and below the intial inclined waterline to yield a curve of righting arms versus displacement for a constant angle of heel. ‘A set of cross curves of stability obtained in this way is shown in Fig. 21. When using a computer, the approach changes to incorporate iteration on the draft to match the desired displacement, The initial longitudinal CG is set to the location of the longitudinal center of buoyaney in the “upright condition, and the ship is allowed to trim as it is heeled to maintain longitudinal moment equilibrium. The sample cross curves shown in Fig. 21 are a typical set of cross curves for a pole height set at the base- = ‘mo tooo soon 0082800 900 Displacement Fig. 2] Gross eaves of sabi.20 INTACT STABIUTY line. For any particular condition of loading of the ship for which the displacement and vertical location of the CG are known, the values of GZ, for the various angles of heel can be read from the cross curves. Ifthe CG, Gin Fig. 17,isabove O, the actual values ofthe righting arms can be obtained from, GZ = GZ - 0G- sin 6, where d is the angle of inclination, If @ is below 0, the value OG - sin d= KG sin $ isadded to GZ, If0 is taken atthe baseline, point K; the value OG - sin = KG sin 6 is always subtracted from GZ,, a distinct advantage since there is no possibility of interchanging the signs of the correc- tion. In any case, raising G always reduces GZ. A mumber of waterlines are selected at various drafts and angles of heel. The angles selected are usually multiples of 10 or 15 degrees, the latter being typical for commercial and naval ships. Fr smaller ship types with low freeboard, particularly those having raised forecastles and flat decks astern, multiples of 5 or 10 degrees are usually selected rather than 15 degree multiples Offshore supply ships, tugs, and some classes of fishing ships are examples of ship types where the smaller ‘multiples are used in preparing cross curves For each angle, several drafts are used so that suf. ficient points will be available for plotting each of the cross curves. The shallowest and deepest drafts used for each angle are selected to give an appropriate range of displacement. Asabove, the computation ofthe cross curves should include the effeets of items which are considered to be appendages to the main body of the ship. -5 Effect of Beam on Statical Stability. Fig. 22 shows, in solid lines, a typical ship section and another section, in broken lines, which differs from the first by an increase in beam. Increasing the beam as illustrated in Fig. 22, at any angle of inclination, causes the ship to rise so that the lost displacement of the shaded volume between the two waterlines is equal to the added displacement of the staded volumes port and starboard between the two shell lines. If is the lost displacement between the waterlines, 7 the added displacement on the high side, and q the added displacement on the low side, with their centroids located at signed distances a, b, and ¢ from a vertical through the original inclined center of buoyaney, B;, the horizontal shift of the center of buoyancy toward the low side, d, would be: gait tab + ae W- ai det dy ‘The righting arm is increased by the amount d due to the shifting of the center of buoyancy. In practice, an increase in beam might be accompanied by a change in weight and position of G; however, the weight change would probably be small and not far from the ship's 6G, and the effect of the weight change on righting arm ‘would be small, ifnot negligible. Metacentric heights, and therefore the righting mo- ‘ments at small angles of inclination, are increased by inereasing beam because of the large increase in the ‘moment of inertia of the waterplane, along with small changes in volume of displacement and vertical positions of the centers of buoyancy and gravity. 4.6 Effect of Depth on Statical Stal Fig. 28 shows a ship section in solid lines, with another, in broken lines, which differs by an inerease'in depth. Weight changes caused by an increase in depth will have a more pronounced effect on stability than those associated with a change in beam. This is due to the fact, that increasing depth results not only in adding structure such as shell, framing, and bulkheads between the two positions of the deck in Fig. 23 at some distance above the ship's CG, but also in raising the entire superstructure and all items installed above the deck through ‘distance equal to the increase in depth, Increasing depth, as illustrated in Fig. 23, causes the center of buoyancy to shift toward the low side, owing to addition of displacement of the shaded volume be- ‘tween the two positions of the deck and the loss of the displacement of the shaded volume between the two waterlines. In this case, the shift of B, d= (qa + ab y(W+ w) ao) where w, is the weight of the added structure equal to the increase in buoyancy. Note that:results would be the same if mass units were used. Fig. 22 Ecc! of increase of beam, Fig. 23 fect of incase of depthINTACT STABLY 21 Increasing depth will not result in an increase in righting arm due to shifting of the center of buoyancy until an angle is reached at which the original deck edge is submerged. Beyond this angle, substantial increases in righting arm may be obtained, particularly if the original freeboard was relatively low. At all angles, righting arms will be decreased because of the upward shift of the CG caused by the added weight and raising of the superstructure and other topside items, ‘Thus, the net effect of increasing depth on right arms is a decrease until the original deck edge is immersed and a significant increase above this angle (assuming the beneficial buoyancy effect is greater than the adverse effect of the rise in @). Therefore, depth should not be increased for the purpose of improving stability unless some decrease in righting arms at the smaller angles of heel can be accepted or the rise of the CG is offset by some measure such as adding low weight or increasing the beam. ‘When depth is increased, metacentric height is decreased by the amount that the OG is raised and by the amount KM may be reduced. 4.7 Effect of Other Changes in Form on Statical Stabil- ‘ty. “Tumble-home or flare above the waterline in the upright position, as illustrated in Fig. 24, have effects ‘on stability quite similar to a change in beam except that. a major effect on righting arm will be delayed until the larger angles of heel are reached. Righting arms at the larger angles are increased by flare and decreased by tumble-home, Flare and tumble-home have no effect ‘on metacentric height except for a small change in the height of the ship's CG caused by differences in strue- ture. Replacing full sections by finer sections with the change wholly below the waterline in the upright position, as Wustrated by Fig. 25, has the effect of raising the center of buoyancy because the shaded volume between the two waterlines replaces the shaded volume at the bilges. Before the shaded volume at the bilge on the high side emerges, the effect is to move the center of buoyancy upward, parallel to the ship's centerline, as Fg. 24 Etec of umblehome and fore. a Fig. 25 Efecto ring he bilgos from B, to By, increasing the righting arm by the horizontal shift, or (B,B:)sin 6. As the shaded volume at the bilge on the high side emerges, the gain in righting arm tends to decrease because the centroid of volume of the combination of the two shaded volumes at the bilges ‘moves toward the low side, and, since this volume is negative, the ship's center of buoyancy moves toward the high side. The increase in righting arm due to move- ‘ment of the center of buoyancy is offset, to some extent, by the rise of the ship's OG caused by the reduction in low weight When the lines are made finer in this manner, the ‘metacentric height is increased by the difference in the rise of the center of buoyancy and the rise of the CG. An additional effect on metacentric height may be produced bby a change in the moment of inertia of the waterplane due to flare as the ship settles to the deeper waterline. 4.8 Effect of Waves on Statical Stability. Waves may have a significant effect on statie stability, particularly following or overtaking waves of approximately the ship's length. Static stability analysis ean provide an indication of the severity of the effect. Fig. 26 shows righting arm curves for a post-Pana- ‘max containership in a regular wave of the same length as the ship and height equal to /20, with either wave crest (hog) or wave trough (sag) amidships. The large wwaterplane variation of this type of ship can cause the ship to have initially negative stability when poised on the crest of the wave. A dangerous situation results if the ship were to remain on the crest of the wave for an appreciable time. This could occur in following or overtaking seas (Le,, seas moving in the same direction as the ship when the ship speed is approximately equal to the wave speed). As the ship encounters successive ‘waves, from either ahead or astern, the stability variation changes as a function of time. This variation can lead to the potential for autoparametric rolling, as discussed in Paulling (2007). Recent experiences (France, Levadou, Treakle, Paulling, Michel, & Moore, 2003) in severe storm conditions have indicated that these concerns are not limited to following seas, but.can also be a concern in head seas.2 INTACT STABIUTY ‘Righting Arm (m) ‘Angle of inclination (eg) Fig. 26 Contnarhp sac righing arms ina wave of ship lengh and heigh (/20, Although the dynamic effects of rolling in waves were not discussed explicitly above nor are they explicitly in any published regulations, the designer should consider their possible influence on a new design. The International Maritime Organization (IMO, 1995) has issued guidance regarding the potential danger associated with this condition (See Section 7.3). 48 Significance of the Stotical Stability Curve. The statical stability curve has a number of features that are significant in the analysis of the ship's stability. Where the ship's CG is not on the centerline, as in the case illustrated in by the solid line in Fig. 20, the point at which the curve crosses the horizontal axis corre- sponds to the static angle of heel at which the ship will be in equilibrium. The slope of the curve at zero degrees is the metacentric height. As discussed in Section 3.1, the righting arm for small angles of heel may be expressed by the formula GZ-Gi sing an ‘The slope of the curve at the origin, as shown in Fig. 21, is given by GMsing OF Jo! haidaiting wvarenotORAzoricth 46 ‘Angle of Incination - Degrees Fig. 27 Slope of sbiy cave othe origin, az. ty Son a ina i Gil in 2° — GM or just the metacentric height. Ifthe righting arm con- tinued to inerease at the same rate as at the origin, the curve would be a straight line with a value equal to GM at an inclination of 1 radian, or 57.3 degrees, as illustrated in Fig. 28. Therefore, if the value of GM is plotted san ordinate at 57.3 degrees, a line connecting the plotted point with the origin would be tangent to the statical stability curve at the origin. This is a convenient check for the initial portion of the righting arm curve. In cases where there is considerable free surface in wide, shallow tanks such that the moment of transfer- ence of the liquid significantly modifies the righting arm even at small angles, the effective metacentric height can be determined using the slope of the curve at the origin. ‘The reason that the stability curve usually rises above the GZ = GM sin ¢ line at first, as angle of inclination increases (See Fig. 28), is that there is an upward shift of buoyancy, as well as a lateral shift, as the ship inclines. At large angles of inclination, this sf produce & se nificant increase in the righting arm, GZ, until the deck edge is reached. It can be shown that for a wall-sided ship, up to the angle at which the deck edge enters the ‘water (Rawson & Tupper, 1965): GZ = GM - sin 6 + BMi2)- tan’ d- sind a2) ‘A more general expression, taking account of hull e can be obtained by substituting a factor F for (2) tan’ & and calculating F for a variety of ship types and hull forms, (Niedermair, 1932). Application of this is uncommon now as computer-based calculations take into account the actual hull form. ‘The maximum righting moment, which occurs at angle C in Fig, 29, determines the maximum (static) external upsetting moment that the ship can withstand without capsizing. Ifthe ship is forced over to angle Cby——o vs oa CARP 6 Oe oe INTACT STABIUTY 23 Fig. 28 Slope of stably cuve a the erigin defined by GM an external moment that does not thereafter diminish faster than does the righting moment, it will continue to heel until capsizing occurs. ‘The range of positive stability is indicated by point D in Fig. 2. Ifthe ship heels beyond this angle, the forces ‘of weight and buoyancy will act to capsize, rather than toright, the ship. On a normal ship, the range of positive stability is somewhat indefinite. As discussed in Section 4.3, the cross curves of stability are usually based on the assumption that the superstructure is not effective, and it was pointed out that, at very large angles of heel, there is a possibility that water may be shipped through topside openings with a consequent reduction in stability. If point D is determined from the cross curves as they are customarily calculated (by neglecting the superstructure), positive righting arms would probably exist if the ship were to roll beyond angle D for a briet period because of the effect of the superstructure. If, on the other hand, the ship were to roll repeatedly to angles approaching point D, shipping water through topside openings (downflooding) might cause a progressive reduction in stability, which could eventually result in negative righting arms before point D is reached. Shift- ing of cargo can havea similar result. Fighting Moment ‘The direction (sign) of curvature of the statical stability curve near the origin determines whether the ship will develop positive righting arms when the metacentric height is reduced to zero or becomes slightly negative. Two statical stability curves are shown in Fig. 30 for two ships having the same metacentric height but enterof | DRAFT Lateral Fig. 55 Healing elec of windINTACT STABIUTY ‘Wind Presse vs Heght (100 Knot Wind at 10m) is assumed to occur at about h,y=10 m (33 ft) above the waterline. The U.S. Navy assumes the wind gradient is proportional to (Ib/h,,)!”, where h is the height above the waterline. Tabulated values for the heeling moment have been prepared for a nominal 100 knot. wind as an aid in determining wind heeling moments in DDS 079-1 (NWSCCD, 2008). Data from this table is well repre- sented (R= 0.9978) by a logarithmic expression: P-=0,0395Ln(h) + 0.1027 a) where his the height above the waterline, m, and P is ‘the pressure in tonnes/ta*. 74.24 Anequare Srasiuiry. The criteria for adequate stability when encountering adverse wind and wave conditions are based on a comparison of the righting arm and heeling arm curves, as shown in Fig. 57 (NWSCCD, 2008). Stability is considered satisfactory if: ‘+ Theheeling arm atthe intersection of the righting arm and heeling-arm curves (Point C) is not greater than six tenths of the maximum righting arm; and ‘* Area A; is not less than 1.4 4., where area A; extends 25 degrees or ¢, (if roll angle is determined from model tests) to windward from Point C. ER NAKGT RGHTING A COVE FEELING AM CURVE 0 «0 7m WO ANGLE OF NCUNATION DES Fg. 57 US. Navy erlerion of stabily in wind ond waves. aati) Fig. 56 Wind presaure for pomizal 100 knct wind lt 10 m above wen ‘The foregoing criteria for adequate stability with respect to adverse wind and sea conditions are based on the following considerations: «A wind heeling arm in excess of the ship's righting arm would cause the ship to capsize in calm water. The ‘requirement that the heeling arm be not greater than six tenths of the maximum righting arm is intended to provide a margin for gusts and for inaccuracies resulting from the approximate nature of the heeling arm calculations. * In the second criterion, the ship is assumed to be heeled over by the wind to Point C and rolling 25 de- ‘grees or &, from this point to windward; the 25 degrees being an arbitrary but reasonable roll amplitude for heavy wind and sea conditions. Area A, is a measure of the energy imparted to the ship by the wind and the ship's righting arm in returning to point C. The margin of 40% in A, is intended to take account of gusts and for calculation inaccuracies. Energy losses mentioned in Section 4.10 are ignored, and it is assumed that no downflooding occurs. Upsetting moments caused by lifting weights overside, personnel crowding, and high-speed turning are presented, followed by U.S. Navy combined criteria for all three. 74.3 Lifting of Heavy Weights Over the Side 74.3.1 Ervscr or Leone WescuTs. Lifting of weights will be a governing factor in required stability only on small ships which are used to lift heavy items over the side. Lifting of weights has a double effect upon transverse stability. First, the added weight, which acts at the upper end of the boom, will raise the ship's CG and thereby reduce the righting arm. The second effect will be the heel caused by the transverse moment when lifting over the side. 74.3.2 Hemune Ams. For the purpose of applying the criteria, the ship's righting arm curve is modified by48 INTACT STABIUTY correcting VCG and displacement to show the effect of the added weight, assumed to be at the end of the boom. ‘The heeling arm curve is calculated by the formula: Heeling arm = “298 ¢ (25) where w =weight of it 4 =transverse distance from centerline to end of boom W = displacement, including weight of lift @ =angle of inclination, degrees 744 Crowding of Personnel to One Side 74.4.1 Eevsct oF Crowoine oF Psssonvet. The movement of personnel will have an important effect only on smaller ships that carry a large number of personnel. The concentration of personnel on one side of a small ship can produce a heeling moment which results in a significant reduction in residual dynamic stability 744.2 Herunc Aru. The heeling arm produced by the transverse movement of personnel is calculated by Bq, (26): arm = wacosd Heeling = 6) where w =weightof personnel @ =distance from centerline of ship to center of gravity of personnel W =displacement =angle of inclination, degrees In determining the heeling moment produced by the personnel, itis assumed that all personnel have moved io one side as far as possible. Each person occupies ~0.2 m qt) of deck space. 74.5 High-Speed Turning 74.5.1 Hisune Arws Paopicen ay TuRwinc. The centrifugal force acting on a ship during a tun may be ex: pressed by the formula (English or metric): Centrifugal force =" en oR ‘The arm in conjunetion with this foree to obtain the heeling moment is the vertical distance between the ship's CG and the center of lateral resistance of the underwater body. This arm is assumed to vary as the cosine of the angle of inclination. The center of lateral resistance is taken vertically at the half draft. If the centrifugal force is multiplied by the arm and divided by the ship's displacement, an expression for heeling arm is obtained. Heeling arm = 8) where @ = distance between ship's CG and center of lateral resistance (half draft) with ship upright =angle of inclination, degrees For all practical purposes, R may be assumed to be one half of the tactical diameter. Ifthe tactical diameter is not available from model or full-scale data, an estimate ismade. 74.5.2 Crrmesia ror Ansatare Srantiry. The US. Navy criteria for adequate stability for lifting weights, personnel crowding, and high-speed turning are based fon a comparison of the righting arm and heeling arm curves (see Fig. 58). Stability is considered satisfactory if: + The angle of heel, as indicated by point C, does not exceed 15 degrees; ‘ The heeling arm at the intersection of the righting arm and heeling arm curves (point C) is not more than six tenths of the maximum righting arm; and + The reserve of dynamic stability (shaded area) is not less than four tenths of the total area under the righting-arm curve. ‘The criteria for adequate stability are based on the following considerations: * Angles of heel in excess of 15 degrees will interfere with operations aboard the ship and adversely affect safety and comfort of personnel, * The requirements that the heeling arm be not more than six tenths of the maximum righting arm and that the reserve of dynamic stability be not less than four tenths of the total area under the righting arm curve are intended to provide a margin against capsizing. This margin allows for possible overloading and for possible inaccuracies resulting from the empirical nature of the heeling arm calculations. 75 Topside teing. Icing can occur due to four me~ teorological effects: freezing sea spray, freezing of partially melted snow, freezing rain, and freezing of fog, Tt is difficult to estimate an upper limit for accumulation of ice. Once ice has started to form, it will continue to accumulate under unfavorable conditions and the only Jeune wats acct na cue Jom pressne mca | ‘ok AN HEEL ARMS. FY 0 6 a) “@ANGLE OF NELNATION OES Fig. 98 US, Nowy crbra of sob for weighs overside, personnel crowingINTACT STABILITY “ recourse is to institute ice removal measures or leave the area. High winds are likely to occur during periods of icing, and its appropriate to consider combined icing and wind effects. Aship of destroyersize, whichis capable of withstanding a 100 knot beam wind without ice, can withstand a ‘beam wind of only 80 knots with an ice accumulation of 200 tons. A cruiser type in service, which can withstand a 90 knot beam wind without ice, can withstand ‘beam wind of only 78 knots with an accumulation of 600 tons of ice. The foregoing ice weights correspond roughly to a 15 cm coating on horizontal and vertical surfaces where ice would build up. An actual build-up of ice would be nonuniform, but the ice weights deter- ‘mined on the basis a uniform 15 cm coating may be used in estimating maximum beam wind velocity for which the stability criterion will be met. For destroyer sizes and above, the criteria will be met for a 70 knot wind in combination with topside icing. For smaller ships, topside icing results in a more significant reduetion in. righting arms and the allowable beam wind velocity is accordingly less. For example, a 59 m patrol ship, which can meet the wind criterion for a 75 knot beam wind without ice, will have to avoid beam winds in excess of ‘50 knots if there has been substantial ice accumulation, Inthe ease of a smaller mine sweeper of 46m, 50 tons of topside ice reduces the maximum righting arm from 04 ‘mto about 0.2 m with a reduction in range from 90 to 56 degrees. The maximum allowable wind is reduced from 85 to about 40 knots. ‘The design approach to topside icing is to determine the maximum allowable beam winds combined with icing for a ship whose stability has been established from. other governing criteria. The design would be considered satisfactory if the allowable wind at time of icing ‘was in excess of winds that are likely to be encountered in the intended service. U.S. (NAVSEA, 1975) and U.K. naval standards (MOD, 1999) assume 150 mm of ice with a density of 950 kg/m on all exposed decks, horizontal platforms, and roofs. It is derived from traditional approaches where the mass and VCG of ice actually experienced, on all exposed vertical and horizontal surfaces, has been equated to a representative thickness solely on horizontal surfaces. Under this approach, ice accretion on vertical surfaces should not be included as this is inherent in the assump- ton of 150 mm of ice. The Torremolinos Convention for the Safety of Fish- ing Vessels (IMO, 197) contains recommendations of ‘minimum requirements for icing of fishing vessels with specific guidelines as to amounts of ice accumulation to be assumed. This is reproduced in the 2008 IS Code as well as the Voluntary Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Fishing Vessels between 12 and 24 m. in length. In each case, consideration of the increased windage area due to icing is recommended. The U.K. Maritime and Coastguard Agency full icing allowance assumes all exposed horizontal surfaces are subject to an ice weight of 30 kg/m’, and that the vertical surfaces corresponding to the lateral area of one side of the vessel are subject to a weight of 15 kg/m! with this ‘weight acting on centerline, This approach is also taken in the High Speed Craft: Code (IMO, 2000) and US. fish: {ing vessel regulations (USCG, 2009) where the same ice load is effectively applied. Lower icing standards are applicable for areas where icing is not expected to be so severe or the possibility of seeking shelter is higher, such as coastal waters. Ar- eas of applicability are included in the Code on Intact Stability. Teing is to be included in the loading conditions for which the stability of the vessel is evaluated. In general, the icing assumed in stability calculations will ‘almost always be specially considered by the regulatory ‘administrations involved, and thus, the ice loads should bbe developed in agreement with them. ‘The University of Alaska has published comparative icing charts developed from experience in the Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands which show ice ac- ‘cumulation as a time dependent phenomenon (Wise & Comiskey, 1980). 76 Stability Criteria for Cortain Ship Types 7.6.1 Pishing Vessels. ‘There are several particular features of the design and operation of fishing vessels that can result in stability problems. Among these are col- lection of water on the deck from large waves and severe ‘motions, free surface in the fish holds or tanks, and the effects of deck loads and nets suspended from a boom. The training, experience, and attention of the personnel who ‘operate such vessels are likely to be slanted towards fish- {ng rather than safe vessel operation. There are records of fishing vessel casualties that are directly attributable to such unwise practices as stowing a very heavy catch of fish on deck that reduces freeboard to dangerously low levels and, at the same time, reduces GM as well. For vessels 24 m (79 feet) or longer, the primary means for determining the adequacy of a fishing vessel’s intact stability is evaluating the characteristics of its static righting arm curve. The principal stability cri- teriaare contained in the IMO 1993 Torremolinos Proto- col (IMO, 1995a), which is based on the work by Rahola. Various countries have adopted versions of this protocol {or their own use. In the United States, the stability requirements are included in 46 CFR subpart 28.500, and include effects of water on deck, stuck gear, lifting, and arighting energy criterion. In general, the modifications to the IMO version are the addition of a minimum range of positive stability, typically 60 degrees or more (Wom- ack, 2002), IMO's Voluntary Guidelines for the Design, Construction, and Equipment of Small Fishing Vessels IMO, 2005) between 12 and 24 m in length provide rec- ‘ommended criteria for vessels in this size range. IMO is developing recommendations for smaller decked fishing ‘vessels (length less than 12 m) and for undecked fishing vessels of any length. ‘Womack (2002) presented a critique of the application of this static, one-size-fits-all approach to the diverse50 INTACT STABIITY ‘eet of small commercial fishing vessels in a very com- plex dynamic environment, For example, the smaller the boat, the more significant the sea conditions are. ‘This is shown by contemplating the effect of 6 m seas on ‘4300 m tanker, a45 m trawler, ota 15 m offshore lobster boat. The 6 m seas are no concer for the tanker, mini- mal concern for the trawler, and significant concern for the lobster boat. The existing stability criteria do not reflect this contfict due to scalability problems with the ‘Torremolinos area criteria and the lack of true dynamic analysis methods. Womack (2002) goes on to outline the steps required for a satisfactory stability analysis and ‘evaluation and the equally important presentation of the stability guidance and stability concepts to the crews. 7.6.2 Towboats. Towboats may also be prone to sea-motion-elated capsizing. In addition, these ship types are characteristically designed with low freeboard, which enhances the danger of taking on sea water through topside openings. Other hazards frequently experienced by tugs are the towline forces generated by the tug’s own propeller thrust, called self-tripping, and by the movement of the ship being towed, called tow-tripping. Towboats must meet the general stability criteria, such as the USCG stability criteria (CFR 174.145); however, the heeling arm developed below will, usually dominate. 76.2.1 Heeuvc Aww. The formula for calculating the transverse heeling arm curve for tow-line pull, used by the USCG (CFR 173.095), is as follows (metric units): 2N(PxD)**xsxhxcosd Heeling Arm = ut 13.934 (29) where: N =number of propellers P =shaft horsepower per shat, kilowatts D =propeller diameter, m 5 =effective fraction of propeller slip stream de- flected by the rudder, assumed to be that fraction of the propeller circle cylinder which would be intercepted by the rudder if turned to 45 de- agrees from the vessel's centerline = vertical distance from propeller shaft centerline at rudder to towing bitts, m ‘A = displacement, t =angle of inclination 76.2.2 Cerraaia ror Apsquare Sraomuty. The US. Navy criteria for adequate stability are based on the angle of heel and a comparison of the ship's righting arm and the heeling arm curve (see Fig. 58). Stability is considered satisfactory if: * The angle of heel, as indicated by point C, does not exceed the angle at which unrestricted downflooding may ‘occur, or 40 degrees, whichever Is less. The limit on range is to provide a margin of safety in the event a watertight door or vent duct is open and could be a pathway for serious downflooding due to wave and heel action. + The heeling arm at the interception of the righting arm and heeling arm curves (point C) is not more than six tenths of the maximum righting arm. * The reserve of dynamic stability (shaded area) is not Jess than four tenths of the total area under the righting arm curve. The USCG criterion is similar to the navy criterion except that it requires the reserve of dynamic stability to be 0.61 m-degrees (0.01065 m-radians), 7.6.3 Buux Canaries Carine Grain, Once the grain heeling moment has been computed (see Section 5.14), the IMO (1991) and national regulations require that the angle of heel due to the shift of grain be less than the lesser of 12 degrees or the angle at which the deck edge immerses. The grain heeling moment is then applied as aheeting arm curve for comparison to the righting arm curve. The residual area between the two curves (as limited by 40 degrees, the angle of maximum difference between the righting and heeling righting arms, orangle of flooding) rust be not less than 0.075 meradians. Fi- nally, the Gf including free-surface effects shall not be Jess than 0.30 m, Recognizing the importance of angle of repose and trimming the cargo, the vessel is required to be upright before proceeding to sea. 77 Evaluction of Mobile Offshore Drilling Units. teria for stability evaluation of mobile offshore drilling units (MODUs) are included in the 2008 IS Code (IMO, 2008) and updated in classification society rules for construction (American Bureau of Shipping, 2008), Semisubmersible drilling platforms obtain static stability from surface-piereing columns that connect their submerged flotation bodies to the above-water platform. Analysis of their ability to withstand the upsetting forces of winds and waves (under varying loading conditions) is similar to the type of analysis made for conventional ship forms. However, the wind heeling moments applied include the form drag of the various components of the structure, such as the drilling derrick, and the increased exposure of superstructure deck as the MODU heels. In addition, the overturning moment must be considered forall axes of heel (see Section 4.12) Stability must be evaluated for all modes of operation of the vessel, including transit, operating, and severe storm conditions. Alternative criteria that take into account the environmental conditions, dynamic response (through wind-tunnel and wave-tank tests or nonlinear simulation, as appropriate), the potential for flooding, the susceptibility for capsizing, and adequate margin for un- certainties may be allowed, The wind speeds associated with the MODU severe storm criteria are 100 knot winds. Hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005, where winds far in excess of 100 knots were experienced (NOAA, 2005), led to the loss of several MODUS indicating that sufficient ‘margins may not be included in these criteria. 7.8 Evaluation of Stability of Submarines. ‘The foregoing principles apply to a surfaced submarine as well as to surface ships. There are some peculiarities of subma- tines, however, which should be mentioned | | 1 1 { ' { 1 j : ( j ‘INTACT STABIUTY st ‘The form of the hull of a submarine is such that the righting arms in the surfaced condition are positive at angles well beyond 90 degrees, a condition that is seldom found in surface ships other than sailing yachts and selfrighting rescue boats. The only significant heeling moment to which a surfaced submarine is sub- Jected results from wind and wave action. Unlike surface ships, all topside openings can be closed to prevent shipping of water during heavy rolling except for the old diesel-powered submarines that must operate with ‘open diesel engine manifolds. Consequently, eapsizing of amt intact submarine is extremely unlikely. The ma- Jor stability problem is rolling to very large angles with adverse effects on personnel and the operation of the ship. ‘The righting arm curve for a submerged submarine is equal to the metacentric height, GB, multiplied by the sine of the angle of inclination. Its maximum value, therefore, occurs at 90 degrees, Except for the minor effect of shifting of liquids and loose items in the ship, the range of positive stability would be 180 degrees. A submarine is subjected to only minor heeling moments when submerged. Therefore, there is no danger of capsizing an intact submerged submarine, provided the metacentric height has at least a small positive value, During the period while a submarine is submerging or surfacing, its transverse stability is less than when cither surfaced or submerged because of the free liquid in the main ballast tanks. On the surface, there is only a small free-surface effect in the main ballast tanks, caused by the small quantity of residual water that cannot be blown whose surface remains above the tops of the flood openings. When the submarine is submerged, there is no free surface in the main ballast tanks because they are completely full An approximate evaluation of stability during submerging and surfacing can be made by a series of caleulations of displacement, height of the CG of the ship, and the free-surface effect, assuming that the main ballast tanks are filled to successively greater depths. The only variables in these calculations are the weight, VOG, and vertical moment of free surface of the water in the main ballast tanks. The effect of the water in the main ballast tanks at each assumed level is added to the weight, vertical moment, and vertical moment of free surface of the ship in the surfaced condition, after the vertieal ‘moment of free surface of the residual water has been deducted. ‘The results of these calculations, consisting of the displacement and height of the CG of the ship, adjusted for free-surface effect, are plotted in Fig, 59, together with the height of the metacenter; the minimum metacentric height is determined as the smallest vertical distance between the two curves. Stability is satisfactory if the ‘metacentric height has a small positive value because the nature of the righting arm curve during submergence is such that positive values will be developed at small an- ales of hee! when the metacentric height is zero. DISPLACEMENT AFLORT WEIGHT ABOVE KEEL ‘cewTeR oF oRaviTy DISPLACEMENT Fg. 99 Submarine sblty while submeroing ‘The height of the metacenter drops as displacement is increasing from its value in the surfaced condition, shown to the left of Fig. 59, until it meets the curve of the height of the center of buoyancy. The vertical separation of these two curves, BM, is equal to I,/V, which has been reduced to zero as the ship submerges, owing to the disappearance of the waterplane when the hull is submerged, ‘The assumption in these calculations that all main ballast tanks are filled to the same waterline is some- ‘what unrealistic because the actual levels in the vari- ‘ous tanks depend on the area of the flood openings, the shape of the individual tanks, and the depths to which the openings are submerged. The flood openings are sized to flood the forward tanks faster than the after tanks to produce a down angle on the submarine and expedite submerging. In addition, any rolling of the submarine will increase the depth to which the tanks on the low side are submerged, causing thiem to fill faster than those on the high side. When the main ballast tanks are arranged in pairs, the moment of inertia of the individual port and starboard tanks is used, rather than the moment of inertia of the pair considered as a single tank because there is, no flow from one side to the other. 79 Review of the International Maritime Organiza- tion Intoet Stability Code. Several problems have been identified in the existing procedures for stability assessment, especially for vessels that deviate from the ship forms upon which the standards have been based. Op- erational practice and experience are ways to judge the effectiveness of current stability criteria. Fortunately, accidents that are clearly related to a failure of a ship's intact stability are very rare. The ability to investigate the origin of such accidents is often severely hampered by the depth of water in which the lost ship is located, ‘Those accidents that do avail themselves to full investi- gation are often associated with several failure events,including internal flooding that impairs a ship's intact stability Further, several investigations have shown that the level of safety associated with the 2008 IS Code criteria is not consistent (Dudziak & Buczkowski, 1978; Rakhm- anin, 1986; Umeda & Tkeda, 1994; Umeda, Ikeda, & Su- zuki, 1992; Kobylinski, 1993; Kriiger, Hinrichs, & Cramer, 2004; IMO, 2004a; Van Daalen, Boonstra, & Blok, 2005; De Kat, Van Walree, & Ratcliffe, 2006). For example, in ‘Yan Dalen, Boonstra, and Blok (2005), the probability of capsizing for a containership is presented for which a complete route analysis was computed using simulated ship motions. This workhighlights the importance of operator input since the results indicate a very high probability of capsize without operator input and a moderate to low probability with appropriate operator input. The lowest Gif presented in the analysis is the actual stability limit according to the code. While some vessels would not operate at this limit due to damage stability require- ‘ments, this analysis indicates that the code does not represent a unique safety level because low Gi can lead to low probability of capsize and vice versa. In response to concerns stich as the above, the IMO Subcommittee on Stability, Load Lines, and Fishing Ves- sels Stability (SLF) initiated a review of the Intact Sta- bility Code in 2002, using atwo-phasedl approach: short- term and long-term. The short-term phase involved the restructuring of the code into mandatory and recom- ‘mended parts, resulting in the 2008 IS Code and also the revision of MSC Circular 707 (see Section 7.3.3), resulting in MSC Circular 1228. The long-term effort, which is titled “Development of new generation intact stability criteria is focused on establishing minimum requirements for ship design, applicable to unconventional types of ships and major dynamic modes of stability. ‘The SLF group refined the scope of the long-term effort into a framework, which includes: + Distinction of intact stability failures into two types: total stability failure, or capsizing, and partial stability failure, which would generally be the occurrence of a large amplitude roll angle or excessive accelerations that would impair the ship's normal operation, * Definition of the types of criteria into deterministic and probabilistic and into parametric and performance- based. + Identification of the major dynamic modes to be addressed in the new generation intact stability criteria development: * Righting arm variation in waves associated with problems such as parametric excitation and pure loss of stability, '* Stability under a “deadship” condition, and * Maneuvering related problems in waves such as broaching-to. * Description of vulnerability criteria that would identify the susceptibility of a ship to different modes of INTACT STABIUTY stability failures and that would be based on simplified models, analytical solutions, or statistical data. These criteria would likely require separate development for different failure modes. ‘© Agreement on the meaning of “safety level” and requiring its evaluation for any proposed new generation intact stability criteria. The framework also discusses the form and use of performance-based criteria. The chief benefit of performance-based criterion is that it provides a physically robust solution for a particular stability failure mode and can be formulated to use procedures such as model tests, numerical simulations, and analytical solutions or a combination of these methods. If formulated as deterministic criteria, the performance-based criteria would result in a “pass-fail” output. If formulated as probabilistic criteria, the result would be expressed in terms of probability of failure during a specified time or as an average rate of failures. In each case, to quantify the safety level, a performance-based assessment would be required. In principle, two formulations of this assessment are possible: one is a short-term formulation in which the assessment would be performed for each of a list of assumed situations (environmental conditions and loading conditions) and the other is a long-term for- ‘mulation in which the safety level is evaluated for a series of assumed operational scenarios, and the analysis would take into consideration the probabilities of these assumed sittations. ‘The group agreed that the development of probabilistic performance-based criteria requires consideration of two key issues: time dependence and’the problem of rarity. The influence of time on such criteria is clear from the fact that an increase in the exposure time of a ship in adverse wind and wave conditions increases the probability of a stability failure. The problem of rarity arises when the average time before a stability failure may occur is very long in comparison with the natural roll period. Because stability failures are rare, there isa need to obtain estimates of the rate of stability failures, whieh, in turn, means performing many time-domain numerical simulations or conducting model tests for Jong durations. To address this problem, the framework suggests several possible solutions. ‘The plan of action for the development of new generation intact stability criteria includes the development of direct assessment procedures, standard requirements for onboard, ship-specific guidance, criteria for certain types of ships or operations that may not already be included in the 2008 1S Code, and a plan by which the criteria may be implemented into the 2008 IS Code. Several research efforts aimed at developing alternative methods of demonstrating compliance through experimental testing (Bertaglia, Scarpa, Serra, Francescutto, & Bulian, 2004; Bulian, Francescutto, Serra, & Umeda, 2004; Hua, 2004; Clauss, Hennig, Brink, & Cramer, 2004), performance-based criteria (Cramer, Kriger, & Mains,INTACT STABILITY 53 2004; Krliger et al, 2004), and, probabilistic stability criteria (Bertaglia et al, 2004) have been stimulated by the IMO opening of consideration of alternatives to the prescriptive criteria currently in place. Belenky, de Kat, and Umeda (2008) addressed the principle issues related to development of performance-based criteria for intact stability including the motivation for the effort and the physics of the three modes of stability failures under consideration, and paid special attention to the problems involved in probabilistic performance-based criteria development. Belenky et al. (2008) also provided a review of the current methods and techniques for simulating all three modes of stability failures. 7.10 Dynamic Stability Assessments. While dynamic stability has been discussed for decades within the context of equilibrium concepts of stability, the study of ship motions in winds and waves has been traditionally within the purview of seakeeping assessments. In recent years, the use of more advanced computational tools has permitted researchers to evaluate the use of these tools for complete assessment of ship stability performance in extreme sea conditions. Casualties associated with parametric roll resonance also focused attention on dynamic stability ‘The preamble of the 2008 IS Code acknowledges this situation and recommended that the code should not remain static but should be reevaluated and revised, as necessary, to take account of rapidly evolving modern ship design technology. It further recognized: thatin view ofa wide variety of types, sizes of ships and their operating and environmental conditions, problems of safety against accidents related to stability have generally have not yet been solved. In particular, the safety of a ship in a seaway involves compiex hydrodynamic phenomena which up to now have not been fully investigated and understood. Motions of ships in a seaway should be ‘treated as a dynamical system and relationships between ship and environmental conditions like wave and wind excitations are recognized as ex: tremely important elements. Based on hydrodynamic aspects and stability analysis of a ship in a seaway, stability criteria development poses com plex problems that require further research, ‘The IMO framework for new generation intact stabil ity criteria development includes several key elements. Among these are the development. of vulnerability cri teria to identify susceptibility to partial or total stability failures and development of procedures for direct stability assessment. Initially, this development would address major dynamic stability failure modes includ ing stability under the deadship condition, righting arm variation problems such as parametric excitation and pure loss of stability, and maneuvering related prob- Jems in waves such as broaching-to. The focus would be on ships that are susceptible to a stability failure that is neither explicitly nor properly covered by the existing intaet stability regulations. Long-term work will in- ‘elude development of on-board, ship-specific guidance requirements. ‘A comprehensive list of references at the time of this writing can be found in Belenky et al. (2008) and in Belenky and Sevastianov (2007). Draft, Trim, Heel, and Displacement Computation of the draft, trim, heel, and displacement of a ship or other vessel is a calculation rarely done by hand since the advent of personal computers. However, the algorithms in the computer software often apply the same methods used in hand calculations. In fact, loading computer software is often required to du- plicate results obtained by hand. Rather than utilizing curves of form to obtain hydrostatic properties, computer software utilizes table lookup and interpolation routines to interrogate the hydrostatic tables or direct ‘computations from the hull geometry model to perform. the same functions. The calculations outlined here are easily adapted to spreadsheet use, 8.1 Trim. Trim, as used in this section, defines the Jongitudinal inclination of the ship. Trim’ may be expressed as the angle between the baseline of the ship and the waterplane, but it is usually expressed as the ifference in drafts at the bow and at the stern, 8.2 Center of Flotation. The center of flotation is the point in the ship's waterplane through which the axis of rotation passes when the ship is inclined by a pure moment without change of displacement, either transversely, longitudinally, or both. It is shown in Section 4 that, for longitudinal inclinations, this point: is the centroid of the waterplane, and similar reasoning would apply to inclinations in any direction. ‘The center of flotation is useful in the determination of drafts for two reasons. When the ship is trimmed with no change in displacement, as when a weight is moved forward or aft, there is no change in draft atthe center of flotation. Ifthe change in trim is moderate and the original waterline and the change in trim are known, the new waterline can be established. Also, if a small weight is added to the ship at the center of flotation, there is no ‘change in trim because the increment of weight is added directly above the location of the increment of buoyancy.

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