AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS EE- 418

Topics Weeks

Introduction 1 -1

Laplace transform, solution of differential equation, 3 -2

.partial fraction and inverse Laplace transform
Mathematical model of physical systems -3

Block diagram of linear system. 2-4

.Reduction Techniques [ Block diagram (Block Algebra) and - 5
Signal Flow Graph reduction technique].

Time response analysis, transient response of 1st and 2 nd order systems. 2-6
.Types of systems, steady state error and effect of disturbance - 7

Concept of stability and Routh's stability criterion. 1-8

Root locus technique. 2 -9

Frequency response analysis (Bode plot). 2 -10

Revision. - 12 1
References
."Morris & Driels, "Linear Control Systems Engineering

INTRODUCTION -1

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and

.forces of nature for the benefit of human kind
.Control system engineers are concerned with analysis and design of control systems
A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system configuration
.that will provide a desired system response
Automatic control is utilized nowadays in almost all of the engineering applications
chemical, mechanical, civil, robotic systems and electrical engineering

:The main Objectives of Automatic Control System 1.1

:Protection systems (1)

as over current/ voltage protection system, fire protection systems and
.over speed protection systems

:Regulation of (2)
Physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, flow, level -
.viscosity and percentage of oxygen (Process Control Systems)
Non physical quantities: such as voltage, current, position and -
.speed (Servo Systems)

.To obtain high power that can not obtained by human (3)

0
 Control systems perform their work in much the same way as a human
:do, they replace the different organs in the human body namely

.Eyes are replaced by Sensors *

.Brain is replaced by Controller *
.Muscles are replaced by Actuators *

.Historical Development of Automatic Control Systems 1.2

The 1st automatic control system was invented by James Watt in 1770, which (1)
.is the fly ball governor to control the speed of a steam engine

Set point

enigne oT

(maets) leuF

.Figure (1.1) Fly ball Speed control system

Automatic steering of ships and positioning of guns on shipboards was (2)

.performed by Minorsky in early 1920

The 1st attempt to develop some general theory of servo mechanisms was (3)
.done by Hazen's work in 1934

Mathematical and analytical design methods were developed and practically (4)
.established during the 1940 decade

During the 2nd world war a great impulse was given to the automatic control by (5)
designing and construction of Auto pilots for air planes, gun positioning
.systems, radar tracking systems and other military equipments (1945)

The missile launching and guidance system is an example of military of feed *

.back control system application
The paper mills for reeling paper sheet, is an example of an automatically *
.controlled industrial process

Control engineering grow rapidly during the years since 1950, practically with (6)
.the advent of analog and digital computers

The future lies ahead for automation, where in computer can run most our life
.activities, industrial, commercial, military... etc

1
 .Automatic Control 1.3

? Now what means by automatic control

.To answer this question, we have to know first the concept of Manual control

A -Manual Control
Consider the liquid level control process shows in figure (1.3).
The objective is to regulate the level at a specific value, the set point H. the level, is
called the controlled variable.
The main parts of the process are:-
- A tank with sight tube S.
- A valve to change the output flow by the human.

Q ni

g thgiS s

h
H

Qituo
rugiF
The human measures the level in the sight tube h and compares it
with the set point H. if h > H, the human opens the valve to increase
the output flow Qo, the water level h lowers towards the set point. If h
< H, the human closes the valve to decrease the output flow Qo, and
allow the level h to rise toward the set point. So by continuous
monitoring of the sight tube the human can bring the water level h to
the set point H.

B –Automatic Level Control

To provide automatic control of the above system, it is modified as
shown in figure (1.4), the human is replaced by the following device:-

- Sensor to measure the water level and generate a signal S which represents that
level.
- Controller, it compare the set point H with the actual level h and generates a
control signal u to change the valve setting via an actuator.

- Actuator is connected to the valve by a mechanical link.

2
Q ni
rosneS rellortnoC

H h
rotautcA

Q ni

uA (3.1) erugiF.

C- Automatic Control Block Diagram.

Each element in the system is represented by a block as show in figure

(14). The basic elements are:-

- Process: The tank and the liquid.

- Sensor: Measures the level and converts it into an electrical or pneumatic signal.

- Error detector: A part of the controller to compare the set point H with the actual
level h.
- Controller: A decision making device, generates a control signal.

- Actuator: The final control element, the device that exerts a direct influence on the
process and changes the controlled variable to bring it to the set point.

eR
ni

rellortnoC Actuator ssecorP

Sensor
Feedback signal

oC (4.1) erugiF.

3
LAPLACE TRANSFORM -2
Laplace transform is used to transform the more difficult differential equations to a
.relatively easily solved algebraic equations, assuming zero initial conditions
:The time response solution is determined as following
Obtain the differential equation of the system f (t) -
.Obtain the Laplace transform of the differential equation F(S) -
Solve the resulting algebraic equation using Laplace transform's table to get the time -
.response of the system
:The Laplace transform of a function f (t) is given by

F ( s )   f  t  e  st dt
0

d
i.e. The Laplace variable S is the differential operator
dt

2 3
d d d
S , S 
2
and S 
3

dt dt 2 dt 3
t
1
S 0
Also the integrator operator  dt

Laplace Transform of Important Functions (Test functions)

Unit step function -1

f(t) 1

∞ >f (t) = 1 0<t

t< 0 0= 1

t

  e st  1
F (s)   1e  st dt 
 S    0  1  1
s s
0
  0

4
Unit ramp function -2
(t)f

f (t) = t t>0
t<0 0=
Using the integration by parts
d (U V )= V dU + U dV t

VdU  UV   UdV

1   st  
 
F ( S )   t e  st dt    t.e   e  st dt 
0
S 0
0 

1 1
1. e  st dt  2
S 0
F (S ) 
S

Parabolic function -3

f (t) = t2 t>0
t<0 0= t)f (

Using the same method



1   st
 
  
1
F ( S )   t e st dt    t 2 d e st   t 2 e
2
  2t e st dt 
0
S 0 S 0 t 0
2 2
F (S )   t . e  st dt  3
S 0 S

Exponential function -4
at
f t  e t0

t<0 0=

(t)f
 a  st 

 
 a  s  t e 1
F ( S )   e  at e  st dt   e dt  
  a  s    s  a 
0 0
  0

Example 1

5
Write the differential equation describing the mechanical system shown in figure.
When a unit step input force is applied on the system.
Find the displacement x (t) using Laplace transform table.
mx t   Kx  t   f  t  K
For unit step input force f(t) =1f (t) m

1
F S 
S
x(t
Using Laplace operator, the differential equation is transformed) to the algebraic
equation:
1
[ m s 2+ K ] X(s) =
s
K
n
2
1 1 1
X  s    m
s  ms 2  K  K  2 K  K s s 2   2n 
s s  
 m
From the inverse Laplace table form N o 21, ζ=0. , φ cos-1 ζ=Π/2

1   
x t   1  sin   n t  
K  2 

1
xt   1 cosnt
K

Partial Fraction Expansion (‫) التحليل الجزئى‬

P S 
Given the transfer function F  S   , Q(S) may has the following forms:
Q S 

1- Q(S) has distinct roots ( ‫) جذور محددة‬.

P S  k1 k2 kn
FS    .....
Q S   S  p1  S  p 2   S  p n 

The value of the constants ki is given by :

P S 
k i   S  p1 Q S 
s  p i

6
 2- Q(S) has repeated roots ( ‫) جذورمكررة‬.

P S  P S  :
F S   .....
Q S   S  p1  S  p r 1
r
 S  pn 

kr k r 1 k1 k kn
F S    ....  r 1 
 S  p1  S  p2 
r r 1
 S  p1  S  p1  S  pn 
The value of the constants ki is given by :

P S 
  S  p1
r
k r
Q S  s   p
1
d  r P S  
k   S  p1 
r 1
dS  Q S  
s   p1
1 d 
 S  p1 r P S  
j

k r j

j! dS  j 
Q S  
s   p1
d r 1 
 S  p1 r P S  
1 
k 1
 r 1 
 r  1! dS  Q S  
s   p1

Example:

P S  S 3 k1 k2
F S    
Q S   S  1 S  2  S  1  S  2

Q(S) has distinct roots ( ‫) جذور محددة‬. At S = -1 and S =- 2.

P S 
k   S  1 2
i
Q  S  s  1
P S 
k 2   S  2 Q S   1
s  2
2 1
FS  
 S  1  S  2

f t  2e  e
t 2t
The Laplace inverse transform is:

Example:

7
 2S  3 2S  3 k2 k1 k
F S      3
 3 2

S  2 S  S S  S  1 2
 S  1  S  1 S
2

Q(S) has two repeated roots ( ‫) جذورمكررة‬. At S = -1.

P S 
  S  1
2
k 2
Q S  s  1
 1

d  2 P S  
k   S  1   3
1
dS  Q S  
s  1

P S 
k 3
S
Q S  s  0
3

2S  3 1 3 3
FS    
S  S  1  S  1  S  1
2 2
S

f  t   t e  3 e  3
t t

3- MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

8
 Many systems, mechanical, electrical, thermal, etc., may be represented by a set of
differential equations. The response of this system to a certain test input can be
obtained by solving these differential equations.
First we derive the differential equations describing the electrical and mechanical
components.

 Electrical components:

i ) Resistance R
v t  i(t) R
i t  
Ohm's law R
v t   i t  R
Laplace transform v(t)
VS
IS 
R
V S  I SR
  
ii) Inductance L L
i(t)
di  t 
v t   L
dt
V  S   LSI  S  v(t)
iii) Capacitance C

Q (t) = C v(t) C
(t)i
dQ t  dv t 
i t   C
dt dt
I  S   CSV  S  (t)v

 Mechanical components:

i ) Mass m r (t) m

Newton's law of motion

dx 2  t  dv t  x(t)
Force r  t   m 2
m
dt dt
R S   mS X  S   mSV  S 
2

Where:

m mass
dx t 
Velocity v  t  
dt

ii ) Dashpot (damper)

f(t)

9
f(t)
(
 dx t 
Damping force f d  t   f
dt
Fd  S   f SX  S 

Where: f friction constant.

iii ) Spring K
f (t)
Hook's law for spring, diaphram, bellows, etc.
Spring force f  t   kx t 
Fs  S   KX  S 
x (t)
Now we shall derive the mathematical models of some important mechanical and
electrical systemsnamely mass spring damper system, RLC circuits and tank system.

1 - Spring Mass Damper System.

This is a widely used practical system known as (Shock Absorber), as shown in

figure.

Applying Newton's law,

f K
d 2 y t  dy  t 
m 2
f  Ky  t   r  t 
dt dt y(t)
m
Where:
m mass.
K spring constant.
f friction constant.
(t)r
ecroF
The above differential equation must be solved to study the relation between the input
force f(t) and the output displacement y(t) and the effects of the shock absorber
parameters m, K and f.

The Laplace transform of the differential equation is:

(mS2 + f S+ K ) Y(S) =R (S)

The system transfer function is:

K
YS 1 1 m
 2 
R S   ms  fS  K  K  S 2  f S  K 
 m m 


YS 1 
2
 n


R  S  K S  2  n S   2n
2

Where:

10
 ωn natural frequency of the system
ζ damping factor

ωn = √K / m.
2 ζ ωn = f / m.

For impulse input force r(t) = δ(t) and R (S) =1.

2
YS 
1  n


K S  2  n S   2n
2

Using the Laplace inverse transform table form N o 19.

y t  
n
e 
  n t sin 
n 1 2t  
K 1 2

2 - RLC Circuit
R L
Applying Kirchhoff 's law

vR+ vL+ vC= ui(t) i(t)

di  t  1 i
ut (t) C uo(t)
R.i  t   L   i. .d  ui  t 
dt C 0

IS
RI  S   LSI  S    Ui  S 
CS
Ui  S 
IS 
 1  , Uo (S) =I (S) . XC
 R  LS  
 CS 
Ui  S  1 Ui  S 
Uo S   

 R  LS 
1  CS

2

LCS  RCS  1 
 CS 
The transfer function is:
1
Uo  S  LC  2n
  2
Ui  S   2 R 1  ( S  2 n S   2n)
S  S  
 L LC 
Where:
1
 n 
LC is the system natural frequency.
R
and 2 n   is the damping factor
L
For unit step input voltage ui (t) =1 and Ui(S) = 1/ S.

11
 2
1 n
Uo  S  
S ( S 2  2 n S   2n)
The output voltage as a function of time is from Laplace inverse table form N o 21:
uo  t   1 
1
1 2 e
nt
sin  n 1   2 t     cos 1  1

Example:
In the RLC circuit, if R=100 Ω, L=100 mH and C=10 μF find the output voltage
across the capacitance C as a function of time.
Solution
1 1 1
 n     1000rad / sec
LC 0.1x10 x10 6 10 3

R 100
and 2 n    1000  2x1000    0 .5
L 0.1
uo  t   1 
1
1  0.5 2 e
500t
 
sin 500 11  0.52 t  cos1 0.5

500t 
uo  t   1  1.15 e sin  886t  
3
 Analogy between Mechanical and Electrical systems

The differential equation of the spring damper system:

d 2 y t  dy  t 
m 2
f  Ky  t   r  t 
dt dt
Rewriting with respect to velocity v(t)= dy(t )/ dt.
d v t 
t
m  fv t   K  v  t  dt  r  t 
dt 2 0

mass friction spring force

The differential equation of the RLC system

di  t  1
t
R.i  t   L   i. .d  ui  t 
dt C0
resistance inductance capacitance voltage

Mechanical system Electrical system

force r (t) voltage u (t)
velocity v (t) current i (t)
mass m inductance L
spring K capacitance 1/ C
friction f resistance R

3 -Tank system

12
 q(t) in

h
H q(t)out

Figure ( ) Tank system

The rate of change of liquid level dh(t)/dt is:

- Proportional to the difference between the inlet flow and outlet flow q(t)in -q(t)out.
- Depends on the tank capacity C, such that:

dh  t 
q(t) in - q(t) out  C 1
dt

The relation between the liquid level h(t) and the outlet flow q(t)out is described by
Ohm's law:

h t 
q(t) out   2
R
Where:
R is the resistance of the output valve.

From equations (1) and (2).

For level control.

h t  dh  t 
q(t) in - C
R dt

The Laplace transform is:

H  S
Q i (S) -  C SH  S
R

1 1
H(S) 1
 R RC  R 

Qi (S) 1  C S S1
RC
 1 
S  
 
R  
13
Where:
τ tank time constant τ =RC .
For unit step input flow rate qi(t) =1, Qi(S) =1/S.

1
H(S)  R 
 
S S  1 
 
 t 
Using Laplace transform inverse table to get h(t). h(t)  R1  e  
 
For flow control.
dq t  out
q(t) in - q(t) out  RC
dt
The Laplace transform is:

Q i (S) - Q o (S)  RC SQo  S  hence Q i (S)  1  RC S Qo  S 

1
Q o (S)

1

1
 
Q i (S) 1  RC S RC S  1   
RC  S  1 
 
Where:
τ tank time constant τ = RC .

For unit step input flow rate qi(t) =1, Qi(S) =1/ S.

1
Q o (S)  
 
S S  1 
 
 t 
Using Laplace transform inverse table to get qo(t). q o (t)  1  e  
 

14

Figure ( ) Time response of the level and output flow rate

4 -Rotational Motion
Bearing
a- Position Control:
 t B
Consider a rotatin rigid body shown in figure.
J
Applying Newton's law:
d  t 
t  
dt
d 2 n
J
dt 2
 
i
T i  T  Td  Ts
Where: Linear Rotational
x(t) Θ(t)
J moment of inertia Kgm2. v(t) ω(t)
T applied torque. Force Torque
Td damping torque of damping constant B.
m J
T restoring torque of torsional constant G.

d 2  t  d  t 
J 2
B  G  t   T
dt dt

Note

For electric motors, the shafts are normally short so we can neglect the torsional
torque G θ(t) =0.
d 2  t  d  t 
J 2
B  T
dt dt

The Laplace transform is:

J S2 Θ(S)+ B S Θ(S) = T(S) and Θ(S) [JS2 + BS ]= T(S)

(S) 1 1
 2 
T(S) JS  B S JS S  B  J

b- Speed Control:

d  t 
As t  , the above equation can be written with respect of ω(t):
dt

 (S) 1 1
 
T(S) JS  B J SB  J


15
Example:

For a rotating body having moment of inertia J = 0.1 kg m2, and bearing friction
constant B = 0.05 N.S / rad. Applying a unit step input torque, find the position θ(t)
and angular speed ω(t).

Solution
For unit step input torque, T(S) =1 /S.

a- For Position Control

f
1 J
 S   
JS 2  S  f  fS 2  S  f 
 J  J
Using partial fraction
f
1 J J 1 0.1 0.5
 S   2  2  
fS f S S  f  0.05S 25 x10 S  S  0.5
2 4
 J 

Using the inverse Laplace table

t 0.1 1   0.5t   20t  401   0.5t 

  t    e   e 
0.05 25x10  4    

b- For Speed Control

B
1 J 0.5
 (S)    20 x
S  JS  B  BS S  B
J
 S  S  0.5 
Using the inverse Laplace table

 (t)  20 x1  e  0.5t 

 

Home Work: Phillips p-32

Car m1
a- Write the differential equations describing
the mechanical system shown in figure. f K1 y1(t)
b- If a unit impulse force is applied on the wheel.
Find the car displacement y1(t).
Wheel m2

y2(t)
r(t)
Force K2
16
 5 - DC Motors

The direct current motors (D.C. motors) are commonly used in many control
applications namely Robotic, diskdrives, machine toolsand servo systems.
The circuit diaigram of a D.C. is shown in figure ( ).

armature

Ra
Rf
+ La

vf Lf ω ,θ
Bearing
friction B
_ Inertia J

if(t) ia(t)
field

Assumptions:
a) The voltage drop across the brushes is neglected.
b) The air gap flux Φ is proportional to the field current if (t).
Φ = Kf if (t).
c) The torque developed by the motoris given by the equation:
Tm(t)= K1 Φ ia(t) = K1 Kf if(t) ia(t)
Where:
i(t)f field current.
i(t)a armature current.
The differential equation describing the roational motion of the motoris:
..
J θ (t) + Tf (t )+ Ts(t) = Tm(t)
Where:
J moment of inertia.
.
Tf friction torque = f θ (t)
Ts restoring torque =K θ (t).
For motors the rotor shaft is short and we can neglect the restoring torque Ts.
Rewritting the above equation:
17
 .. .
J θ (t) + f θ (t) = Tm (t)
and in the Laplace form
J S 2θ (S) + f S θ (S) = Tm(S)
Now we shall discuss two types of D.C. motors namely, field controlled motor and
armature controlled motor.

i) Field Controlled D.C. motor.

Rf
+
In this case the armature current ia is constant.
The torque equation in Laplace form: vf Lf
Tm (S) = K1 Kf If (S) Ia= Km If (S).
Where : Km is the motor constant. _

In the field circuit if (t)

Vf  S 
I f S 
Vf (S)= ( Rf + Lf S ) If (S) hence
R f  Lf S 

Km
Tm  S  
 Rf  Lf S  Vf  S  1

Note:
The motor torque Tm isequal to the load torque + disturbance torque Td, which is
often neglible. However the disturbance torque Td must be cinsidered in systems
subjected to external forces let us say wind force as in the antenna systems.
Tm (S) = TL (S) + Td (S).
From the rotational motion equation:
Vf  S 
J S 2θ (S) + f S θ (S) = Tm  S   Km  R  L S 
f f

Vf  S 
( J S 2+ f S ) θ (S) = Km
R f  Lf S 

S Km 1
The transfer function is G  S   V  S    R  L S   JS  f  S
f f f

Field Load
T m (S)
Vf (S) ω(S) 1 θ (S)

Figure ( ) The block diagram model of the field controlled D.C. motor.

18
 armature
ii) Armature Controlled D.C. motor.

In this case the field current if is constant. Ra

The torque equation in Laplace form:
Tm(S) = K1 Kf Ia (S) If = Km Ia(S). La
va
Where : Km is the motor constant.
vb,
In the armature circuit
Back emf
Va (S)= ( Ra+ La S ) Ia(S)+Vb(S)
ia(t)
Vb(S) = Kb ω(S) = Kb S θ(S).

Where:
Vb(S) back emf in the armature which is proportional to the armature speed
Kb. back emf constant.

Va (S) = ( Ra+ La S ) Ia(S)+ Kb S θ(S).

Va  S   K b S   S 
Ia S  
 R a  La S 
V a  S   K b  S 
Tm  S   K m I a  S   Km
 Ra  La S 
Va  S   K b  S 
 J S 2θ (S) + f S θ (S) = Tm  S   Km
 Ra  La S 
Va  S   K b  S 
S ( J S + f ) θ (S) = Km
 Ra  La S 
S Km 1
The transfer function is G S   
V a  S   Ra  La S   JS  f   K m K b S

Va(S) Load speed position

Armature T m (S)
+ ω(S) 1 θ (S)

- S

K
b
Figure ( ) The block diagram model of the armature controlled D.C. motor.

19
6 - Gear Ratio

θm N1 = θL N2 , θL= n θm and ωL= n ωm

Tm N1
For the same work
T m θm = T L θL
n = N1 / N2
T m θm = T L n θ m Motor
hence Tm = n TL and TL= (1/ n )TL θm , ω m θL , ω L J, f
In order to increase the output torque
n must be less than 1 i.e. = N1 / N2 < 1
N2 TL
7 – Linear Potentiometer
+
V2  S  R2
R1
R2
  V1(S) R For
V1  S  R R1  R2
R2 V1(S)
_
8 – Rotary Potentiometer
+
θ
V2  S  R 2 
 
V1  S 
V1(S)
R  max
V2(S)

9 – Error Detector
+
θ1 θ2
V2 (S) = Ks [ θ1(S) – θ2(S) ]
V1(S)
V2 (S) = Ks θerror (S)

Where: _

Vbattary
Ks  Error
 max V2 (S)

10 – Tachometer (Velocity Sensor)

Shaft
V2 (S) = Ks ω (s) =Ks S θ (S)
V2 (S)
20
θ (s), ω (s)
 Where:

Ks = constant

4- BLOCK DIAGRAM AND TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer function of a linear system(element) is defined as the ratio of the

output variable Laplace transform to the input variable Laplace transform , with all
initial conditions assumed to be zero. The transfer function describes the dynamics of
the system. For example:

1 - Spring Mass Damper System. f K

The system transfer function is: y(t)
m
YS 1 n
2


R S  K S 2  2  n S   2n 
Where: (t)r
ωn = √K / m. ecroF
2 ζ ωn = f / m.

The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

(S)R 2 (S)Y
1  n
K S 2  2 nS  2
n 

2 - RLC Circuit

L R

The system transfer function is:

u C 1 (t)i u(t)i (t)
o
Uo  S  LC
2
n
  2
Ui  S   2 R 1  ( S  2 n S   2n)
S  S  
 L LC 
Where:
1
 n 
LC is the system natural frequency.

21
 R
and 2 n   is the damping factor
L
The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

R(S) 2 Y(S)
1 n
K  S 2  2  n S   2n 

3 -Tank system

For level control.

The system transfer function is:

1 1
H(S)

1
 R RC  R 
Q i (S) 1
CS S1 
RC
 1 
S  

R  
Where:
τ tank time constant τ =RC .
The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

Qi(S) 1 H(S)

R
S  1
 

For flow control.

The system transfer function is:

1
Q o (S)

1

1
 
Q i (S) 1  RC S RC S  1    
RC  S  1 
 
The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

Qi(S) 1
 Qo(S)
S  1
  22
 4 -Rotational Motion

 t
Bearing
a- Position Control:
B
The system transfer function is:
J
(S) 1 1
 2 
T(S) JS  B S JS S  B  J

The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

T(S) 1
 
Θ(S)

JS S  B
J

b- Speed Control:

The system transfer function is:

 (S) 1 1
 
T(S) JS  B J SB  J

The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

ω(S)
T(S) 1

J S  B
J


5 - DC Motors

Field Controlled D.C. motor.

The transfer function is:

S Km 1
G S   
V f  S   R f  L f S   JS  f  S

The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

Vf (S) θ (S)
Km 1
 R f  L f S   JS  f 

23
 Armature Controlled D.C. motor.

S Km 1
The transfer function is: G S   
V a  S   Ra  La S   JS  f   K m K b S

The system is replaced by a block diagram as follows:

position
Va(S) Km 1 θ (S)

 R f  L f S   JS  f   K m K b S

5- REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

5.1 Block Diagram Reduction Technique (block diagram algebra).

The block diagram reduction technique is used to simplify the whole system block
diagram with fewer blocks.
A general rule for simplifying a block diagram is to move a branch (pick off) points,
1- Combining blocks x1 x2 x3 x1 x3
summing points, interchanging
G1 G2 summing points and then
G1reduce
G2 internal feedback
in cascade.
loops. The following table shows the rules for block diagram algebra.
x1 + x2 x1 x2
2- Combining blocks G 1
G + G
1 2

in parallel.
G +
2

x1 + x3 x1 x3
G G
3- Moving a summing
point behind a block.
G
x2 x2

x1 + x1 x1 + x3
4- Moving a summing G G
point ahead a block.
± ± 1
G
x2 x1
5- Moving a pickoff x1 x2 x1 x2
point behind a block. G G

1
x1 x1 G

6- Moving a pick off x1 x2 x1 x2

point ahead a block. G G
24
G
x x
 Negative feedback R(S) E(S) C(S)
+
G(S)
E(S) = R(S) - C(S) H(S) _
C(S) = E(S) G(S)
H(S)
C(S) =[ R(S) - C(S) H(S) ]G(S)

C(S) =[ R(S) G(S) - C(S) G(S) H(S) ]

C (S ) G (S )
R(S) G(S) = C(S) [1+ G(S) H(S) ]  The T .F . 
R( S ) 1  G ( S ) H ( S )

R(S) C(S)

Example:
Obtain the transfer function T.F. of the system shown in figure using block diagram
reduction technique.

H2
I
R(s) _ C(s)
+ + +
G1 G2 G3 G4
_
+ II
H1
III

H2 /G4 H3

_
+ + +
_ G1 G2 G3 G4
+
H1

H3 25
 H2 /G4

G1 G2 G3 G4

H1

H3

H2 /G4

G1 G2 G3G4
1  G3G4 H1
H3

G2G3G4
G1
1  G3G4 H1  G2G3 H 3

H3

G1G2 G3G4
1  G3G4 H 1  G2 G3 H 3  G1G2 G3G4 H 3

26
 5.2 Signal Flow Graph Reduction Technique.

For complex system the block diagram reduction technique is difficult to complete,
so another method is used to obtain the system T.F. This method is the signal flow
graph reduction technique.
The signal flow graph is a diagram, which represents the control system. It is simple,
besides a so called Mason's formula is used to obtain the system T.F., without
requiring the block diagram reduction. Also the graph is obtained easily from the
block diagram. Such that each signal (E(S), C(S), …. is denoted by a node, and a T.F.
by a branch. In the following figure a block diagram of a feedback control system and
its corresponding signal flow graph.

R(S) E(S) C(S) R(S) 1 E(S) G(S) C(S)

+
G(S)
_

H(S)
H(S)

5.2.1 The basic elements of a signal flow graph.

 Node:
Represents a system variable (input or output).
 Branch:
Uni-directional path segment, it connects between 2 nodes and it act as a
signal multiplier.
 Path:
A branch or continuous sequence of branches that can traversed from node to
node, path gains are P1, P2…
 Loop:
A closed path that originates and terminates on the same node, loop gains are
L1, L 2,…
 Forward path:
A path connects the input and output.
 Touching loops:
If they share one or more common node.
 Non-touching loops:
27
 If they do not have a common node.
5.2.2 Mason's Gain Formula

n
1 P11  P2  2  .......  Pn  n
The T .F.   P  
 k 1 k k 
Where:
n Number of forward paths.
Pk Gain of the K th forward path.
∆ Determinant of the graph.
∆ = 1- (sum of all different loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two non-touching loops) – (sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of three non-touching loops) +……
∆ = 1- Σ La +Σ Lb Lc - Σ Ld Le Lf + ……

Σ La = sum of all different loop gains.

Σ Lb Lc = sum of gain products of all possible combinations of 2 non-touching loops

Σ LdLeLf = sum of gain products of all possible combinations of 3 non-touching loops
∆k The cofactor determinant of the K th forward path, and equal the determinant
of the graph with all loops touching the forward path removed.

Example:
Obtain the transfer function T.F. of the system shown in figure using Mason's gain
formula.

H2
I
R(s) C(s)
+ -
G1 G2 G3 G4
- + II
H1
III

H3

28
 -H2

I
R(S) 1 G1 G2 G3 G4 C(S)

II
III H1

-H3

n
1
Mason's formula: T .F . 
 P
 k 1 k k
N o of forward paths =1
P1=G1 G2 G3 G4
N o of loops =3
L1 = - G2 G3 H2
L2= G3 G4 H1
L3 = - G1 G2 G3 G4 H3
All loops have common nodes, there for all loops are touching.
∆ = 1- ( L1 + L2 + L3), (the graph determinant)

∆1 =1 (the cofactor determinant).

C(S ) G1G 2 G3 G 4 x1 G1G 2 G3 G 4
 
R ( S ) 1   L1  L 2 L3 L 4  1  G 2 G 3 H 2  G3 G 4 H 1  G1G 2 G3 G 4 H 3
Example: Obtain the transfer function T.F. of the system shown in figure using
Mason's gain formula.

H2 H3

L1 L2

G1 G2 G3 G4

R(S C(S)

G5 G6 G7 G8

L3 L4

H6 H7

29
 1 n
Mason's formula: T .F .   P 
 k 1 k k
No of forward paths = 2
P1=G1 G2 G3 G4 P2=G5 G6 G7 G8
No of loops = 4
L1 = G2 H2 L2 = G3 H3
L3 = G6 H6 L4 = G7 H7
The non touching loops are L1 & L3 , L4 and L2 & L3 , L4
∆ = 1- (L1+L2 + L3 + L4) + (L1 L3+ L1 L4 + L2 L3 + L2 L4) the graph determinant.

The cofactor determinant ∆1, eliminating the loops touching path 1. i.e. L1,L2 = 0

∆1=1- (L3+L4).

The cofactor determinant ∆2, eliminating the loops touching path 2. i.e. L3,L4 = 0

∆2=1- (L1+L2).

C ( S ) P11  P2 2 G1G2G3G4 1  L3  L4   G5G6G7G8 1  L1  L2 

 G(S )   
R( S )  1  G1G2 H 2  G3G4 H1 G1G2G3G4 H 3

R(S) G(S) C(S)

Example: Obtain the closed loop transfer function T.F. of the system shown in figure
using Mason's gain formula.

G6
G7

L3

L2
R(S) G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 C(S)

L1
L4
-H1
30

-H2
 No of forward paths = 3
P1=G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 P2=G1 G6 G4 G5 P3=G1 G2 G7 .
No of loops = 4
L1 = - G4 H1 L2 = - G2 G7 H2
L3 = - G6 G4G5 H2 L4 = - G2 G3 G4G5 H2
No of un-touching loops = 2
The non touching loops are L1 and L2.

1 n
Mason's formula: T .F .   P 
 k 1 k k
∆ = 1- (L1+L2 + L3 + L4) + (L1 L2), the graph determinant.
The cofactor determinants ∆i.
∆1=1 eliminating the loops touching path 1. i.e. L1,L2, L3,L4, = 0

∆2=1 eliminating the loops touching path 1. i.e. L1,L2, L3,L4, = 0

∆3=1-L1 eliminating the loops touching path 1. i.e. L2, L3,L4, = 0

C ( S ) P1  1  P2  2  P3  3
 G(S )  
R(S ) 

R(S) G(S) C(S)

H.W.1 Obtain the closed loop transfer function T.F. of the system shown in figure
using Mason's gain formula.

-H3

R(S) G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 1 C(S)

31
- H2
-H1
 n
1
Mason's formula: T .F . 
 P
 k 1 k k
N o of forward paths =2
P1= G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 touching loop1&2
P2= – G1 G2 H3 touching loop1&2
N o of loops =2
L1 = – G2 G3 H1
L2 = – G5 H2
All loops have not common nodes, there for all loops are non touching.
∆ = 1– ( L1 + L2) + L1 L2, (the graph determinant)
∆1 =1 and ∆2 =1 as P1, P2 touching loop1&2 (the cofactor determinants).
C ( s ) P11  P2  2

R(s) 

C ( s ) G1G2 G3G4 G5  G1G2 H 3 G1G2 G3G4 G5  G1G2 H 3

 
R( s) 1   L1 L2   L1 L2 1  G2 G3 H 1  G5 H 2 G2 G3G5 H 1 H 2

H.W.2 Obtain the closed loop transfer function T.F. of the system shown in figure
using Mason's gain formula.

-4

R(S) 1 1 G1 1 G2 3 1 C(S)

-3 -5

32
 1 s
Given that: G1 ( S )  and G2 ( S )  .
s 1 s2

33