A . G. J.

K L0 M P
ir (De gree of Civil Engin eer), Konink lij ke.Shell Laboratorium, Amsterdam

G . M. DORMO N
8 .Sc. (Eng. ), A.M. I.H .E., Shell In ter nation a l Pe trol e um Company Ltd ., London

STRESS DISTRIBUTION AND DYNAMIC TESTING

IN RELATION TO ROAD DESIGN
(Pap er No . 149)

Th e use of elastic th eory has made it possible to identify th e critical poilliS

in a road structure wh ere th e strains must not exceed th e vaill es that can
be borne by th e materials concerned. This, togeth er with th e applicatioll
of dynamic testing techniques in the field and th e analysis of the perfor-
mance of known road structures in terms of the three lay er elastic th eory,
has enabled th e co nstruction of design cur ves which compare .the relati ve
thickness required for a bitumen bound layer with that of an equivalent
unbound granular layer. A separate curve is required for each particular
dynamic modulus of soil and the life of the construction is expressed ill the
number of repetitions of a standard axle load.
Although many factors of critical importance may still have to be
taken into account, th ese curves offer a reasonable basis for th e design of
structures for which there is no previolls experience.

INTRODUCTION

1. The rapid expansion of road systems all over the world requires consider-
able investment, and for economy it is desirable that design methods should be
used which will enable flexible road pavements to be constructed in a reasonably
accurate way. In general, a civil engineering structure is designed on the basis of
the mechanical properties of the materials used , but in the past the design of flexible
roads has been based almost entirely on experience. This experience has been
incorporated in a number of design procedures which, while being of great value
for the purposes for which they were formulated , suffer from the limitation that
they are applicable only und er the conditions and within the region where the
experience has been gained.
2. Probably the most widely accepted of these empirical methods is that based
on the CBR of the soil, in which the thickness of the construction is related to the
strength of the soil and the traffic lo ading. This method however applies only to
the conventional type of construction which has a comparatively thin asphalt sur-
facing layer. It is not suitable for the design of constructions where the thicknes
of bound materials is appreciable.
3. In order to make full allowance for the contribution to the structure which
may be made for example by a bitumen bound layer used as a base, it is necessary
to utilize theories which will permit the distribution of the stress throughout the
various layers of the structure to be determined. At present, the only theories
available which seem suitable are for a 3-layer elastic system, but it is considered
that they are satisfactory for practical use. Whilst traffic loading is dynamic in
character, the theories available are for static loading. It is therefore important
- . .-:zg
Volume 2, Part 2, 1964 701
 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

to carry out investigations in order to assess the validity of the theories for this
application, and to determine the properties of the constructional materials under
the dynamic loading conditions. A discussion of these aspects of design is followed
by a description of some provisional road design curves which have been developed
for practical use.
ELASTIC THEORY AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
4. A road structure is considered in terms of an ideal elastic system, consist-
ing of a number of uniform layers which rest on a semi-infinite mass. In this con-
sideration an elastic material is defined as one having a linear stress-strain relation-
ship; there is no assumption of complete recovery of strain when the stress is
removed. With this definition the material in a layer can be visco-elastic provided
its stress-strain relationship is linear at a given temperature and time of loading,
and the modulus appropriate to these conditions is used. In addition, the materials
are assumed to be homogenous and isotropic.
5. Of the elastic theories available, the equations for the distribution of stress
in a 3-layer system developed by BURMISTER (Ref. 1) were considered to provide
the best starting point. These equations were evaluated by ACUM and Fox (Ref.
2) for a number of specific cases, and JONES (Ref. 3) has computed values for a
wide range of conditions. A vertical static load is assumed to be applied to the
surface, uniformly distributed over a circular area. Under this load, the greatest
stresses and displacements occur at points lying on the axis of symmetry of the
system. It is therefore necessary to calculate the stresses and displacements of such
points.
6. The tables or graphs of stresses at the various points are usually presented
in such a way that they relate (a) the ratio of the stresses in the construction to
the stress applied (tyre pressure), (b) the ratio of the E-moduli of the materials
in the various layers to one another, and (c) the ratio of layer thicknesses to
the radius of the loaded area.
7. Fig. 1 represents the structure considered and shows the properties and
dimensions that must be known. The top layer represents all the bitumen bound
courses, the middle layer the unbound granular layers, and the sub-grade is repres-
ented by the bottom layer which extends infinitely downwards.
8. Analysis by the elastic theory makes it possible to identify the points where
the stresses or strains are greatest. It is concluded that the critical conditions, as
indicated in Fig. 1, are:
(a) the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the bitumen bound layer; if
this is excessive, cracking of the layer may occur;
(b) the vertical compressive strain in the surface of the sub-grade; if this is
excessive, permanent deformation will occur at the top of the sub-grade and
this will ultimately lead to excessive permanent deformation at the surface
and to loss of riding quality.
9. The critical strains can be determined for any particular structure and
load by interpolation from the stress factors for the 3-layer elastic system computed

702 PROCEEDINGS
 STRESS DISTRIBUTION, DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESI GN

W heel Load.

Contact
Stress ero

Bitum en -B ound Layers . I T ensile strain in

t
h,
( Dynamic Modulu s El)
/ Bitumen·Bound Layers.

G ranula r Base
and Sub-Base.
( Dynam ic Modul us E2)

l" . .
r
Su bgrade
( Dynamic Modulus E3) Fig. 1 - Diagram of a 3-layer structure

by Jones, referred to earlier. The design of a structure is carried out by selecting, as

described by PEATTIE (Ref. 4), suitable thicknesses of asphalt and unbound granu-
lar layers so that the critical strains do not exceed permissible values for the dif-
ferent materials.
10. An example of the interdependence of these critical stress-strains is given
in Fig. 2, which iIlustrates the influence of the E-modulus of the top layer on the
distribution of stresses in a 3-1ayered system . Calculation shows that the vertical
~

~ .
0-5

~~ 0' 4

~~ 0-3
~~
ij
£~
~~
~ 0

~~
UVl

Fig . 2 - Calculated stresses in a road

structure of given dimensions, for a range
of values of the El modulu s, with E, and
E3 constant

Volume 2, Part 2, 1964 703

 S T RESS DIS TRIBUTION. DYNAMI C T E STING AND ROA D D E SI GN

tress on the sub-grade decreases when the E-modulus of the material in the top
layer increases, whereas the tensile radial stress at the underside of the top layer
shows a rapid increase with increasing E-modulus. All attempts to limit the stresses
generated on the sub grade by applying a material on top with a higher E-modulus
must therefore take into account the fact that the tensile stress in the top layer
will increase and that the risk of fracture is greater.
11. The applicability of this theory to real road structures depends on how
closely the behaviour of real materials approximates elastic behaviour. In
calculating the stress distribution it has been assumed so far that the modulus of
any layer will be independent of the stress or strain to which the layer is subjected.
and that the Poisson's ratio for all the materials is 0.5.

12. Laboratory measurements on bitumen mixes (Ref. 5) have shown that

the stress-strain relation is not completely linear, and that the Poisson's ratio of
a mix is between 0.25 and 0.4 instead of the assumed value of 0.5. For unbound
granular materials it has been found that for the stresses encountered in road struc-
tures, the stress-strain relationship is substantially linear and that under short times
of loadings the Poisson's ratio is usually about 0.4.
13. The influence of these variations on the stresses and strains developed in
the structure has been calculated, and it has been found that variations in the
Poisson's ratio to the extent measured have no great importance on the compressive
strains in the subgrade, but an appreciable effect on the tensile stresses developed
in the bottom of the top asphalt layer. The effect on the tensile strain in the bottom
of the asphalt layer is much less, p articularly for thicker asphalt layers, and , as
indicated above, a value of 0.5 has been used for calculation purposes. The non-
linearity of asphalt mixes is however significant, and it is desirable that laboratory
measurements of the modulus of such materials should be made at suitable values
of the tensile strain.
14. One of the chief difficulties in designing roads on the basis of elastic theory
is selecting the appropriate values for the moduli and the permissible strains in
the construction materials, since these depend on factors such as temperature,
moisture, duration of loading and , as will be shown later, the position of the
material within the structure itself. It is also necessary to establish by direct testing
the extent to which the theories used are applicable to the behaviour of the structure
under dynamic traffic loading.

DYNAMIC LOADING
15. Since the elastic theory for ] ayered systems employed is valid for linear
stress-strain relations only, it is necessary to establish whether this is true for road
constructions under dynamic lo ading. A road vibration machine (Fig. 3) that
generates forces that vary sinusoidally with time on a circular plate has been u sed
for this purpose. It is in effect a dynamic plate bearing test with varying loading.
The diameter of the plate is 30 cm and the amplitude of applied force may be
varied between 0 and 4 tons, while the frequency ranges from 6 to 50 ci s, i.e.,
over a loading and frequency range applied by heavy wheel loads. The measured

704 PROCEEDI NGS

 STRESS DISTRIBU TION, DYNAMIC 'rESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

Fi g . 3 - Road vibration machine, fo r

deflection and wave ve locity measurements
at frequencie s of from 5 to 60 cis an d
forces up to <I tons

deflections of the surface for various narrow frequency ranges are proportional to
the forces applied, as shown in Fig. 4, although the scatter in results is wider at
lower than at higher frequencies (Ref. 6), Because of this proportionality the
response of the road structure to vibrations may be characterized by its 'stiffness' *,
defined as the ratio force:deflection. Fig. 4 also shows that there is a marked effect
of frequency on the amplitude of the deflection . For the same force the deflection

l00 r----+-------------a6--+-r-rfir~

12 .- 14 C 5 0

Fig . 4 - Re lation ship betwee n d efle ction

amp litude and force amplitude
Force A mplitude, Tons .

' Th e s tiffn ess of the s tru cture s hould not be confu sed w ith t h e s tiff n ess m od ulu s of the a sph a lt
layer s which , a s men t ion ed la t er, i s a v iscoelas ti c an a logu e of th e elastic m od ulu s.

Vol um e 2. P art 2, 1964 705

 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

amplitude at a frequency of 34 to 36 ci s is nearly four times higher than at 12 to

14 ci s. A resonance phenomenon such as this must be attributed to the co-existence
of elasticity and mass. If the road construction is represented by a model consisting
of a single mass M, a spring R and a dashpot A, as illustrated in Fig. 5, the stiff-
ness S can be expressed as a function of the frequency of vibration f:
(1)

This is shown in Fig. 5, which is representative of many measurements (R ef. 8).

16. As the frequency increases, the effect of the damping will be to increase
the stiffness, but the effect of the mass reduces the stiffness value much more
strongly at the lower frequencies. The experimental points correspond rather well
with the calculated curve, but in the higher frequency range, the simple model is
inadequate because the mass elements no longer make uni-directional movements
but show phase differences.
17. The phase angle cp between the force exerted upon the road and the deflec-
tion of the road surface is given by:
tan ¢ = (2nfA)jR - 4n 2 f2M)
The combination of eqn. (1) and (2) yields:
S cos ¢ = R - 4n 2 f2M (3)
S cos cp is the elastic component of the stiffness, from which the part of the deflec-
tion that is in phase with applied force may be calculated.
S sin cp= 21TfA, and is the viscous component of the stiffness which accounts for
the loss of vibrational energy and its conversion into heat.

500 Spri ng + Dashpot

400
R -.,.. /
t t Constant Mass
Spring + Oashpot
Spring Al on e
~

'" \
~
~,4- Exp erim ental

~
!':
in
u
300

,1/' /7
.~
200
o V
0 V
100

10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequ ency, cis .

Fig . 5 - Dynamic stiffness of road exp.; ~ d to

sustaine d vibrations

706 PROCEEDINGS
 STRESS DISTRIBU TION. DYNAl\fIC TES TING AND ROAD DESI GN

18. If the dynamic stiffness S and the phase angle cp are measured at different
frequencies, then the spring constant or elastic stiffness R can be obtained by
plotting S cos cp as a function of f2 and extrapolating to zero frequency as is shown
in Fig. 6.
19. The significance of this analysis of the stiffness of the construction deter··
mined using the vibration machine must be considered in relation to the conditions
appertaining to traffic loading. At the start of a continuous forced vibration, a
spring responds immediately and maintains a constant amplitude as illustrated in
Fig. 7 (curve Ia). If a mass and a dashpot are also present, the vibrations gradu-
ally increase in amplitude and reach a maximum which depends on the values of
the various parameters, including the frequency of the applied force, and may be
considerably larger than that of the spring alone (curve IIa). Under moving traf-
fic, the variation of force with time is approximately half a sine wave, and the
peak deflection in the presence of mass and damping is smaller than the ultimate
amplitude measured with sustained vibrations which are developed by the road
vibration machine with the same force. Curves Ib and IIb (Fig. 7) show the
deflections for half-sinusoidal impact loading; Ib for the spring alone, IIb for
spring plus mass plus dashpot (damping). In this last case, an analysis using the
spring, mass and damping constants found in practice shows that the amplitudes
calculated for the model are equal to those of the spring alone within 20 per cent
(Ref. 7 and 8).
20. From this, it may be concluded that under dynamic loading, the elastic
spring constant R is the most important parameter to be determined, and that for
the time being it is sufficiently accurate for design purposes to use only the elastic
constants measured when making dynamic measurements.
DYNAM IC MODULI OF SOILS AND BASES OF UNBOUND MATERIAL
21. Another way in which the Road Vibration Machine may be used to deter-
mine the dynamic modulus of elasticity of the materials is by measuring the velocity

R =z 82 Vem
80

60

~
".

"-
0

Ul .0

20

Fig . 6 - Linear re lationship between S

cos <p and the square of the frequency
30
used for the determination of the elastic
Frequency, cis - Quadratic Scale.
stiffness R

Volume 2, Part 2, J 964 707

 i:l'l'REi:lS DIS TRIBUTION . DYNAMIC TES TING Al'iD HOAD DESI GN

Su stai~ed V ibration s.

S ~ Start of load ing.

I - Spring alone .
II Spring ~ Mass ';' Dashpot

Ib
S

I mpac t Loading .
Fig . 7 - D iflere nt types of vi b ra tio n

of the transverse waves that are radiated from the loaded area of the road struc-
ture. This is done by placing a pick-up on the surface at various distances from the
vibrator and determining the wave length A.. The wave velocity V is calculated
fro m the equation V = fA.. T hese measurements may be made at different frequen-
cies of vibration and have been extended to a higher frequency range by using a
light electro-dynamic vibrator (Fig. 8). The E-modulus of the material through
which the waves have passed can be calculated from the relation E = q.d.V2 where
d is the density of the soil, and q is a factor dependent on the Poisson's ratio of
the soil. Since the penetrating power of the waves decreases with increasing fre-
quency, measurements over a wide range of frequencies enable V-values and thus
the dynamic E-values to be obtained that are representative of layers at different
depths (Ref. 8) (Fig. 9) .
22. One of the most interesting and significant results of vibration measure-
ments on roads is that it has been found that the E-moduli of granular materials
are dependent on the modulus of the underlying soil or unbound granular layer
(Ref. 9). Fig. 10 gives a number of results in which the E-modulus of a unbound
granular material E 2 is plotted as a function of that of the underlying sailor un-
bound granular layer E a and shows th at the modular ratio E 2:Ea is roughly equal to
2. Only in those cases where the E-modulus of the soil was very low did the ratio

708 PROCEEDINGS
 S T RESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMI C T ESTI NG AND ROAD DESI GN

Fig . 8 - Road vib ration machine, for wave

velocity measurements at frequencies of
from 30 to 3,000 ci s and forces up to
10 kg

tend to be higher and reach values up to 5, but in those cases the unbound granular
layers or sand fills were usually very thick.
23. This finding is not surprising since the modulus depends on the state of
compaction achieved, and it is general experience that when an unbound granular
material is compacted on top of a weaker soil, it cannot achieve the maximum den-
sity of which it is capable.
24. Why this should be so can be explained by an argument that makes use of
information derived from the solutions of the elastic equations for the three-layer
1.000 ,---_ _ _ __ _ _ _- , -_ _ _ _ __ -,

800
A "- 2 x 0.34 m
,/

u 600

I '00 -

" . 2x 1.14 m
200

400

0.34 m

1.14 m
J
C lay
Fig . 9 - Wave velocities observed on
stratified soil as a function of frequency
(upper part) and depth (lower part)

Volume 2. P art 2, 1964 709

 STRESS DISTRIBUTION, DYNAMIC TESTIN G AND ROAD DESIGN

10'

.
/
/
/
/
/
/

~E

~
!.
~
~

""0 10'
, / / 0 /

r~/ .. / /
/

~ ~/
~ ,~/' " ,

i// "

////
.
, / /',// .// //
,
a0 Sub· base )
Base
.
Single Compa cted layer
• Ba se C ompacted in two Layers
/
/
/

10' 10' Fig . 10 - Dynamic moduli of unbound

granular layers
Mod ul us of Lower Layer,kgfcm 2,

system (Ref. 3). These show that when a typical 3-layer system is loaded, whether
the radial stress at the bottom of the second layer is compressive or tensile depends
on the ratio E 2 :Es. The stress is zero when this ratio is a little greater than 1, and
compressive when the ratio is smaller and tensile when it is larger, as shown for
example in Fig. 11 . As compression tends to give compaction and tension decom-
paction, if there were no friction between the granules of the second layer, ~
would tend to stabilize in the condition where the radial stress was zero, i.e., with
the ratio E 2:Es close to 1. As there is in fact friction between the granules, the
vertical compressive component of the stress (J' v allows the second layer to sustain
a certain tensile radial stress without decompaction occurring. To take account of
this effect, the frictional stress resisting radial displacement may be given by
-' 0·04

.; 0·03

.: 0 02

·i 0·01

bO
tf 10

-0,01

-0'02

-0 ·03
Fig . II - Radial bending stress at lower
si de of intermediate layer as a function
of E,/ E3 ratio according to Jones
-004

7 10 PROCEEDINGS
 STRESS DISTRWU TION. DYNAMIC T ES TING AN D RO AD DESIGN

o-f = go-v, where g is an aggregate interlocking factor analogous to the coefficient

of static friction, O<g < l. Fig . 12 shows that for reasonable values of g, 1;2 to 1,
the E2:E3 ratio is about 2, which accords with the values of the modular ratio
measured.
25. If in thick constructions the weight of the upper layers is also taken into
account in addition to the vertical stress caused by the traffic load, the modular
ratios of 3: 5 found for such constructions may also be explained. That the modular
ratio for successive courses of unbound soils and granular materials lies within fairly
narrow limits is thus established both by observation and by theoretical consider-
ations. This basic conclusion has simplified design calculations and their presenta-
tion.
26. If the second layer is comprised of successive courses, each with a modular
ratio of 11;2 to 2 1h, it can also be shown by the elastic theory that it acts like a
uniform layer where the E2 :E~ ratio is unlikely to be greater than about 3 or 4
for practical layer thicknesses.
27. This analysis leads to the conclusion that for constructions on any particu-
lar subgrade soil consisting mainly of unbound granular material, the behaviour
of the road is governed primarily by the thickness of the construction. There is
thus support in this respect for th e designs given by the empirical eBR design
curves.
28. The results of laboratory investigations on soils and unbound granular
materials under tri-axial conditions and under dynamic loading (Ref. 5 and 10)
show that their elastic moduli depend upon the lateral pressure, i.e., local stres~
conditions. Since the stress conditions in the road structure will differ at varying
depths, these results provide confirmation that the effective moduli of unbound
construction materials in-situ will depend on the position of these materials in
the road structure.
29. The results obtained by dynamic testing in the field also provide useful
information on many aspects of des ign and evaluation. Examples of these are:
·, 0·04,--- - - - - - . , - - - - - - - -- - ,

~
0.8
·· 003

., 0·02 1--=-- - - - - 1
I
1
001 I-r- - -"-.- --t

E, / E3
10
1 cry
-0-01
!!'-
cr~ cr,
-0·02f--- - - - - + --
-
-0·03j--- - -- - + - - . --'lc----------1 Fi g. 12 - The effect of granular interlock
on the equilibrium val ue of the E2/ E3
- 0'04 '--- - - - - - - ' - ratio

Volum e 2, Pa rt 2, 1964 711

 STRESS DI S TRIBUTIOr . DYNAMIC T ESTI NG .·,,:\TD ROAD DESIGN

(a) It has been found that a guide to the approximate value of the dynamic
elastic modulus of soils and unbound granular materials is given by the CBR
of the material. This is useful because direct measurement cannot be carried
out simply. The data (Ref. 8 and 11) given in Fig. 13 serve to show that
the dynamic modulus (p.s.i.) varies from 750 to 3,000 times the CBR when
the CBR is measured on the material in the field under the same conditions.
An average value of E equal to 1,500 CBR p.s.i. has been adopted for design
purposes when no other data are available. This relation is only a rough indi-
cation since the CBR values are determined at considerable deformations,
where the plastic deformation is relatively large, whereas the dynamic E-
modulus is determined at very small deformations and high frequencies. In
consequence, a slightly higher modulus th an would be calculated in this way
may be appropriate for the more plastic soils. Another factor contributing
to scatter in this correlation is that field CBR measurements on subgrades
show fairly large variations along a road (Ref. 12) whilst calculations from
the wave propagation measurements give an average value for the properties
over the length of the road measured, which is usually about 12 to 30 ft or
even longer.
(b) The thickness of layers of unbound material, or materials which do not have
a very high E-modulus, may be estimated by vibration measurements. For
such layers, the transition from one wave velocity to another occurs at a prac-
tically constant wavelength which is equal to about twice the depth of the
interface of the layers concerned as shown in Fig. 9. This transition zone,
however, does not provide a reliable method for determining the exact depth
of interfaces. This is because on roads where the wearing course is thick and
consists of a material having a high E-modulus, such as is generally the case
with bound materials, the transition zone is found at higher values of the
wavelengths than twice the depth of the interface of the layers.
(c) The effect of the moisture content on the dynamic E-modulus of the soil
in-situ may be determined by dynamic testing. An example of this is given in

E = 1500 CBR
~ E =750 CBR
"II"
10'

D. E3 Measure ments of R. Jones

o EJ fr om Wave V elocity M easurements
o E3 from Stiff ness Measureme nt s

20 50 100 200 500 Fig . 13 - Rela tion betwee n dynamic

modulus and CBR
CBR Valu e

712 PROCEEDINGS
 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

Wave Velocity, m/s .

100 200 300

ISO

Fig . 14 - Variation of moduli (wave

200 velocity) with soi l and base conditions

Fig. 14 which shows the results of measurements of wave velocity carried out
during the construction of a runway. Curve I was obtained when the base
course was half-finished, curve II after completion of the base, but just after a
period when tropical rainfall soaked the base and sub-grade considerably.
Curve III shows the me asurements made when most of the water had drained
away. The E-modulus is however still lower than that measured initially.

DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

30. Visco-elastic materials such as bitumen and bituminous mixes have
mech anical properties that depend on the duration of the loading and the temper-
ature (Ref. 13 and 14) . The dynamic moduli have been measured over a wide
range of temperatures and loading times, using a variety of vibration techniques.
In general it is found that the maximum force and the maximum deflection do nol
occur at the same instant; in other words there is a phase difference, and the
modulus is a complex quantity.
31. For practical purposes, however, the behaviour of these materials can be
described by a modulus termed the 'stiffness modulus' which is defined as the
maximum amplitude of the stress divided by the maximum amplitude of the strain.
Its value is a function of temperature and lo ading time. If these two parameters are
known the corresponding value of the stiffness may be used in design calculations
in the same way as an elastic modulus (Ref. 6).
32. If the composition of the bitumen/ aggregate mixture and the grade and
temperature susceptibility of the bitumen to be used are known the modulus for
a given temperature and loading time can be determined in the higher stiffness
range from graphs which have been drawn up on the basis of extensive investi-
gations on a variety of mixes (Ref. 6).

Volume 2, Part 2, 1964 713

 S TRE SS DI S T RIBU TIO N . D YNAMIC T ES TI NG AC\TD ROA D D ESI GN

33. Measurement of the dynamic modulus of bituminous carpets by wave

propagation measurements in the field can be carried out as described by JONE S
(Ref. 15), but for relatively thin asphalt layers this can only be done at high
frequencies (1000 c/ s or more) . The corresponding values at lower frequencies
which are needed for design purposes may be estimated from these values by cor-
recting for the frequency employed, altho ugh thi procedure is liable to error owing
to the large difference in the loading time. At high service temperatures the effec-
tive modulus of the bituminous layer in-situ may be expected to be governed to
some extent by local stress conditions, and to be higher than might be inferred
from simple laboratory tests. Support for this conclusion is given by practical
observations (Ref. 16) .
APPLICABILITY OF ELASTIC THEORY TO ROAD BEHAVIOUR
34. Before elastic theory may be utilized directly for design purposes it is
necessary to establish to what extent it is valid for actual road materials and con-
structions. There are many ways in which this may be carried out, and the measure-
ment of stresses in the soil layer under moving load has been employed by many
investigators. The design and insertion of pressure cells presents problems, how-
ever, and such measurements can only be carried out on special experimental struc-
tures.
35. Another approach is to measure the dynamic stiffness of the construction R
using the road vibration machine and to compare this with the elastic structural
stiffness calculated using elastic theory and the elastic moduli of the soi l and other
layers derived from wave propagation measurements. An example of such a cor-
relation is given in Fig. 15} which shows some results obtained on constructions
with different sand subgrades and having asphalt layers 4 to 6 in . thick. The asphalt
temperature varied during these measurements from 32 to 88 °F and values for the
stiffness modulus of the asphalt appropriate to the particular temperature were used

/'+ 20 ', .
/
/
/
/
250 /
x/
/
/ x
/
xX/ x /
200
/ 'ft Xi
/
/ /'
//X X /
150
/X y
/
/ /
100
V 150 200 250 Fig . 15 - Comparison of measured and
calculated elastic stiffness
Measured Elastic St iffness R, (Ionsfcm).

714 PROCEEDINGS
 S T RESE D I S T RIBUTIO j';, DY NAMI C T ESTI NG A N D R OAD DESIGN

fo r each calculation, It will be seen that there is some scatter in the results and th at
the calculated values are rather higher than those measured. They are however
reasonably satisfactory when allowance is made for the fact that the stress distri-
bution underneath the rigid plate of the road vibration machin e is parabolic and
not uniform as was assumed in the calculations.

36. If the wave velocity measurements are made on a homogeneous soil, they
ca n also be used to calculate the dyn amic Poisson's ratio from the calculated and
measured stiffness valu es. An idea of the values for different soils is given in T ABLE
I, which shows that the Poisson's ratio for these materials is in fact nearer 0.4 than
the valu e of 0.5 generally assumed. As stated in para. 11 to 13 , however, such a
difference is unlikely to lead to significant errors in the calculated design strains.

37. Measurement of the tensile strain in the surface of the construction under
normal dynamic wheel loadin g provides a further me ans of checking the calcula-
tions. The individually observed strains usually vary considerabl y about the mean
but good agreement has been found between the me:1SLJrC C: v3iw:,s and those cal-
culated using elastic theory in conjunction with the dyn<l mic mod uli of the mate r-
ials (Ref. 8).

tions. The individu aUy observed strains usually vary considerably about the mean
but good agreement has been found between the measured values an d those cal-
culated using elastic theory in conjunction with the dynamic moduli of the mater-
lijke Shell Laboratory in Holland. In the former work strain gauges are cemented
to small prefabricated blocks of asphaltic concrete which are then placed in the
warm mix during the application of the bituminous layer in a special test track,
whereas in the latter investigation s they are fixed on the top of successive asphalt
layers immediately after compaction and protected in such a way that the next
layer can be applied without destroying the gauges. There are strong indication s
from the measurements which have so far been made that the Poisson's ratio of
the asphalt layer in-situ is, like that of soils, 0.4 or lower and that it is probably
dependent upon both temperature and frequency of measurement.
39. Although strain measurements are very useful for checking the theory, wave
velocity measurements are more suitable for general investigations since they enable
an analysis of the various construction layers to be made.

TABLE I

Type of Soil E-Dynamic Poi sson Ratio

(p.s .i.)

Pea t 1,000-4,800
Clay (saturated) 5,700
(moist) 10,000-31 ,000 0.42
loam 13,800-31 ,000 0 .39
Clay (dry) 61 ,000-350 ,000 0.37
Sand 28 ,000-52 ,000 0 .36

Volume 2, Pa rt 2, 1964 7 15
 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

PERMI SSIBLE STRESSES AN D STRAINS

40. As indicated previously it is necessary to know the maximum stresses or
strains which may be allowed to develop in the soil and construction materials if
the road structure is to perform satisfactorily in service. It is clearly uneconomic
to build minor roads to the same standard as major highways, and it is convenient
to express the traffic they carry as the total number of standard axle loads which
may be applied before the riding quality has become unacceptable. Designing for
such a specified life may then be made by establishing the maximum strains which
may be allowed to develop at the critical points in the structure.

SOILS AND GRANULAR MATERIALS

41. Since fundamental understanding of the behaviour of soils under repeated
loading is insufficient for this purpose, an empirical approach has been adopted.
Data from the A.A.S.H.O. road test (Ref. 18) were considered to provide the most
reliable source of information, and the maximum vertical compressive strains in
the subgrade for a wide range of sections in that test have been calculated and are
plotted in Fig. 16 against the weighted number of axle load applications that took
place before the structure had deteriorated to the level of riding quality indicated
by a present serviceability index of 2.5. These results are independent of the mag-
nitude of the axle load or the thickness of the construction. Quantitative support
for the subgrade strain associated with 106 repetitions of loading per lane is pro-
vided by a theoretical analysis of conventional constructions (2 in. asphalt layer)
conforming with CBR design curves. A maximum subgrade strain of 8 to 9 x 10-4
was found to occur in these constructions irrespective of the nature of the soil, and
they are generally considered to be slightly underdesigned for major highways (Ref.
16) . The relation shown in Fig. 16 has accordingly been adopted provisionally to

.;
~C> Lo op 6
""X 5
~ 10 21--- - - - 0
"
4
0 .. 3
0 2
'"• .." 2
Special Ba se Sections

Base d 0 11 Performance Level

=
given by P.S. I. 2' 5

W eigh ted Numbe r of A xle Load Applications to P.S.I. = 2'5

Fig . 16 - Re latio n between ax le applicati o ns and maxi mum subgrade strain

716 PROCEEDINGS
 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

permit design for a specified life. By expressing the results in terms of strain instead
of stress it is hoped that the disadvantages associated with the fact that the empiri-
cal results used for the wide range of repetitions of loading were obtained on only
one particular soil have been reduced as far as possible.
42. Although deformation of the pavement is governed to a large extent by the
properties of the subgrade, care must be taken that any unbound granular mater-
ials used in the base are capable of developing an adequate modulus and resistance
to shear in-situ.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
43. The fracture behaviour of bitumen or a bitumen bound mix is, like its stiff-
ness modulus, dependent upon the time of loading and the temperature. Further-
more, extensive laboratory investigations (Ref. 19 and 20) have shown that the
stress or strain at which cracking occurs is less when the load is applied repeatedly.
This indicates that they are subject to fatigue failure, and it has been shown that
the initiation of a crack is governed by the principal tensile strain in the asphalt.
Although no quantitative correlation with actual behaviour in road constructions
has yet been obtained, because of the difficulty of observing crack initiation, the
laboratory findings have been taken into consideration in design, in order to reduce
the risk of fatigue cracking. For this purpose the results of the laboratory investi-
gations have been used directly to obtain the relation between tensile strain in the
asphalt and the number of load applications, when the asphalt modulus is 900,000
p.s.i. , a figure representative of the modulus under typical seasonal variations (Ref.
21) . This is shown in Fig. 17.
44. Apart from being resistant to cracking, which is more liable to occur at
low temperatures, the bituminous materials must have sufficient internal stability
10 2~ ________. -________, -________- .________- ,________- ,

A sphal t Modulus (E, ) = 900.000 p.s .i.

c
'"
I-

Repet itions of Loading

Fig . 17 - Relation between load applications and asphalt strain

Volume 2, Part 2, 1964 7 17

 S TRESS DISTRIBUTION, D YNAMIC TES TING AND R OAD DESIGN

to avoid permanent deformation within themselves under heavy wheel loads at high
temperatures. It is widely accepted that this requirement is fulfilled if the Marshall
stability and flow of the mix are satisfactory. However, the stability of the asphalt
layer is not necessarily solely a question of the properties of the asphalt.
45, This can be seen by making use of the solutions to the equations of stress
distribution in layered systems. The vertical compressive strain at any level in the
asphalt layer may be computed from the equation :

e = (Iv - 2v ~
E1 E1 v

where El is the dynamic modulus and v the Poisson's ratio of the asphalt.
46 , Only the permanent part Ep of this strain is of interest, and as is often done
in soil mechanics this could be calculated by the introduction of an initial resis-
tance into the equation, A simpler approximation is to assume an elastic limit Ee
above which plastic deformation occurs.

47, The total plastic deformation opin the asphalt layer may then be computed
from:

Op = f: (e v - ee) dh
It is appreciated that this method of calculating the plastic deformation is not strictly
correct because the stress distribution used is an 'elastic' one which would no longer
hold after plastic deformation had taken place. However, the stress distribution
under elastic conditions will probably govern the initiation of permanent deform-
ation.
48, Calculations made on this basis for a flexible construction suggest that the
stability is not only a question of the properties of the paving material, but depends
also on its role in the road structure. A typical result is given in Fig. 18, In par-
ticular the permanent deformation is liable to be greater when the structure is
weaker, and the use of thicker bituminous layers may even result in a reduction in
such deformation occurring within the layer.

f-
0
,0 ' - -- -B. -se-d o'---n-E,- =- '-50-,OOO' P-.s-.o.- -J' =- 0-.5 - , - - ~I
~
~
E3 :;:; 15,000 p.s.i. Radius of Conta ct :;:; 4 in .
. ~ a o :;:; 150 p.s .i. Ee :;:; 5 K 10 ··4
~

·
-'
1
0
I :
3
0·
I
t - --
I
s
0

~"
0

·~ 10 Fig . 18 - Infl uence o f thickness on

0- asp halt stabi lity
T hic kness of Aspha lt Layer, (in. ) ,

718 PROCEEDINGS
 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TE S TING AND ROAD DESIGN

49. Some support for these general conclusions is afforded by the behaviour in
the A.A.S.H .Q . road test of the thicker bituminous construction (Ref. 18). No
increase in the total rut depth was measured as the thickness of the asphalt layers
became greater. Although it is not possible to take this aspect directly into design
considerations at present, it may be concluded that the use of constructions con-
taining thick bitumen bound layers should not accentuate stability problems.
DES IGN CURVES
50. A series of design curves has been drawn for different soil types and for
various numbers of applications of a standard design lo ad (18,000 lb single axle
legal limit) using the material properties discussed above. The detailed procedure
has been described elsewhere (Ref. 21).
51. The calculations are based on the properties of a dense bitumen bound base
layer consisting of well compacted high stone content mixes (40 per cent or more
>Ys in.) having a voids content of less than 10 per cent and a bitumen content
(40 to 100 pen. @ 25°C) of not less than 3Yz per cent wt.
52. Various combinations of thicknesses of the asphalt and granular layers may
be obtained which will meet both of the strain criteria adopted for design. The
results have been expressed in the form of curves in which the thickness of the
asphalt layer is plotted against that of the unbound granular layer, each curve
being for a particular dynamic modulus of the soil. For any particular design curve,
a suitable construction is indicated by the co-ordinates of any point on the curve.
The asphalt layer comprises the total thickness of dense asphalt wearing and base
courses, and the granular layer is the total thickness of granular base and subbase.
53. Design curves for 10 7 , 106 , 105 and 10 4 applications of the 18,000 lb stan-
dard design axle load are given in Fig. 19 to 22. Each fi gure contains curves for
soils of E 3 = 3,750, 7,500, 15,000 and 30,000 p.sj . (approx. CBR 2Yz, 5, 10 and
20 respectively).
54. In these curves the life is expressed as the number of repetitions of the
standard axle load. In practice, the traffic loads are mixed and so it is necessary
to take into account their distribution. The equivalent number of standard axle
loads may be estimated by applying a suitable co-efficient to the number of axles
for each load, and integrating over the range of loads. For this purpose the relation

18,000 lb. Axle Load

5 107 load Applications

SUbg rade
I M OdUlus 3,J5O
0
~a ~~ P'I t
P~'lb~'lb, I
I J -I
~ tt
I
11-
H t Fig. 19 - Design cu rves fo r 10' load
10 15 20 30

T otal T hickn ess of Unbound GranullH La yers (in.)

app lications

V olu m e 2. Part 2 , 1964 7 19'

 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAlV1IC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

H--Hf-++-++-f-+++-+-t-+-H+++ 18,000 lb. Axle LOed

~I~~i~~i§~~g~'~rf'~LO~'diA~p~lic~a'fionf'~j
J
15

0
Fig . 20 - De si gn curves for 10 load
10 15 20

T otal T hickness of Unbound Granular layers (in.)

" 30
applications

Fig . 21 - Design curves for 10' load

applications
10 15 20

Tolal T hickness of Unbound Granular Layers (in.)

f-+++-+-t-+-H++-++-f-+++-+-+-+ 'S,OOO Ib Allie load

15 104 l oad Applications

30
Fig . 22 - Design curves for 10< load
10 15 20
" applications
Total Th ickness of Unbound Granular layers, (in.) .

between sub-grade strain and the number of loads applications shown in Fig. 16
has been used, together with the calculated subgrade strains developed by different
wheel loads in a variety of constructions (Ref. 16), to obtain a relation between life
and wheel load. If the load is expressed in units of the standard load, the relation
shown in Fig. 23 is derived. This emphasizes the importance of the heavy wheel
loads and the fact that cars and light vans may virtually be ignored. A weighting
co-efficient based on 'the tensile strain developed in the asphalt layer can also be
established in a similar way, but since the trend in the relative wheel load weighting
is similar to that given in Fig. 23 for subgrade strains, the latter has been adopted
for calculations concerning either criterion.

720 P ROCEE DINGS

 STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

10 c--------.---------.--~r_--,

i.3
~

~
£!.
§ 0'1
~

Ien
'0
~
.0 0'01
§
Z
c
~

~
'3
g
0'001

Fig. 23 - Conversion to standard 18,000

A xle load (I b)
Ib axle load

55. Design curves for a 10 ton standard axle load, which is encountered in many
countries, have recently been published (Ref. 22). Either set of curves may be used
by expressing the traffic loads in terms of the standard axle load. It is however
preferable to use the heaviest load likely to be met as the standard axle load, since
the traffic conversion is an average for all conditions and constructions.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DESIGNS

56. Some support for the general validity of the designs developed has been
given by those of sections in the AAS.H.O. road test (Ref. 18), which were still
in good condition after two successive spring periods and which had a present ser-
viceability index of 2.5 or greater after a million axle load applications. These con-
structions are compared in Fig. 24 with the requirements to meet the basic design
criteria, and indicate that all constructions conforming with the designs would have
satisfactorily survived the test.
57. A particular point of interest is that the slope of the design curve at any
point is a measure of the 'granular equivalent' at that point, i.e. , the ratio of the
thicknesses of the granular and dense asphalt layers which would be equally satis-
factory from a construction point of view. It will be seen that the 'granular equiva-
lent' varies and would be expected to be greater, for example, in constructions on
weak soils than in those on strong ones, and lower in constructions designed specifi-

Volume 2, Pa rt 2, 1964 721

 S TRESS DI S TRIBUTION. DYNAMIC T EST I N G .·\:,\D ROAD DESIGN

AASHO Road Test Sections having a

P,S,I. > 2 ' 5 at End of Test

• LOOP: ) Sections with

X " PSI>2'5
i 26 ~ :: ~ at E'n'd of Test

·
f-
a
~ 24

""
o

• 22
j
o

~ 20

""0
·
~ 18 o o 0/ /
:E
f- / Yx/ /
~
Contai~ing
~ 16
_ _.J /
/.
/ / Area Sections /
with P.S.I. < ,2'5 at End of

fj/ /
T (;I:;t (2 18 POints ) /
tJ.tJ.o 0

/. /
16 18 20 22 24 26
Fi g . 24 - Co mpar ison between de sign
D esign Thickness of Granular Layers for t h ick ness an d performance
A sphCllt Thickness used in A ASH 0 Test (In.)

cally fo r high traffic intensity or high axle loads th an in those for low traffic inten-
sity or low axle loads.
58 . Under Australian conditions where very long distance routes carry a low
traffic intensity, design on the basis of a rather small number of repetitions of load-
ing m ay be carried out, at any rate initially. Should upgradi ng become desirable at
a later date the design curves indicate the marked effect of a relatively thin asphalt
overlay.
59. The design curves are based on severe climatic condition s and assume that
the asphalt modulus will be low (i. e., the temperature high) when the sub-grade
oil is at its weakest. The des igns will therefore become slightly conservative as the
climatic conditions are less severe, particularly when ambient temperatures are
always low. In this connection it is emphasized that the soil tests used for design
purposes, whether they are dyn amic measurements or CBR or other similar tests.
should be carried out under the most severe moisture and density conditions liable
to occur in-situ.
60. Under average conditions this means testing at the equilibrium moisture
content which the soil is likely to attain under an impermeable surfacing. In coun-
tries where there is a severe frost problem, however, the more plastic soils should
be tested in a soaked condition, whereas under Australian climatic conditions many
sandy soils may be in their weakest state when completely dry.

722 PROCEE DINGS

 STRESS DI STRIBUTION . DYNAMIC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

CONCLUDING REMARKS
61. A number of developments have given an insight into the behaviour of
flexible roads that can be used in their design and evaluation. The use of modern
computers has enabled solutions to the mathematical equations for the stress dis-
tribution in elastic layered systems to be obtained for a wide range of variables.
Measuring techniques have been developed for the determination of the various
dynamic mechanical properties of the structures and constructional materials which
are necessary to take account of their behaviour under moving traffic. The use of
elas tic theory has made it possible to identify the critical points in a road struc-
ture where the strains mu st not exceed the values that can be borne by the materials
concerned. In principle, therefore, given an adequate knowledge of the material
properties, the rational design of a road is possible.
62. The practical difficulties of assigning 'in-situ' values to modulus and
strength parameters determined in the laboratory have been overcome by usin g
dynamic testing techniques in the field and by analysis of the performance of known
road structures, using three-layer elastic theory. The use of such procedures in the
construction of the design curves has had the advantage of ensuring that they are
consistent with the perfor mance of actu al road structures under traffic. At the same
time, the fact that the development of the charts was guided by a theoretical basis ,
means that they can be used with confidence for structures for which there is no
direct previous experience; the design curves are empirical only in the sense th at
the permissible subgrade strain data were derived from practice.

63. It is suggested that the procedure followed has the advantage that it pro-
vides a framework into which knowledge and experience gained on those aspects
concerning which our present information and understanding is deficient can be
readily incorporated to give improved designs. This applies particularly to th e
mechanical properties of the subgrade and the changes that occur in the variou s
soil types in service.
64 . The design charts are offered as a reliable guide under average conditions
and assume adequate compaction of the materials. It is appreciated, however,
that there are many factors which have not been considered directly and which
may be of overriding importance. The experience of the engineer with local condi-
tions, such as drainage and the suitabi lity of available materials, is always essential
in order to guide him in decid ing on the construction that is to be selected.

REFERENCES
I. BURMISTE R , D . M. The general th eo ry of st resses and displacements in layered svs-
tems, Ill, J. appl. Ph ys ics, 16: 5, 296 (1945).
2. ACUM, W. E. A. and F OX, L. Computation of load st resses in a three-layer elastic
system , Geo. 2: 293 (1951) .
3. JONES, A. Tab les of stresses in three-lay er elastic systems, H.R.B., Bull. 342 (1962).
4. PEATTIE, K . R . A fundam ental approach to .th e design of flexible pavements, Proe.
Int. Conf. Structural Design of Aspha lt Pavements, Uni v. of Michigan , Ann Arbor, p.
667 (1962), (Shell Bitumen Reprint No. 12 ).
5. Shell Resea rch Ltd . (u npubli shed data).

Volum e 2, Pa rt 2, 1964 723

 DISCUSSIONS/ STRESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAMIC TESTIN G AND ROAD DESIGl'<

6. HEUKELOM, W . and KLOMP, A. J. G. R oad design and dynamic loading, Paper pre-
sented at A.A.P.T . meeting (Dallas, 1964) .
7. HEUKELOM, W. A nalysis of dynamic defl ections of soils and pavements, Geo. 11: 224
(1961).
8. HEUKELOM, W. , and FOSTER, C. R . D ynamic tesJing of pavements, Proc. Am. Soc.
Civ. Engrs., 86: 1 (1 960 ).
9. HEUKELOM, W. and KLOMP , A . J . G . D ynamic testing as a m eans of CO il trolling
pavements during and after construction , Proc. Int. ConI. Structural Design of Asphalt
Pavements, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, p. 667 (1962) (Shell Bitumen Reprint No.
12) .
10. VEISMA IS, A. Effect of cement on s,lrength properties of fine crushed rock, Aust.
Rd. Res., 1: 2, 12 (1962) .
II. JONES, R In-situ measurement of the dynamic properties of soil by vibration m ethods,
Geo. 8, ( 1958) .
12. COCHRA E, R . H. A. Soil m echanics and the road engineer, Aust. Rd. Res. 1: 9
(1962).
13. VAN DER POEL, C. A general system describing th e visco-elastic properties of bitu-
mens and its relation /0 ro utine test data, J. appl. C bem. 4: 221 (1954) (Shell Bitumen
Reprint No. 9) .
14. VAN DER POEL, C. Building materials: their elasticity and inelasticity, orth HoI-
land Publishing Co., Chap. IX (Amsterdam, 1954 ).
15. JONES, R Surface wave technique for measuring the elastic properties and thickness of
roads: th eo retical development, Brit. J. appl. Physics 13, (1962).
16. DORMON, G . M. The extension to practice of a fundamental procedure fo r the design
of flexible pavements, Proc. Int. Conf. on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements,
Ann Arbor, p. 785 (1962) (Shell Bitumen Reprint No. 12) .
17. DEMPWOLFF, R ., EWERS, J. and MORELL, G. Mess llng von Verfornwngell in
Asphalt-Befestigung en unter rollender Last, Strasse und Autobahn, 12: 391 ( 196 1) .
18. The A.A.S.H.O. R oad Test, Special Rep . 61 E Pavement Research, Rep. 5, Fig. 47,
H .RB . (1962).
19. SAAL, R. N. J. and PELL, P. S. Fatigue of bitumillolls road mixes, K olloid-Z 171: 61
(1960) (Shell Bitumen Reprint No. 14).
20. PELL, P. S. Fatigue characteristics of bitumen and bituminous mixes, Proc. Jnt. ConI.
on Structural Design of Asphalt P avements, Ann Arbor, p. 3 10 (1962) (Shell Bitumen
Rep rint No. 13).
21. DORMON, G. M . and METCALF, C. T. D esign cu rves for flexible pavements based
on layered system th eory, Paper presented at H.R.B. Meeting (January, 1964).
22. Sh ell 1963 design charts for flexible pavements, S.I.P . Co . Ltd . (Lond on, 1963) .

DISCUSSIONS

1. K . LEE , Universit y of Me lbo urn e (see Introductory Rem a rk s to this Session)

D . A. CUM MIN G , U ni vers ity of New South Wales

65 . One ass umption should be ad ded to those listed in para. 4 because thei r va lidit y has
to be considered when appl ying the work described in this paper. The authors have as umed
that the material remains continuous, that no cracks occur under tensile st resses, a nd th at
th e behaviour of the m aterial in tension is th e sa me as in co mpression.

66. Wh ile it has been shown th at the distribution of stress in a visco-elasti c materi al und er
the typc of static load co nsidered in this paper is ide ntica l with that obtained in a n elastic

724 PROCEEDINGS
 DISCUSSIONS/ STRESS DIS TRIBUTIO N, DYNAMIC T ESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

medium , it has not been shown th at the sa me appli es to a movin g load. This limits the
a pplication of the studies of behaviour under a static vibratin g load to th at under a moving
wheel load which is reaso nabl y co nstant in shape and m agnitude.
67 . What is the evidence tbat road materia ls in general fa il at a critical stra in as stated
in para. 8? Why not a critical stress?
68. In para. 20 the elastic spri ng constant R is a conven ient parameter to derive from
dynamic loading tests. It is ap parently the res ult at zero frequenc y, th at is, for static load.
H as a comparison been m ade with th e results of stati c loadin g tests?

C. M . G ERR A R D, Commonwealth Depa rtm ent of Works

69 . The a uthors have assum ed that Poisson's ratio = 0.5 (i.e., the m ate ri al is incom-
pressible ) and beca use of this their analysis indicates th at no tensil e stresses are developed

CASE A.

CASE 9.

Fig . 25-lnfluence lines for major and

minor principal stresses at point Q on
the surface
CASE C.

Volume 2, Part 2, 1964 725

 D I SCUSSIONS/ S T RESS D I S TRI BUT ION , DYNAMIC T ESTIl'G AND ROAD DESIGN

on the pavement surface just outside the loaded a rea. If Poisson's ratio is less th an 0.5
these stresses are developed. This point is illustrated by the accompa nying dia gram (Fig .
25) , which shows variation in the m ajor and minor principal stre ses at a point in the surface
of a pavement as a wheel load moves towards it, over it, and awa y from it. The pavem ents
considered are :
Case A: a homogeneous medium, Poisson's ratio = 0.25;
Case B: a 2-l ayer structure with the ratio of moduli = 10 a nd Poisson" ralio 0.5 ;
Case C: simil ar to case B but Poisson's ratio = 0.25 throughout.

70 . For th e cases where Poisson's r atio is 0.25 , tensile stresses of the order of 20 per
cent of the vertical loading stress may occur. Values of Poisson 's rat io for typi ca l pavement
materials generall y vary from 0.3 to 0.4 and surface tensile stresses of 10 and 15 per cent
of the vertical loading stress could be expected. Traction and braking forc es wou ld increase
the tensile stress on one side of the tyre print and decrease it o n th e othe r.

71. The wr iter suggests that research is needed into the effect of surface tensil e stresses
on pavement performance, especiall y with rega rd to fati gue cracking. It will be noted th a t
once a fati gue crack occurs due to surface tensile stresses th ere a re no fri cti o n forces brought
into action which tend to prevent extension of th e crack. This is (0 be contrasted with th e
tensile stresses th at are developed at the interfaces between pa vement layers wh ere th e
vertica l direct stresses p roduce fri ction forces te nding to p reve nt a ny c racks f rom openin g.

R . H. A . C O C H R AN E, Austra lian R oad Resea rch Boa rd

72. T his is a ver y inform at ive paper o n the im pli ca ti o ns fo r pave ment design of ca lcula -
tions of cri tical stresses based on Burmiste r's th eory fo r a 3-layer e lasti c sys tem, a nd the
practica bility of using in desig n va lues of E determined by dynamic tes ting.

73. The concl usio n in para. 6 that, du e to the relative ly sma ll differences in dynami c
modul i of average subgrades and of un bound base materials. the behaviour of pave menb
consisting m ainl y of unbound granul ar m ateri a ls is gove rned primaril y by thi ckness of con-
structi on, which is the basis of CB R des ign cu rves. is of grea t interest, as most pavements
are so constru cted in A ustralia.
74. A lso of great interest are (he pavement design charts, Fig. 19 to 22, comp uted to
meet the critical strain condi tions as deter mined from Burmister's three-la yer elastic theory,
where thick surfaces of asphaltic concrete are used. I n para. 59 it is stated that the des ign
curves are based on severe cli mati c co nditions. Pres umably thi s m ea ns f reezing of th e
ground during the winter, an d accou nts for the minim um thicknesses of asp ha ltic concrete
prescribed . The au thors poin t out in para . J 7 tha t the relative va lue, inch for inch , 0 1'
aspha ltic concrete compared with unbou nd granular mat erial s, as d isclosed by their des ign
curves, is not consta nt, bu t decreases wit h increase in st rength of subgrade and increase in
inte nsity of traffic. In Austra li a, with a cl imate ranging from tropical to mild, the use of
as phaltic concrete is commonl y limi ted to pave ments on which a clean smooth sur face is
req uired , or o n heavily trafficked pave ments to minimize ma intenan ce; fin e cr ushed rock
a ppea rs to have adeq uate stabi lity througho ut the year even for su rface cou rses on heavily
tra ffi cked roads, Extrapolation of tbe des ign curves wo uld suggest that, for the th icknesses
of as pha ltic co ncrete li ke ly to be econom ica l fo r use in Aust ra lia , as ph a ltic concrete ca n be
expected to be little better, inch for inch, th a n fine cru shed rock.

75. A s rega rds the use of the design cha rts, F ig. 19 to 22, the a uth ors sta te in para . 4 1
lh at, in th e absence of fund amenta l und ersta ndin g of th e be hav iour of soil s und er re pea ted
load ing, they have adopted an empirica l a pproach to relate li fe o f pavement, as expressed
by the number of repetitions of th e design axle load it will ca rry before overlay ing or reco n-
stru ction becomes necessar y, to thickness of pa vement. For empiri ca l design procedures,
co rrel ation with performance is necessary to determin e the limits within whi ch th e ass ump -
tions m 'l d ~ are valid. It would appear likel y from the contex t th at Fig. 19 hows the thick -
ness"!:; of pavement necessa ry for a life of 20 yea rs LInd er tra ffi c equiv a lent to 500,000

716 PROCEEDINGS
 DISCUSSIONS-CLOSURE/ STRESS D l STRIBUTIO.'\', DYNl-u"VlIC TESTING AJ.'\1D ROAD D ESI GN

applications of the design axle load per annum. The other charts would th en indica te the
reduction s in thickness warranted for lower traffic intensities and th e likely loss of li fe re-
sulting from under-d esign . The use of the charts to design pavements for lives in excess of
20 years would not ap pear war ra nted hav ing regard to factors other than traffic whi ch limi t
the li fe of pavem ents.

AUTHORS ' CLOSURE

To I. K. LEE , U ni ve rsity of Melbourne (see Introductory R emarks to thi s Session)

76. As to the influence of var iations in den sity, moi sture content, a ni sotrop y, etc., o n th e
va lu e of th e modulu s ca lculated fro m wave velocity m easu rem ents, the auth ors' view is th at
it will always be very di fficult to stud y the effect on the calc ul ated values of suc h va riations
within a nyone layer because the m easurements h ave of necessity to be carried out in th e fie ld .
In these conditio ns t he m ateri al propertie s de pend on their depth in th e laye r and may va ry
slightly in a ho rizontal direction beca use of variation s arisin g during spread ing and co mpac-
tion. T he wave propaga ti on m easurem ents a re carri ed out over dista nces of up to 100 ft
depending upon the fre qu ency used, and the wave length determined is an average va lue .
In co nsequence, the calc ul ated moduli a re average valu es fo r th e layer as a whol e a nd wi ll
not indicatc local variation s in de nsit y or mo isture content throughout the layer.

77. Information on tb e th ickness of layers a nd th e type of m a teri a ls used in th em is very

helpfu l in in terpre ting the results of propagat ion m easurements. On the other hand me as ure-
ments have ofte n indicated tbe presence of layers th at were not thou ght to exist and have
forecast that the t hi ckness of so me const ru ction laye rs was significantly d iffe rent from t hat
-;pecified in a contract.

78 . With rega rd to the use of stress or stra in as a significant parameter, the authors have
no preference for eit her stress or stra in criteria, but h ave selected st rain solely si nce it per-
mits th eir results to be expressed more si mpl y.

79. The a ntho rs would emphasize that tbe rel ations hip between th e stress-strain condition~
in the soil and the number of repetitions of loading whi ch can be app lied before fa ilure as
adopted for design purposes is entirely empirica l a nd based on th e results o f the A.A.S.H.O.
lest. If allowance is made for the different seve rities of the successive win ters in thi s
test a nd no regard is paid to the 'weighting' made by the Toad test a uth ori ties fo r th e
lives of the different sections, then it is possible to conclude that the lives of the test sections
.I re relatively independent of the num ber of repetitions of load in g. In thi s co nnectio n .it is
po sible tha t load in gs d uring critica l periods are much more important th a n the total number
of loadings, but in practice th ese a re ge nerall y re lated and the latter easier to specify.

tlO. With rega rd to the ad equ acy of the des ign criteria adopted , these criteria Ill ay be
.tpp lied fo r eve ry individ ual laye r, but theoretica l co nsideration of practi cal structures h a;
, hown th at the stress cond itions at only two points are cri tical. It is recognized, however ,
that shear failure within individual laye rs is not catered for directly and attentio n was orawn
to thi s fact. Tbis as pect is conside red to be mo re impo rta nt for tbe surface layers where
it is covered by the cboice of mix compos it ion used.

To D. A . CUM MIN G , Universit y of New So uth Wa les

8I. T he movements of a road sur face under movi ng traffic are different f rom those under
susta ined sinusoida l vibrations. F rom a n a na lys is of th e indi vidual quantities of elas ticity,
dampi ng and m ass, it has been found that for different con stru ction s th e traffi c stiffn ess
differs within 20 per ce nt from th e elast ic sp rin g consta nt R. " A lthough th e parameter R
' H EUKE.LOM, W., Geo. (Sept. 1961).
Volume 2, P a rt 2, 1964 727
 CLOSURE / S T RESS DISTRIBUTION. DYNAi\UC TESTING AND ROAD DESIGN

is fo und by extrapolation from the measurements at various frequencies to zero frequency,

this does not mean that R represents the stiffness at zero frequency. The procedure is
merely a graphical means of determining R from the formula R = S cos ¢ +
47r'f'M, where
R = S cos ¢ when f = O.
82. The parameter R can be regarded as an average value of the spring constant in the
range 5 to 15 c/ sec. The vibration machine cannot be used for frequencies lower than
5 c/ sec, and under static loading conditions 'viscous' effects are much stronger. Com-
parison of static and dynamic loading tests will thus depend on the part of the construction
behaving in a viscous m anner and the time of loadin g.
83. With regard to the criterion for road materials, it was not considered that the evidence
available indicated a critical strain as such and the criterion was expressed as a strain value
purely for convenience. On this basis, assuming that there was a constant relationship
(approximate) between the modulus and CBR, the criterion of fa ilme could be expressed
independently of the soil properties.

To C. M. G ER R A R D , Commonwealth Department of Works

84. The strain measurements which were made und er traffic cond itions indicate that
tensile strains occur at the surface with a magnitude of the order of 20 per cent of th e
tensile strains measured at the underside of the bituminous layer under the middle of the
loaded area. This relationship is comparable with that which may be predicted from the
elastic theory adopted, but considerably more research is certa inly needed into the effect
of surface tensile stresses and strains on pavement performance.

To R. H. A. CO C H RAN E , Australian Road Research Board

85. A lthough in general agreement with the co mments the au tho rs would point out that
their calculations have been based on severe climatic conditions at both low and high
temperature extremes and that calculations concerning deformation were made usin g low
moduli for both soil and asphalt, i.e., wet subgrade in conjunction with high temperature.
They would in conseq uence expect the designs to be conservative when climatic conditions
are such that weak sub-grade conditions and hi gh temperatures do not occur simultaneously.
The advantage of a bituminous bound base under high temperature conditions is considered
to be due to the fact that it is more able to withstand tensile st resses and can thus develop
a higher effective modulus in-situ than unbound material; this results in a reduction in the
overall thickness requ ired.
86. The funct ion of an asphalt wearing course is considered to differ from that of a
base course in that its primary purpose is to provide a relatively thin layer of sufficient
strength to withstand the high surface shear stresses developed by braking, turning and
accele rating traffic, a nd to afford a dust-free impermeable surface layer.
87. The authors agree with the writer'S comments concerning the life of the pavement.
However, the larger traffic numbers for wh ich design curves are given have been included
in order to cater for ax le loads heavier than the stand ard axle load on which the curves are
based. In consequence, the curves with high traffic numbers are equally applicable to
relatively short lives but with a high proportion of axle loads hea vier th a n the ten-ton axle
loads with which the traffic numbers are associated .

72i PROCEEDINGS