A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the

output. The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled
by varying input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input with some
mechanism. In the next section on open loop and closed loop control systems, we will study in
detail about the blocks inside the control system and how to vary this input in order to get the
desired response.
Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of
input signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be
on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the
traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined.
Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system operates
on time basis.
Classification of Control Systems
Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

1. Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

- Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop
control systems based on the feedback path.
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control
action is independent of the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling

signal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the
plant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we
discussed earlier is an example of an open loop control system.

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action
is dependent on the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control
system.
 The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input
and the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements)
by considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct
input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired
response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control
systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop
control system.
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in
the following table.

Zeroth Order Systems

Imagine a thermometer that measures the temperature in a room of an office building.

For practical purposes, the thermometer will indicate the current temperature at the location
where it has been installed. The fact that the output of the instrument follows the input “exactly”
is the defining characteristic of zeroth order systems. Mathematically, if we let f(t) be the input to
the system as a function of time and y(t) be the output, then the relationship between them is

y (t) = K f (t)

In the example above f(t) would be the actual temperature of the room and y(t)
would be the indicated temperature. K is a constant that multiplies the input to generate the
output. If y(t) is the temperature as displayed in a readout device and the thermometer is
calibrated correctly, then K would ideally be equal to one. On the other hand, if the output of the
thermometer is, for example, an electrical signal, then K would be a constant with units of Volts
per degree Fahrenheit. The electrical signal could be used to actuate a valve that directs either
cold or hot air from the air-conditioning system to the room. K is usually called the static
sensitivity. Note that the output of zeroth order systems is not affected by the speed at which f(t)
changes. Equation (1) is always valid, so the results of static calibration are sufficient to
characterize the response of the system.

First-Order Linear Differential Equations: A First order linear differential equation is

an equation of the form y + P(x)y = Q(x). ... The equation is called first order because it only
involves the function y and first derivatives of y.

The most general first order differential equation can be written as,
in which ƒ(y, t) is a function of two variables defined on a region in the yt-plane. The equation is
of first order because it involves only the first derivative dy/ dx (and not higher-order
derivatives).

y’ = f( y, t)

equation (1) in which ƒ(x, y) is a function of two variables defined on a region in the xy-plane.
The equation is of first order because it involves only the first derivative dy dx (and not higher-
order derivatives). We point out that the equations

PHYSICAL EXAMPLES OF 1ST ORDER SYSTEMS

A tank in which the level of a liquid is the control variable is frequently encountered a
system that can usually be treated as a simple first-order controlled system.
One of the most important groups of first order controlled system is that in which speed
is controlled variable. For example, the control of the speed of all type of vehicles, motors, and
machines.

A crude approximation is the pressure in a vessel that is filled

through a valve from a gas line. The rate of increase of tank
pressure Pout is roughly proportional to the difference Pin−Pout.

d(Pout)/dt = K(Pin−Pout)

This is how first order lag low pass filters were implemented in pneumatic controllers.
Note that this is only an approximation since there are nonlinearities in the flow through the
valve (orifice) and there are thermal effects of gas expansion/compression.

First Order Systems

Let’s consider the example of an oral thermometer used at a clinic to measure body
temperature in patients. Prior to use, the thermometer is at room temperature. When the
thermometer is put in the patient’s mouth it experiences a sudden increase in temperature.
Generally, we have to wait for a while before reading the temperature. Unlike the case of a
thermometer monitoring the examination room’s temperature, the situation at hand cannot be
represented by a zeroth order model. Why? Let’s consider a common glass bulb thermometer to
explain.
 Figure 1: Glass bulb thermometer

The thermometer in Fig. 1 was originally at room temperature, which will be denoted by To.
It is then put in the mouth of a patient—represented by the area inside the dashed line— which
is at temperature T1. In order for the thermometer to work, the mercury in the bulb must be
heated to T1. The thermal expansion of the mercury will cause the column of mercury in the
stem of the thermometer to increase in length. Measuring this length with the scale marked in
the glass gives a temperature reading T(t). It takes a while, however, for the temperature of the
mercury to reach the value T1, so we must wait that long before the thermometer indicates the
correct temperature. In order to write an equation to model the response of the thermometer we
need a little background in thermodynamics and heat transfer.

 Heat is a form of energy. We will represent it by Q. It flows from a hot place to a cold
one. The energy in the mercury in the bulb of the thermometer, which we will call E,
increases as heat travels from the mouth of the patient to the bulb. Due to conservation
of energy, the rate of change of energy in the bulb with respect to time is equal to how
fast heat is flowing in.

In mathematical terms:
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑄
= Equation 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where t represents time.

 As E increases, the temperature of the mercury, T, rises in proportion. How fast the
temperature increases depends on how much mercury the bulb holds (the mass, m, of
the mercury) and a property of mercury called the ‘specific heat,’ cv. The increase in
energy is related to the increase in temperature by

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑇
= 𝑚𝐶𝑣 Equation 2
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑡

 Heat must travel through the glass walls of the bulb on its way from the patient’s mouth
to the mercury. How fast heat can flow through the walls of the bulb depends on a
property of glass called the convection heat transfer coefficient, h, the surface area of
the bulb, A, and the current temperature difference between the mercury and the mouth
of the patient. In equation form,
 𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑡
= ℎ𝐴[𝑇1 − 𝑇] Equation 3

Substituting (3) into (1) and the result into (2) we obtain
𝑑𝑇
𝑚𝐶𝑣 = ℎ𝐴[𝑇1 − 𝑇] Equation 4
𝑑𝑡

which can be re-written as

𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇
+ 𝑇 = 𝑇1 Equation 5
ℎ𝐴 𝑑𝑡

This is a differential equation that governs what the temperature of the mercury is
at any time. Since the length of the column of mercury is proportional the temperature,
the equation also governs what the indicated temperature is.

In general, the equation of a first order system is given by

𝑑𝑦
𝜏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦 = 𝐾𝑓(𝑡) Equation 6

For the example above, we have

y = T;

f (t) = T1,

𝑚𝐶𝑣
𝜏=
ℎ𝐴
And

K=1

As you can see, the equation governing the behavior of a first order system is a first
order differential equation, so called because the highest derivative of the output variable in
the equations is the first with respect to time.

OTHER FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS

Other examples of first order systems, which are included in the appendix are:

 pressure system
 mixing process
 RC electrical network
 draining tank
 filling tank with level control response to setpoint changes

All of these systems are described by the same first order dynamics.