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CHAPTER ONE
Energy Resources
1.1.Introduction
Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out by human beings or by nature, is cause due to flow
of energy in one form or the other. The word ‘energy’ itself is derived from the Greek word ‘en-ergon’,
which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work content’. The work output depends on the energy input.
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of the
developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of ever increasing energy
needs requiring huge investments to meet them.

1.2.Forms of energy

There is an important law known as the ‘‘Law of conservation of energy’’ that states that the
total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant. Different forms of energy are:

 Radiation energy: the radiation from the sun contains energy, and also the radiation from a light
or a fire. More solar energy is available when the radiation is more intense and when it is
collected over a larger area. Light is the visible part of radiation;
 Chemical energy: wood and oil contain energy in a chemical form. The same is true for all other
material that can burn. The content of chemical energy is larger the larger the heating value
(calorific value) of the material is and, of course, the more material we have. Also animate energy
(delivered by bodies of human beings and animals) is, in essence, chemical energy. Furthermore,
batteries contain chemical energy;
 Potential energy: this is, for example, the energy of a water reservoir at a certain height. The water
has the potential to fall, and therefore contains a certain amount of energy. More potential energy
is available when there is more water and when it is at a higher height;
 Kinetic energy: this is energy of movement, as in wind or in a water stream. The faster the stream
flows and the more water it has, the more energy it can deliver. Similarly, more wind energy is
available at higher wind speeds, and more of it can be tapped by bigger windmill rotors;
 Thermal energy or heat: this is indicated by temperature. The higher the temperature, the
more energy is present in the form of heat. Also, a larger body contains more heat;
 Mechanical energy, or rotational energy, also called shaft power: this is the energy of a
rotating shaft. The amount of energy available depends on the flywheel of the shaft, i.e.:.
on the power which makes the shaft rotate;

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 Electrical energy: a dynamo or generator and a battery can deliver electrical energy. The
higher the voltage and the current, the more electrical energy is made available.

1.3.Classification of Energy Sources

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
 Primary and Secondary energy
 Commercial and Non-commercial energy
 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
 Conventional and Non-conventional energy

1. Primary and Secondary Energy

Fig1.1. Major Primary and Secondary source

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary energy
sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary energy sources
available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in earth's
interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major primary and secondary energy
sources are shown in Figure 1.1
Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources;
for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy can also be used
directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used
as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.

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2. Commercial Energy and Non-Commercial Energy

 Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial
energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined
petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized
fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks
of general population. Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

 Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as
non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle
dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used
especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is
often ignored in energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity generation, for
drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing
sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.
3. Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of
renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric
power (See Figure 1.2). The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without
the release of harmful pollutants.

Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to deplete
with time.

Figure 1.2 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

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4. Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:

 Conventional Energy

Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and were in common
use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy resources, e.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro
resources.
Non-conventional energy
Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large–scale use after oil crisis of 1973, are
called non-conventional energy sources, e.g., solar, wind, biomass, etc.

1.4. Alternative Energy

There are six sources of useful energy utilized by human beings on planet Earth. These
sources are given below:
(i) the Sun (thermal and electric); (ii) geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reactions and
radioactive decay in the Earth (thermal and electric); (iii) the gravitational potential and
planetary motion among Sun, Moon and Earth; (iv) chemical energy from reactions among
mineral sources; (v) fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products and natural gases (thermal and
electric); and (vi) nuclear energy from nuclear reactions on the Earth.
Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel.
Renewable energy is obtained from sources (i), (ii) and (iii), whereas nonrenewable energy is derived
from sources (iv), (v) and (vi).
(i) Renewable energy sources: These are the energy sources that are derived from natural
sources that replenish themselves over short periods of time. These resources include the Sun,
wind, moving water, organic plant and waste material (biomass), and the Earth’s heat
(geothermal). These resources are also called nonconventional sources of energy.
(ii) Nonrenewable energy sources: These are the energy sources that are derived from finite
and static stocks of energy. It cannot be produced, grown, generated or used on a scale that can
sustain its consumption rate. Examples of these types of resources are fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum, and natural gas and nuclear power (uranium).The basic different between renewable
and nonrenewable energy are presented in the following figure:

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Fig. 1.1 Basic differences between renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Environmental
energy flow 1-2-3. Used energy flow 4-5-6.

1.5.Ethiopian Energy outlook

Ethiopia has one of the lowest rates of access to modern energy services, its energy supply is
primarily based on biomass. With a share of 92.4% (88% according to SREP investment plan) of
Ethiopia’s energy supply, waste and biomass are the country’s primary energy sources, followed
by oil (6.7%) and hydropower (0.9%). In Ethiopia 99% of households, 70% of industries and
94% of service enterprises use biomass as energy source.

1.6.Current trends of RE application in Ethiopia

1.6.1. Energy Situation
1. Hydropower: It is estimated that Ethiopia's hydropower potential with up to 45,000 MW is the
2nd highest in Africa (only DR Congo has a higher potential). Approximately 30,000 MW are
estimated to be economically feasible which is equivalent to an electricity generation of 162
TWh.
2. Solar Power: Ethiopia receives a solar irradiation of 5000 – 7000 kWh/m² according to region
and season and thus has great potential for the use of solar energy. The average solar radiation
is more or less uniform, around 5.2 kWh/m2/day. The values vary seasonally, from 4.55-5.55
kWh/m2/day and with location from 4.25 kWh/m2/day in the extreme western lowlands to
6.25 KWh/m2/day in Adigrat area, Northern Ethiopia is still at its early stage.

3. Wind Energy: Ethiopia has good wind resources with velocities ranging from 7 to 9 m/s.
Its wind energy potential is estimated to be 10,000 MW. Areas with high wind velocities of up
to 10 m/s are distributed throughout the Eastern half of the country, including the western
escarpment of the Rift Valley.

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4. Geothermal Energy: Ethiopia’s geothermal resources are estimated to be 5 GW of which 700 MW are
suitable for electric power generation. Geothermal resources are primarily located in the Rift Valley area,
where temperatures of 50 – 300°C prevail in a depth of 1,300 – 2,500 m.

1.6.2. Ethiopian Energy Policy

 The major source of electricity in Ethiopia is hydro power plant.

 Total installed capacity at the moment is 791MW (755 MW ICS and 36MW SCS).
 Ethiopia has potential of more than 45,000 MW from hydropower.
 Geothermal resource potential is estimated 1070 MW.
 Coal reserve is 70 Million Tones.
 Natural Gas Reserve 4 TCF (Terra Cubic Feet).
 Estimated potential of bagasse cogeneration > 263 MW.
 Woody biomass 787 Million tones.
 Solar, wind and animate energy potential exist at considerable s size.
 Huge potential on bio-fuel (ethanol and biodiesel) (currently 8 million liters of ethanol
and huge potential of biodiesel).

1.6.3. Rationales of Energy Policy

 To develop and utilize the country's energy resources on the basis of Ethiopia’s overall
development strategy ;
 To assist other economic sectors to meet their development objectives by putting in place a clearly
defined energy policy;
 To save scarce foreign exchange resources and to ensure that energy is efficiently utilized;
 To ensure reliable and secure energy supplies to cushion economy from external and internal
disruptions of supply as well as price fluctuations;
 To ensure that development of energy prices and to ensure economic profitability;
 To ascertain what energy technologies and equipment are appropriate for and compatible with the
country’s economic development needs, and
 To raise the efficiency of the energy sector and develop the necessary institutional and man power
capabilities to undertake energy development programs.

1.6.4. Objectives of Energy Policy

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 To ensure sustainable (reliable, affordable and long lasting) supply of energy;

 To remove bottlenecks inherent to energy resource development and utilization;
 To provide guidelines and strategies for the faster development and supply of energy;
 To ensure a reliable supply of energy at the right time and affordable price;
 To give priority to the development of indigenous energy resources;
 To increase energy utilization efficiency and reduce energy waste; and
 To ensure that the development and utilization of energy is benign to the environment.

1.6.5. Energy Policy

Energy Resource Development

i) Traditional Fuels:
• Countrywide a forestation program will be undertaken to enhance the supply of fuel
wood to consumers.
ii) Modern energy resource development:

• Hydropower will form the backbone of the country’s energy sector development
strategy as it is the country s most abundant and sustainable energy resource;
• Ethiopia’s geothermal and coal resources will be developed on the basis of
their economic profitability;
iii) Alternative energy resources development
• Solar and geothermal will be used, wherever possible for process heat and
power generation;
• Ethiopia’s wind energies resource will be developed to provide shaft power for
water pumping and irrigation and;
• Coal will be developed and used as alternative fuel.
Energy Supply
i) Household Energy Policy:
• This is to achieve a balance between the supply and demand for household fuels.
Government will seek to stabilize their prices by increasing the supply of alternative
fuels and relieving the pressure on wood resources.
ii) Transport Energy Policy:
 To formulate measures and give emphasis to the introduction of improved and
appropriate transport technologies in the rural areas;
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 To adopt conservation measures to reduce the use of petroleum products in the transport sector
 To decrease the use of petroleum products in the transport sector by substituting where
ever possible to new non-petroleum fuels
iii) Agricultural Energy Policy:
• Government’s agricultural sector energy supply policy is to increase the supply
of modern energy sources to the agriculture sector.
iv) Industrial Energy Policy:
Government’s industrial sector energy policy is
• To ensure that industrial energy supply will be compatible with the industrial development of the country; and
• To ensure the industrial energy use and supply will be based on economic and efficiency
criteria.

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1.7. Energy Strategy for the Future

The energy strategy for the future could be classified into immediate, medium-term and long- term
strategy. The various components of these strategies are listed below:
 Immediate-term strategy:
 Rationalizing the tariff structure of various energy products.
 Optimum utilization of existing asset
 Efficiency in production systems and reduction in distribution losses, including those in
traditional energy sources.
 Promoting R&D, transfer and use of technologies and practices for environmentally
sound energy systems, including new and renewable energy sources.
Medium-term strategy:

 Demand management through greater conservation of energy, optimum fuel mix, structural
changes in the economy, an appropriate model mix in the transport sector, i.e. greater dependence
on rail than on road for the movement of goods and passengers and a shift away from private modes
to public modes for passenger transport; changes in design of different products to reduce the
material intensity of those products, recycling, etc.

 There is need to shift to less energy-intensive modes of transport. This would include measures to
improve the transport infrastructure viz. roads, better design of vehicles, use of compressed natural
gas (CNG) and synthetic fuel, etc. Similarly, better urban planning would also reduce the demand
for energy use in the transport sector.
 There is need to move away from non-renewable to renewable energy sources viz. Solar, wind,
biomass energy, etc.

Long-term strategy:
Efficient generation of energy resources
• Efficient production of coal, oil and natural gas
• Reduction of natural gas flaring
Improving energy infrastructure
• Building new refineries
• Creation of urban gas transmission and distribution network
• Maximizing efficiency of rail transport of coal production.
• Building new coal and gas fired power stations.

Enhancing energy efficiency

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• Improving energy efficiency in accordance with national, socio-economic, and environ-

mental priorities
• Promoting of energy efficiency and emission standards
• Labeling programs for products and adoption of energy efficient technologies in large
industries
Deregulation and privatization of energy sector
• Reducing cross subsidies on oil products and electricity tariffs
• Decontrolling coal prices and making natural gas prices competitive
• Privatization of oil, coal and power sectors for improved efficiency.
Investment legislation to attract foreign investments.
• Streamlining approval process for attracting private sector participation in power
generation, transmission and distribution
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE):

 The mission of Bureau of Energy Efficiency is to institutionalize energy efficiency services, enable
delivery mechanisms in the country and provide leadership to energy efficiency in all sectors of
economy. The primary objective would be to reduce energy intensity in the Indian Economy.
 The general superintendence, directions and management of the affairs of the Bureau is vested in
the Governing Council with 26 members. The Council is headed by Union Minister of Power and
consists of members represented by Secretaries of various line Ministries, the CEOs of technical
agencies under the Ministries, members representing equipment and appliance manufacturers,
industry, architects, consumers and five power regions representing the states. The Director General
of the Bureau shall be the exfficio member-secretary of the Council.

 The BEE will be initially supported by the Central Government by way of grants through budget,
it will, however, in a period of 5-7 years become self-sufficient. It would be authorized to collect
appropriate fee in discharge of its functions assigned to it. The BEE will also use the Central Energy
Conservation Fund and other funds raised from various sources for innovative financing of energy
efficiency projects in order to promote energy efficient investment.

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