The postharvest losses of important commercial fruits and vegetables vary from 20% to

50% before they reach consumers. Fruits and vegetables are high in moisture, ranging from
70% to 95%. Their equilibrium humidities are as high as 98%. Under normal atmospheric
conditions they dry rapidly, which causes wilting and shriveling as a result of loss of
rigidity and shrinkage of cells. The primary objective of packaging of fruits and vegetables
is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration,
which may be physical, chemical, or biological. Packaging is hence provided at the
point of production or processing or at distribution centers. Though packaging forms the
last link in the chain of production, storage, marketing, and distribution, it still plays an
important role in delivering the contents safe from the ‘‘farm gate to the consumer plate.’’
Increase in production can have an impact on the consumer only when the food is wholesome,
unadulterated, and available under hygienic conditions at an economical price. As
mentioned, about 25% to 40% of fruits and vegetables are spoiled or become substandard
during storage and distribution. This enormous wastage, which results in product scarcity
and higher prices, is attributed mainly to poor packaging, improper handling methods,
and inadequate transportation facilities.
Robertson (1992) defines packaging as ‘‘the enclosure of products, items or packages
in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container to perform
the following functions: containment; protection; and/or preservation; communication; and utility or
performance.’’ Since the 1970s there has been tremendous growth in new
food processing/packaging technologies. The growth of these new packaging/processing
technologies, for both short- and long-term preservation of food, is due to interrelated
factors: (a) developments in new polymeric barrier packaging materials, (b) increased
urbanization, (c) market needs and consumer demands for convenience, and (d) increasing
energy costs. As a result of these interrelated factors, food packaging technology has
gone through a tremendous transformation. Packaging now provides increased consumer
information, is used very effectively as a marketing tool, and has clearly evolved from
its primary and previously single role of protection to be a more multifaceted tool. There
are a multitude of packaging materials in today’s marketplace, each designed with specific
properties. The correct choice of packaging is dependent not only on a knowledge of the
physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics of fruits and vegetables, but also
on the functional properties of the packaging materials available for a particular product
or preservation technology.
This chapter gives a brief overview of the properties of the materials most commonly
used for packaging of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables and the packaging technologies
that can be applied for shelf life extension of products.
2 PACKAGE REQUIREMENTS/FUNCTIONS
The two main functions of packaging are (a) to assemble the produce into convenient
units for handling and (b) to protect the produce during distribution, storage, and marketing.
Modern packages for fresh fruits are expected to meet a wide range of requirements,
which may be summarized as follows: (a) The packages must have sufficient mechanical
strength to protect the contents during handling and transport and while stacked. (b) The
construction material must not contain chemicals that can transfer to the produce and
cause it to become toxic to humans. (c) The package must meet handling and marketing
requirements in terms of weight, size, and shape. The current trend is to reduce many sizes
and shapes of packages by standardization. Palletizing and mechanical handling make
standardization essential for economical operation. (d) The packages should allow rapid
cooling of the contents. Furthermore, the permeability of plastic films to respiratory gases
may also be an important requirement. (e) The security of the package or its ease of
opening and closing may be important in some marketing situations. (f ) The package
should identify its contents. (g) The package may be required either to exclude light or
to be transparent. (h) The package may be required to aid retail presentation. (i) The
package may need to be designed for ease of disposal, reuse, or recycling. ( j) The cost
of the package should be as low as possible.
Packaging may or may not delay or prevent spoiling of fresh fruit and vegetables;
however, incorrect packaging can accelerate spoilage. Packaging should serve to protect
against contamination, damage, and excess moisture loss. An excessive moisture barrier
causes excessively high relative humidity in the package and results in accelerated spoilage
due to microorganisms or skin splitting of some fruits.
3 TYPES OF CONTAINERS
After harvest, fruit and vegetables are handled in different containers from the field up
to the retail stores. Approaches followed by both the developed and tropical countries are
similar in many of the situations. 3.1 Field Containers
Picking or harvesting containers are of many types, depending on the crop, region, and
availability of materials. Picking bags of canvas or burlap, mesh hampers, and baskets of
woven veneer or bamboo are widely used.
3.2 Shipping Containers
A shipping container is a handling unit used to facilitate moving horticultural produce
from one location to another. Packaging for shipping and handling requires suitable containers
to protect produce from bruising, vibration, and the weight of other stacked containers.
The container should be sturdy enough to permit reasonable stacking without collapse
or pressure damage to the produce. It should not affect exchange of O 2 and CO2 and at
the same time should be permeable to heat of respiration and transpiration of fresh fruits.
The ideal pack consists of a tight-fill without a bulge in a lidded container having sufficient
stacking strength to protect the contents under all handling conditions. In many of the
developed countries the shipping containers are used only once and are not returned to
the shipper. In India and other less developed countries, baskets and boxes are often returned
or sold and receive multiple use. Common types include nailed wooden boxes and
crates, wirebound boxes and crates, plywood boxes, and baskets.
It is difficult to name specific containers for different fruits, since several types may
be satisfactory, depending on the region, distance to market, method of precooling, quantity
or weight shipped, and availability and cost of materials. Fiberboard (corrugated)
cartons are becoming popular for shipping both tropical and subtropical fruits. Their light
weight and low cost are advantages.
3.3 Consumer Packages
Use of small consumer-sized packages for produce has grown with the increase in large
self-service markets for retailing. It may consist of a paper or a plastic bag made available
for customers to select, package, and weigh their purchases. Consumer packages are of
the following types: (a) bags made of paper, film, or cotton or plastic mesh; (b) trays
of molded pulp, paperboard, plastic, or foamed plastic; (c) folding paperboard cartons,
sometimes with a clear plastic window or with dividers for individual fruits; and (d) small
rectangular or round baskets made of coated or waxed paper board or other material.
3.3.1 Bags
The most widely used consumer-unit package is the bag. It is inexpensive, is easily filled
and closed, and is available in many sizes and many materials. It provides less protection
from physical damage than most other packages.
3.3.2 Plastic-Film Bags
Numerous transparent and translucent films of various compositions are available commercially,
and some of them at lower cost than kraft paper, cotton cloth, or burlap. Prefabricated
bags are available from many manufacturers and may also be fabricated at the user’s
premises by machines that will form and heat-seal bags from rolls of flat film. The advantages
of plastic-film bags are (a) good visibility of the packaged product, (b) limited permeability
to water vapor and reduced moisture loss from the product, and (c) strength and
tear resistance of 1.0 to 1.5 mil film.

3.3.3 Mesh Bags

The ultimate in ventilation of contents is achieved in the mesh bag. The netting with
openings between strands of 3 to 6 mm allows free movement of air to and from the
interior of the bag. Mesh bags are fabricated from several materials, the most common
of which are fine plastic strands, cotton thread, and twisted strands of processed paper.
The important advantages of mesh bags are (a) excellent ventilation for heat exchange
during precooling, (b) avoidance of high relative humidity in the bag for commodities
and situations in which high relative humidity is undesirable, (c) good visibility of product,
and (d) easy closure. Mesh bags are widely used for origin prepackaging of oranges,
because the fruit cools faster in mesh bags than in plastic film, and the hazard of fruit
decay during a prolonged marketing period is somewhat lower in mesh than in film. Apples
are less commonly packed in mesh bags because they are usually cooled before prepackaging
and the possibility of decay during marketing is lower for apples than for oranges.
3.3.4 Shrink-Film Wraps
Films of a number of types can be given heat-shrink characteristics by stretching under
controlled temperatures and tensions to form molecular orientation, after which the film
is cooled in the stretched condition to maintain its form. Films such as polypropylene,
polystyrene, polyethylene, and rubber hydrochloride can be converted to shrink-films by
the molecular orientation method. After the shrink-film is applied to the filled trays in
tubular or heat-sealed wrap form, the packages are passed through a heat tunnel to shrink
the film cover. This immobilizes the fruits to reduce the possibility of physical damage
during handling. Studies at the retail level showed that apples in overwrapped trays were
better protected from mechanical injury than those in open trays (Wills et al., 1989). Labor
costs for packing film covering the trays were not high, and often were lower than those
for preparing standard packs in film box liners.
3.3.5 Consumer Trays
A favorite type of consumer package for preparation at the wholesale level or in the retail
store is the molded tray. Trays are made of chipboard, molded foam plastic, or clear
plastic. Trays are made in many sizes; the most commonly used trays are designed to
hold four to six apples or oranges in a single layer. Larger and deeper trays hold a dozen
or more medium-sized fruits in two layers or in a pyramid.
4 TYPES OF PACKAGING MATERIALS
A variety of packaging materials, with specific functional properties, are commercially
available for packaging fresh fruits and vegetables. These include wood, cloth, paper, and
plastics.
4.1 Wood and Textiles
Wooden containers were traditionally used for the bulk transportation of fruits and vegetables
to the marketplace. Wood offers good mechanical protection, good stacking characteristics,
and a high weight-to-strength ratio. However, it is not a great moisture or gas barrier
and can be a source of microbial contamination, particularly by molds. With the advent
of plastics, wooden containers are gradually being replaced by polystyrene, polypropylene,
and polyethylene containers, which are lighter in weight and have lower transportation costs. Textile
containers, e.g., jute sacks, are also used sparingly for the bulk transportation
of fruits and vegetables to market. Although jute sacks are durable and have high tear
resistance, they have low extensibility, they are very poor barriers to moisture and gases,
and they are subject to mold spoilage. They are also being replaced by multiwall paper
sacks.
4.2 Paper and Board
Paper and board are still very popular packaging materials in North America. Kelsey
(1989) estimated that paper and paperboard packaging constitutes about 31% of the approximately
70 million tons of paper products produced annually with a market value of
approximately $16 billion.
Paper pulp is produced from wood chips by acid or alkaline hydrolysis. The pulp
is suspended in water and beaten with rotating impellers and knives to split the cellulose
fibers longitudinally. The fibers are then refined and passed through heated rollers to reduce
the moisture content, and then through finishing rollers to give the final surface properties
to the paper. Alkaline hydrolysis produces sulfate pulp, and acid hydrolysis produces
sulfite pulp. The various types of paper and paperboard containers used as food packaging
are shown in Table 1.
Kraft paper is made from at least 80% sulfate wood pulp. It is a very strong paper,
which is used to make grocery bags, multiwall bags, shipping sacks, and specialty bags
that require both economy and strength for bulk packaging of powders, flour, sugar, fruits,
and vegetables. Bleached papers are more expensive and weaker than unbleached and
have excellent printability. Vegetable parchment is produced from sulfate pulp that is
passed through a bath of sulfuric acid. It has a more intact surface than kraft paper and
therefore has greater grease resistance and wet strength properties than kraft paper.

Because of its high grease resistance and wet strength, it is used for packaging butter and
shortening (Fellows, 1988; Brown, 1992).
Sulfite paper is lighter and weaker than sulfate paper. Greaseproof paper is made
from sulfite pulp in which the fibers are more thoroughly beaten to produce a closer structure.
It is resistant to oils and fats when dry, but these properties are lost when the paper
becomes wet. Packaging applications for greaseproof papers include margarine wraps,
french-fry bags, inner liners for multiwall sacks, and liners in composite cans for packaging
frozen juices. Glassine is a greaseproof sulfite paper that is given a high gloss finish
by the finishing rollers. It is used as wrapping material for candy products and certain
bakery products. Chocolate-coated glassine acts as a barrier to ultraviolet (UV) light to
prevent rancidity problems in chocolates and potato chips. Tissue paper is a soft, nonresilient
paper used to protect fruits against dust and bruising (Brown, 1992).
A major disadvantage of paper as a packaging material is its poor barrier properties
against moisture, gases, grease, and odors. Furthermore, it cannot be heat sealed. To improve
its barrier and heat sealability properties, paper is often combined with wax, plastic
film, metal foil, or a combination of foil and plastic film.
Paperboard is made in a similar way to paper but is thicker to protect foods from
mechanical damage. The main characteristics of board are thickness, stiffness, ability to
crease without cracking, degree of whiteness, surface properties, and suitability for printing
(Brown, 1992). White board is suitable for contact with food and is often coated with
polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, or wax for heat sealability. It is commonly used to prevent
freezer burn in stored frozen products. Pulp containers are made from paper pulp
compressed in molds to remove moisture. Pulp containers are used for egg cartons, lowcost
food trays, and cushioning for food products.
Corrugated board is the most common form of secondary food packaging and is
used by virtually every industry. According to Kelsey (1989), 280 billion square feet of
corrugated board, with a market value of $11.8 billion, was produced in 1986.
Corrugated board has an outer and an inner lining of kraft paper with a central
corrugating (or fluting) material. This is made by softening kraft paperboard with steam
and passing it over corrugating rollers. The linear are then applied to each side, using a
suitable adhesive. The board is formed into ‘‘cut-outs’’ that are then assembled into cases
at the filling line. There are four different flute sizes, A, B, C, and E flutes, which vary
in height and the number of flutes per unit length of board. They can be used alone or in
combination with one another to produce single-face, single-wall, double-wall, and triplewall
corrugated board constructions as shown in Fig. 1. Corrugated board has good impact
abrasion and compression strength and is mainly used in secondary packaging containers.
The most standard type of secondary packaging material is single-wall C flute. High storage
humidity that causes delamination of the corrugated material is prevented by lining
with polyethylene or greaseproof paper to coating with microcrystalline wax and polyethylene
(Brown, 1992).
4.3 Plastics
Since the 1970s there has been a tremendous increase in the use of plastics, replacing
traditional packaging materials such as glass, metal, and paper. The raw materials for
plastics are petroleum, natural gas, and coal. They are formed by a polymerization method
that creates linkages between many small repeating chemical units (monomers) to form
large molecules or polymers. Examples of common plastic materials and their monomer building
blocks are listed in Table 2. Many plastics contain very small amounts of additives,
such as plasticizers, antioxidant, lubricants, antistatic agents, heat stabilizers, and
UV stabilizers. These are added to facilitate processing of plastics or to impart desirable
properties to them. For example, plasticizers are added to soften plastics, thus making
them more flexible and less brittle for use in cold climates or with frozen stored products.
According to Fellows (1988), the advantages of plastics as packaging materials are their
relatively low cost, good barrier properties against moisture and gases, heat sealablity to
prevent leakage of contents, suitability for high-speed filling, wet and dry strength, suitability
for printing, ease in handling and convenience for the manufacturer, retailer, and
consumer; addition of little weight to the product and close fit to the shape of the food,
thereby wasting little space during storage and distribution.
Plastics may be made as flexible films or as semirigid and rigid containers to meet
the varied packaging and processing requirements of food. Plastic films are made with a
wide range of mechanical, optical, heat sealable, and barrier properties. Furthermore, they
can be coated with another polymer or metallized to produce a laminated structure with
superior properties. Examples of common flexible films are cellulose, polyethylene, polyester,
polyamide, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride,
ethylene vinyl acetate, ethylene vinyl alcohol, and Surlyn. A summary of the important
characteristics of these films is included in Table 2.

4.4 Coated Films

Individual films are often coated with other polymers or aluminum to improve their barrier
properties or to impart heat sealability. For example, nitrocellulose is coated on one side
of cellulose film to provide a moisture barrier but to retain oxygen permeability. A coating
of vinyl chloride or vinyl acetate gives a stiffer film, which has intermediate permeability.
Sleeves of this material are tough, stretchable, and permeable to air and moisture. A thin coating of
aluminum (termed metallization) produces a very good barrier to oils, gases,
moisture, odors, and light. Metallized film is less expensive and more flexible than foil
laminates that have similar barrier properties and is therefore suitable for high-speed filling
on form-fill-seal equipment. Cellulose, polypropylene, or polyester is metallized by depositing
vaporized aluminum onto the surface of a film under vacuum. Metallized polyester
has higher barrier properties than metallized polypropylene, but polypropylene is finding
more widespread use as it is currently less expensive.
4.5 Laminated Films
Lamination of two or more films improves the appearance, barrier properties, or mechanical
strength of a package. Materials that can be laminated to each other include plastic
to plastics, paper to plastic, paper to aluminum foil, and paper to aluminum foil to plastic.
Several methods can be used to laminate materials, including dry and wet bonding, thermal
extrusion, and coextrusion.
Laminated materials are used when high gas and moisture characteristics are required
for a long shelf life. Laminated structures usually consist of an outer protective
tougher layer, e.g., nylon or polypropylene, a middle high gas barrier layer, e.g., EVOH
or PVDC; and an inner heat sealant layer. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) is commonly
used as a heat sealant layer because of its low melting temperature. However, it sometimes
does not produce a good seal with starchy or greasy food products. The choice of sealant
layer for these food products is either EVA or Surlyn.
5 BARRIER PROPERTIES OF PACKAGING MATERIALS
Many materials can be selected for packaging fruit and vegetable products. When choosing
the appropriate packaging material, the following factors should be considered: gas barrier
properties, moisture barrier properties, antifog properties, machinability, mechanical
strength, sealability, and performance versus cost
Among the most important characteristics are their barrier properties to both oxygen
and moisture vapor, which vary greatly from material to material. High barrier materials
usually are high barriers to both moisture and oxygen, e.g., glass, tinplate, and aluminum
foil. However, the barrier properties to both oxygen and moisture may be different and may
also vary as a function of the relative humidity and temperature of the storage conditions. A
good example is EVOH, hygroscopic film that is an excellent oxygen barrier at low relative
humidities. However, at higher relative humidities it absorbs moisture, which has a plasticizing
effect and reduces the barrier characteristics to oxygen. Some films have mixed
barrier properties, i.e., low oxygen barrier characteristics and high moisture vapor barriers.
A good example is LDPE; for this reason this film is selected for packaging fresh meat
and produce and for frozen stored products to prevent freezer burn.
6 PACKAGING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
The shelf life of packaged fruits and vegetables is controlled by the properties of the
product (including water activity, pH, susceptibility to enzymic or microbiological deterioration,
mechanism of spoilage, and requirement for or sensitivity to oxygen, light, carbon
dioxide, and moisture) and the properties of the package.
Moisture loss or uptake is one of the most important factors that control the shelf life of fruits and
vegetables. Fruits and vegetables are high-moisture products with moisture
content ranging from 75% to 95%. Loss of moisture under normal storage conditions
causes wilting and shriveling of the product. However, proper packaging is able to extend
storage life of fresh products by maintaining moisture loss during storage at 10% or less,
thereby preventing wilting. The rate of moisture loss varies with each product’s respiration
rate and the water vapor permeability of the packaging film. The use of small perforations
in some film to ensure a constant supply of oxygen has no appreciable effect on moisture
loss.
Fruits and vegetables are living organisms, and even after harvest they continue to
respire and transpire. Respiration involves the uptake of oxygen and breakdown of organic
matter into water and carbon dioxide. If there is not enough oxygen, fermentation occurs
and small amounts of alcohol are produced. This results in the production of off-flavors
and off-odors and spoilage of the commodity. Therefore, packaging materials for fruits
and vegetables should not produce an excessively high barrier to oxygen.
The thermal properties of the packaging material should also be taken into consideration
to minimize temperature fluctuations. Maturation can be slowed by storage at refrigeration
temperatures, as this reduces the respiration and the synthesis of ethylene,
which causes maturation. However, an excessively low temperature may cause chilling
damage to the products. Therefore, proper packaging can also ensure temperature distribution
within the package and prevent chilling injury. Some packages are required to withstand
processing conditions (for example, hot filling, heat sterilization, boil-in-the-bag).
Packaging should retain desirable odors, e.g., of strawberries, or prevent odor pickup
in dried products. There should also be negligible odor pickup from the plasticizers, printing
inks, adhesives, or solvents used in the manufacture of the packaging material.
Packaging protects food from mechanical damage caused by transportation or handling,
e.g., vibration and compression damage. Compression damage during storage may
arise as a result of overstacking. Metal, wood, or fiberboard shipping cases prevent mechanical
damage, and products are held tightly within retail containers by molded trays
or fin seals to prevent movement. Groups of retail containers are similarly immobilized
by shrink- or stretch-wrapping.
Molds and bacteria are a major cause of spoilage of fruits and vegetables. They
may either grow on the surface of the products or spread inside the product as a result
of surface bruising or cuts and cause internal decay. Careful handling and proper packaging
can minimize physical damage and delay microbial spoilage of fruits and vegetables. However,
an excessive moisture barrier can cause high internal relative humidity in the package
that is conducive to microbial growth.
Packaging cannot prevent fresh fruits and vegetables from spoilage and decay. On
the other hand, incorrect packaging can accelerate spoilage. However, packaging can serve
to protect against contamination, physical damage, and excessive moisture loss.
6.1 Choice of Package
As fruits and vegetables vary in their physical attributes (shape, size, toughness) as well as
their moisture content and respiration rate, a specific type of packaging has to be selected to
minimize the perishability of the specific product.
Anaerobic spoilage and rotting are the major spoilage problems of soft fruits as
they bruise and squash readily. Typical soft fruits are grapes, blueberries, strawberries,
raspberries, and plums. Usually these are packaged in semirigid plastic containers, e.g., high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) or polypropylene (PP), with a plastic overwrap of polystyrene
(PS), which is vented to prevent fogging. Under ideal storage conditions, berries
remain fresh for only 2 or 3 days.
Hard fruits, such as avocados, peaches, pears, bananas, citrus fruits, and tomatoes,
have lower respiration rates and are less sensitive to handling. Commonly used packaging
systems are open PS or paperboard trays with a plastic overwap of low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Hard fruits, e.g., apples, may be bagged in
LDPE films or in LDPE/HDPE nets, e.g., oranges. In certain cases, hard fruits may cut
the packages, e.g., pineapples. In this case, heat shrink PVC is used. This film is tear
resistant and can withstand the sharp contours of the fruit.
Stem products, e.g., celery, rhubarb, and asparagus, are highly perishable as they
lose moisture rapidly. They are usually packaged in high-barrier moisture films such as
LDPE with ventilation. They can also be banded or sleeved with shrink films.
Root vegetables usually have a long shelf life. Typical root vegetables are carrots,
radish, onions, beets, and potatoes. These are usually packed in LDPE bags to prevent
moisture loss during prolonged storage at ambient temperature. In the case of potatoes
that are light sensitive, printing the film or tinting it an amber color can be used to prevent
greening of potatoes.
Green vegetables, such as brussel sprouts, cabbages, lettuce, brocoli, and cauliflower,
tend to lose moisture rapidly, resulting in wilting. Furthermore, they have high
respiration rates and so anaerobic conditions must be prevented within the packaged product.
Packaging materials that prevent moisture loss and are also low barriers to oxygen
include LDPE and PVC. PP is also commonly used as it is a high moisture barrier. However,
it must be perforated as it is also a high oxygen barrier.
Ready prepared cut vegetables and salads have a high surface area. Therefore, they
lose moisture rapidly and respire faster. The packaging film of choice is again LDPE or
LDPE/EVA, which ensures the desired shelf life of these products.
6.2 Modified Atmosphere Packaging
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) can be defined as ‘‘the enclosure of food products
in a barrier film in which the gaseous environment has been changed or modified to slow
respiration rates, reduce microbiological growth and retard enzymatic spoilage with the
intent of extending shelf life’’ (Young et al., 1988).
MAP is becoming an increasingly popular method of shelf life extension of food
products when an extended shelf life at refrigerated temperatures is required. Several methods
can be used to modify the atmosphere within the packaged products. These employ
(a) passive modification or (b) active modification.
In passive modification, the atmosphere is modified as a result of a commodity’s
respiration, i.e., O2 consumption and CO2 generation. In active modification, the package
headspace is flushed with a known concentration of O 2, CO2, and N2 (Smith et al., 1990).
Products differ in their tolerance to O2 and CO2. For example, the optimal atmosphere
for peas is 10% O2 and 7% CO2; for avocados it is 1% O2 and 10% CO2. Therefore, the
optimal film for peas may not be suitable for avocados. The recommended MA conditions
for selected fruits and vegetables are shown in Table 3.
Selection of a film of the correct permeability to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water
vapor is critical to the success of MAP of fruits and vegetables. If the film is too permeable
to oxygen, the product respires, produces ethylene, and ripens. If the permeability is too low,
anaerobic conditions are soon reached and the product ferments. Examples of permeabilities
of films used for MAP of fruits and vegetables are listed in Table 4. Generally,
films with a CO2:O2 ratio of 3:1 are most suitable. Films with this ratio include LDPE
and PVC and laminates of EVA/LDPE. These films ensure that a desirable equilibrium
modified atmosphere (EMA) is established: i.e., the rates of permeation of O 2 and CO2
through the packaging material equal the product’s respiration rate. In addition, these films
are excellent barriers to moisture and minimize moisture/weight loss of the product during
prolonged storage under theMAP atmosphere. Packaging materials used for MAP of fruits
and vegetables must also have sufficient strength to resist puncture, withstand repeated
flexing, and endure mechanical stresses during handling and distribution. Options include
flexible pillow packs, semirigid trays and closing systems, and bag-in-box containers.

6.2.1 Individual Seal Packaging

Developed since the 1980s, individual seal packaging (ISP) involves the use of heat shrinkable
polymeric film (usually 0.5–0.75 mil HDPE) that is wrapped around individual units
of fruits or vegetables and shrunk by blowing hot air over the package. ISP products have
many advantages. Ripening is delayed by the microatmosphere created around the product
as a result of the product’s metabolic activities. Furthermore, the film acts as a good barrier
to water so that no moisture loss occurs. ISP also prevents the spread of disease from one
product to another, improves handling and sanitation of the product, and facilitates pricing
and labeling of individual products. A marked reduction in shrinkage and weight loss
without deleterious effects on flavor has been shown to result from ISP (Ben-Yehoshua,
1989). ISP has also been shown to result in a two- to threefold extension of shelf life in
terms of appearance, firmness, weight loss, and other quality attributes. However, offodors
may occur as a result of poor gas exchange, and the high relative humidity (RH)
in the microatmosphere of the packaged product may enhance fungal spoilage despite the
low-O2–high-CO2 atmosphere within the packaged product. In an attempt to overcome
these limitations, ISP with perforations can be used. These perforations cover 10% of
the films’ surface and perforations vary in diameter from 0.7 to 0.16 mm (Ben-Yehoshua,
1989).
6.2.2 Edible Films
Coating of fruits and vegetables with edible materials to preserve their quality and extend
their shelf life has been in practice for centuries. The most common form of coating of
fruits and vegetables is wax coating to retard respiration, dehydration, and senescence.
Hot-melt waxes and carnauba-oil-in-water emulsions have been used effectively for citrus
fruits, apples, tomatoes, and eggplants (Kester and Fennema, 1986).
Interest in edible films has intensified over the past few years as a result of increased
consumer demand for fresh, frozen, and convenience foods and consumer concerns about
the environment. The most important characteristics of edible films are that they are good gas and
moisture barriers and may be suitable for coating with additives such as antimicrobials,
antioxidants, nutrients, and coloring agents.
Edible films most commonly used are derived from polysaccharides, protein, and
lipid. Polysaccharide films may be made from starch, dextrins, and cellulose derivatives.
Protein films are made from collagen, gelatin, wheat and corn gluten, and zein. Lipid films
may be made from natural waxes and surfactants (Kester and Fennema, 1986). Fruits and
vegetables coated with lipid (hydrophobic) films have good moisture barriers. Fungicides
can be applied to these films to retard yeast and mold spoilage. However, the coating
must not cause an excessively high gas barrier because it must reduce anaerobic respiration,
which can cause physiological disorders (Kester and Fennema, 1986). Other materials
that have been used as edible film coatings have films made from alginate, gelatin, acetylated
monoglyceride, and chitosan.