.

SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS OF AIME

6200 North Central Expressway &R~?R SPE 3845
Dallas, Texas 75206

THIS IS A PREPRINT --- SUBJECT TO CORRECTION

Worldwide Occurrence of Abnormal

Pressures, Part II

By

Bill w-m, ?’ktabermm, Dresser . ~w~~~

@ Copyright 1972
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

This paper was prepared for the Abnormal Subsurface Pressure Symposium of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers of AIME, to be held in Baton Rouge, La., May 15-16, 1972. permissicJn to coPY
is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. Illustrations may not be copied. The
abstract should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where ad by whom the paper is presented.
Publication elsewhere after publication in the JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGYor the SOCIETY OF
PETROLEUM ENGD%EERS JOURNAL is usually granted upon request to the Editor of the appropriate
journal provided agreement to give proper credit is made.

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion shouid be sent to the
Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting,
and with the paper, ❑ay be considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines.

..—— . . . ..—..-.
ABSTRACT CALIFORNIA - SANTA BARBARA CWEL (Figure 1)

Following the general discussion of The
Worldwide Occurrence of .Abnormal Pressures
Part I, Part II discusses some specific type
examples in the United States, the North Sea,
Africa and South East Asia.
INTRODUCTION
The following examples are selected as the
general type example for the area under discus-
sion. In each case the general trend of the
pore pressure profile is plotted versus depth.
Naturally, since each area is covered in a very
general manner the type example is only a gen-
eral example. When drilling, variations in the
--2..--.1 . ..*+.-..-.. .“,4 irl
d~pUtILLhlLLaL ~aLL.=.L, a..v ~,.
basin may cause an entirely different pressure
profile. So these profiles are not to be con-
-sidered as a drilling guide but rather as a
general description of the conditions that
have already been found in these areas.
In all of the examples give~the general
mechanism is compression of the shales with
the formation of a cap structure. As a guide,
the cap structure and the general lithology
of the area is indicated in the text.
“..,,-.n,n,.
l~r~~~~ mm,-n.-.,,mm
rfinaaunfi
PROFILES
The Santa Barbara Channel of California is
a deep trench, heavily faulted, that has re-
ceived rapid deposition from the Coast Range
mountains to the east. The normal sequence
in the Santa Barbara Channel is sands and shales
with sands predominating. Some deep drilling
indicates that at 10,000’ to 14,000’ a massive
shale forms a seal on a pressured section.
While it has not been extensively penetrated,
seismic records indicate that the pressure be-
low the seal should rise over several thousand
feet to an equivalent overburden value of 17
PPg . The section, as noted, is badly faulted,
and in some cases fault blocks cause pressures
to appear severai thousands feet Iuigher or
~~1~ ~e~~~~~p. ~p= ~
hwer than expected.
CALIFORNIA - CALUSA COUNTY (Figure 2)
In the typical profile, the section is a
sand and shale sequence with a change to a
massive limey shale at.about 4,000’. Pressures
increa?c,to a pore pressure equivalent of about
12% ppg at 8,000’. At that point a limey
sequence in the shale causes an abrupt increase
in pore pressure to a probable overburden grad-
ient at about 9,000’ to 10,000’.
~A~~~Q?-N~~-
- HUMBQL’TCOUNTY (Figure 3)

References and illustrations at end of paper.

44 WORLDWIDE OCCURRENCE OF AB X?MAL PRESSURES (PART 11)
The Humbolt County sequence shows three
seals, a11 limey shales, at 2,000’, 6,000’ and
10,000’. The pressure profile reaches equiva-
lent of 12% ppg at 4,000’. It holds its value
to about 6,000’ where a second seal causes the
pressure to rapidly increase to about 15 ppg.
The third seal at below 10,000’ causes a pos-
sible increase in pore pressure to overburden
equivalent at somewhere around 14,000’. The
basic section agaiilis Ssrds Znd shlles %’ith
fine grained limey sand shale appearing in the
seal sections.
UTAH - UINTAH BASIN (Figure 4)
The Utah section passes through various
formations down to approximately 10,000’ or
the lower Green River shale. At that point
the bentonitic lower Green River shale forms
a seal that over the next thousand feet carries
the pore pressure to approximately 15 ppg. The
Uintah Basin section varies considerably be-
cause of its ciassic hite~mmiiitaiil bggiil
structure. The type example is picked for the
center of the Basin and considerable variation
will occur around the edges.
COLO&iDO - RIO BLANCO COUNTY (Figure 5)
The Rio Blanco County Section is typical
of the west side of the Rocky Mountains. In
this case the pressures occur initially quite
deep at approximately 14,000’. At this point
the pressures increase to slightly greater
than 12% ppg. This is greater than the frac-
ture gradient of the upper formations. In
~~~i~~cp.i~x~en~ive IQSC circulation is noted
because of subnormal pore pressures due to the
relief in the area.
OKLAHOMA - ANADARKO BASIN (Figure 6)
In the center of the Anadarko Basin, the
Atoka shale occurs between 10,000’ and 14,000’.
Within the top of the Atoka shale is the first
pressure seal. The pressure rises gradually
in the Atoka for several thousand feet. At the
base of the Atoka the pressure may regress to
normal or may continue to rise to the equiva-
lent of 16 ppg. If the pressure regresses it
approaches normal by the Marrow sand and cont-
inues normal through to the Mississippian.
If the pressure continues to rise below
the Atoka it approaches 16 ppg by the Marrow
sand and retains essentially at that pore
pressure until returning to normal in the car-
bonates of the Mississippian section. In the
deep wells of the Anadarko Basin the intermed-
iate casing point within the Atoka is critical
because it limits’-hole size in the deeper sec-
tions of the hole. The Atoks casing point in
a 12+ to 13 lb gradient at somewhere between
12,000’ and 15,000’ causes severe limits on the
SPE ?~~
type and size casing that may be used in the
intermediate string.
WEST TEXAS - PERMIAN BASIN (Figure 7)
‘me Ralpkl b-we Estates .W=J.J.
..7.1
1 +hnt
ULLCLU -ar.amtl.,
. -&G...AJ
reached 28,500’ is used as a type example for
the Permian Basin. In this case mud weight was
used rat-her t-banpore pressure and it may be
~.~tedLb.atthe pore pressure gradient increase
at 10,000’ and decrease at 23,000’ is somewhat
more rapid than the mud gradient appears to
indicate. In general, in West Texas the higher
pressures occur in the center section of the
hole and the production in the Ellenburger or
carbonates is normal pressured. This apparent
anomoly caused considerable confusion in the
early drilling of the Permian Basin and only
in the past 5 years has this problem been clear-
ly understood.
SOUTH TEXAS - ZAPATA COUNTY (Figure 8)
In the Jurassic sections of Zapata County
in South Texas, pressures are normal until
6,000’ where the onset of a massive limey shale
causes a slow but gradual increase in pore
pressure over the next 6,000’. By 12,000’ at
the top of the Austin chalk pressures have
approached 16 ppg. All drilling in the area
indicates that these pressures are persistent
until some great depth. It may be presumed
that the Ellenburger when found would approach
normal pressure but there is no evidence to
indicate whether or not this will occur.
UPPER TEXAS - OFFSHORE (Figure 9)
The general area off Galveston shows a
double profile. Pressures are normal to
approximately 8,000’ where there may be either
a sandy or limey shale. The limey shale which
is generally associated with a higher percent
shale to sand sequence above it is an indicator
of high pressures and the pressure gradient
increases rapidly to 16 ppg over about 1,000’.
It retains this pressure for 3,000’ to 4,000’.
The onset of the massive lower Miocene shale is
a signal for further increase in pressure pro-
bably to a theoretical overburden value close
to 18 ppg.
At 7,000’ when the section above has been
largely sand, the sandy shale that extends for
several thousand feet maintains its normal
pressure. Below 14,000’ in the normal pressur-
ed section, however, the onset of the massive
lower Miocene shale is an indicator of pressure.
This has not been penetrated extensively, how-
ever, the indications are that pressures will
increase to a theoretical overburden value.
LOUISIANA - VERMILION PARISH (Figure 10)
 .
. —.-.
w 3845 BIL
This section in general is probably the
most classic sequence to be found anywhere
in the United States. The pressures are nor-
mal in the sand and s“haiesequences iiithe up-
per part d the !de. In the lower Miocene
the massive shales occur with limey caps. This
causes a rapid increase in the pore pressure
somewhere below 10,000’ to 14 ppg. The very
rapid pressure increase in this transition zone
causes a tricky pipe setting problem but the
sequence is pure and classic. A second shale
seal occurs at about an equivalent of 15 ppg
mud weight and below that the pressure graduall
drifts upward to approximately overbiirdeavaktie
There are however, in this area many exce-
ptions due to faulting and stray sands. In one
case normal pressure persisted in the Miocene
until 19,000’ before the onset of massive
shales caused a rapid build-up in pressures.
As a general rule, however, the onset of the
basal Miocene shales and the associated limey
cap form a classic example of pressures due to
compression and the forming of an impermeable
cap.
LOUISIANA - TERREBONNE PARISH (Figure 11)
In the Houma area, pressures are generally
normal to the bottom of the Miocene where a
limey seal causes a build-up in pressure. In
this area there are generally a series of limey
shale caps that carry the pressure to close to
overburden value or 18 ppg equivalent by 14,000
The pressure profiles and depths in this area
are remarkably persistent and isopressure plots
indicate that faulting occurred both before and
after the “down to the coast” slumping.
LOUISIANA - MISSISSIPPI RIVER DELTA (Figure 12)
The Delta of the Mississippi River is nor-
mal pressured and contains massive sand section
down to 12,000’ to 14,000’. There a shale seal
causes the pressures to rise very rapidly to
approximately 13 ppg. 1,000’ below this there
is another seal that carries the pore pressure
well above 16 ppg. It might be postulated
based on the evidence of Lake Washington
field, that seals of this nature drive the
pore pressure up to the equivalent of over-
burden pressure by 18,000’ to 20,000’.
MISSISSIPPI - WAYNE COUNTY (Figure 13)
The pressure profile in Mississippi is
normal to the top of an anhydrate at approxi-
m~t~~] ~~,QOQt~ This s~~ls the pressure to 12%
PPg . Below this a series of local evaporates
drive the pressures up to close to 15 to 16 ppg
by the top of the Gainesville limestone. The
pressures appear to stay constant within the
limestone until the onset of either an evaporit
or a dense limestone cap causes a rapidly
45
increasing pressure below the Gainesville. Som(
evidence indicates that the pore pressures reacl
the equivalent of overburden by 23,000’ or
~1.nnnt . T~Li~ ~~e ~C tb.~ litb.9~Q~~
L*,UUU ~~~~~~S EQ
approach the equivalent of 21 ppg.
EASTERN CANADA - OFFSHORE (Figure 14)
There appear to be two general profiles
associated with offshore Eastern Canada. In
the first case the section continues normal
pressure to well below 14,000’. In the second
case the normal pressured section at 12,000’
1 ‘I (WM 1 ~Grz~a~F4= ~ WIaeQ4Va ~~ev shal ~ ~hfch
te La,u”” -“.. . . .-— -- .. --- —--
causes an increase in pore pressur; to somewhat
beyond 13 ppg by 14,000’ to 15,000’. The gas
shows seem to be associated with the higher
pressure gradient. This is very similar to
the section off of the shield areas in East
Africa.
NORTH SEA - EKOFISK AREA (Figure 15)
In the North Sea area, two basic pressure
patterns appear to predominate. In the series
of fields around the famous Ekofisk a soft
gummy shale appears at 2,000’ that requires a
mud density of about 12 ppg to keep the hole
open. Logs indicate that this is an under-
compacted clay section that has an overburden
gradient of about 12 ppg. At about 6,000! the
shale becomes denser and the gumbo shale of
the North Sea occurs. This section may be
1,000’ thick and in some cases requires mud
weights to 16 ppg to keep the hole open. In
addition the shale causes considerable drilling
problems. Balling of the bit, plugging of the
flowline, mud rings , and high viscosity in the
drilling mud predominate. Below the gumbo shale
t-hepressure may remain high or may regress tc
about 13 ppg. This condition appears to vary
locally.
NORTH SEA - ZECHSTEIN SALT SECTION (Figure 16)
In the North Sea where the Zechstein salt
is tlii~’k , it re~~ire~ ~ ~1~~w~igh
snd ~~~.tip.’d~’d~
of approximately 14 ppg to keep the hole open.
Below the Zechstein the pressure appears to re-
-,----- th’egmlbc
gress back towards normal. IrlgciLGLal
shale and the Zechstein salts do not appear to
occur in the same hole, but they are not mutuall
limiting.
The pressure gradient in the salt is above
the fracture gradient for the upper part of the
hole. Since the Zechtein is so mobil it is
difficult to drill underbalance. This causes
problems in properly placing casing in the
section.
NORTHERN EUROPE - ZECHSTEIN DOMES (Figure 17)
Where the Zechstein appears in domes in

Northern Europe, the pressure problems become
extreme. The Zechstein is a mixed salt with a
high percent of water of crystallization. It
therefore, acts in a much more plastic manner
than does the sodium chloride salt more common
in the United States. In the Zechstein zones
of Northern Europe the pressure rises rapidly
when entering the salt. In the shales under-
neath
..——— the edges of the dome: the mud weight
approaches overburden value and remains high
as deep as the section has been penetrated.
AFRICA - NIGERIA (Figure 18)
The sands of the upper section in Nigeria
are extremely permeable and preclude any ab-
normal pressures. It is only in the deeper
part of the section where the first massive
shales occur that a pressure build-up takes
place. The pressure cap appears to resemble
the pressure caps off the Louisiana Delta.
EAST AFRICA - OFF OF THE SHIELD AREAS (Figure
19)
Off of the Shield areas of East Africa
the pressure profile to some degree resembles
the offshore Canada profile. The pressure
remains constant because of low deposition
rates through a great deal of the section.
Deep within the section where an increase de-
position rate has occurred, pressures increase.
The evidence is scanty but the pressure caps
seem to be a limey sandy shale.
INDONESIA - SUMATRA (Figure 20)
In the typical profile for Sumatra, pres-
sures remain constant through the sand shale
sequences of the Holocene to about 6,000’. At
this point the onset of very limey shale causes
a rapid increase in pressure to about 15 ppg.
This pressure is maintained through a limey
shale section below 10,000’. Within this
section a unconformity within the Holocene
appears to cause a regression to normal
pressure at about 10,000’. But this soon re-
turns to the 15 ppg value. Below 12,000’ in
the massive Black Claystone shales it might
be expected that the pressure profile could
rise to approach overburden value. The unusual
characteristic of the Sumatra Section is that i]
tlx?shalesequences of the Holocene the shales
are extremely limey. In some cases what has
appeared to be sand is simply granular lime-
stone.
TWIWINIVCTA - Ttiwl$ (17.t.-?,,ve 97-)
Lz.JJ”..u”An -=~= \LJ_6-L’- ‘~)
Java is an entirely different picture than
Sumatra because of the increased volcanics
in the area. For the most part the section in
Java is normal pressured. Where one would
expect the pressures to rise because of the
fPART TT) SPE 3845
incidence of ash sections, which may form an
impermeable bentonite seal, there is enough
tuff to form a ready channel for water to
escape. In this case it must be assumed that
the tuff sections are continuous throughout
the area.
In the upper part of the section offshore
Java, water flows around the edge of the basin
have been recorded in the volcanic ash sections.
T%ese occur at very s“naiiowdepth and have a
water drive due to the dip of the basin. Very
little warning is given of the salt water flows;
the flow is at very great rates since the ash,
for all practical purposes, has infinite per-
meability.
SOUTH CHINA SEA (Figure 22)
The basin of the South China Sea combines
limey shales and volcanics in such a manner
to cause very high pressures. The section is
again normal down to about 6,000’. At that point
the onset of a limey shale seal is much iike
that in Sumatra. This is further followed by
a limey series that seals the pressure approx-
imately overburden value by 12,000i. All evi-
dence indicates that the 17 to 17$ lb over-
burden value extends to a great depth beyond
this point.
KALIMANTAN (Figure 23)
Rapid deposition in the swamps and offshore
areas causes a pressure gradient of 13 ppg from
the surface down to about 6,000’. At that
depth the pressure may regress rapidly to nor-
mal for 2,000 to 3,000’ or it may maintain it-
self. This pattern is not clear at present.
At about 9,000’ pressure rises very rapidly to
an overburden value of about 17% ppg where
they appear to remain to great depth. Inland
in Kalimantan, as drilling moves up the moun-
tain slopes the pressure profiles change radi-
cally and tend to approach the normal or sub-
normal state due to the relief of the land.
NORTH NEW ZEALAND - OFFSHORE (Figure 24)
Gummy shales and rapid deposition in the
Northern end of New Zealand cause overburden
pressures in an unconsolidated shale of about
13 ppg to 6,000’. This is a characteristic
of the area as it is in Kalimantan. In the
case of New Zealand, however, at 6,000’ pres-
sures regress rapidly to normal and appear to
remain normal from then on.
CONCLUSIONS
This has been a very brief and sketchy
summary of some of the typical pressure profiles
that may be found throughout the world. It has
been limited by time and space available but
 47
?E 3845 BILL TIM

indicates, in general, some of the more trouble- “Ultra Deep Drilling Guided by Seismic
some pressure trends that lisvebeen ~bser%’ed. Data” ; world Oil, May 1971, P.67.
2. Kok, P. C. and Thomeer, J.H.M.A. : Abnor-
In general pressure trends can be predicted mal Pressures in Oil & Gas Reservoirs”
on a general geologic basis and probably should Gologie en Munbouw’, Aug. 1955, P. 207.
be included in the discipline of sedimentary or 3. ------- : “Pay Promise in New Zealand”
structural geology. Petroleum Engineer, March 1972, P. 93
4. ------- : lIAJ
, & Gas D-.-.--.-.7-4-.
ULL -G ~~.~
ncaGLv”A.- “.
The drilling engineer, of course, is World”, Oil & Gas Journal, Dec. 27, 1971,
aware when he encounters them but only in the P. 91.
last several years have we become aware of the 5. McCaslin, John: “Oil Comes to Canada’s
fact t-hata.bnormaipressures are rtcrmalir.tb.e Atlantic Offshore”, Oil & Gas Journal,
oilfield. Oct. 18, 1971, P. 95.
6. Jobin, T. J.: “How Phillips Will Develop
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS North Sea Oil Production”, Petroleum
Engineer, Oct. 1971, P. 60.
The author wishes to thank the many people 7. Kastrop, J. E.: “North Sea Boom Assured
who have aided in collecting this information. Long Life”, Petroleum Engineer, Oct.
In particular Dr. L. R. Louden, Bob Matthews 1971, P. 45.
and Ray McClendon without whose aid it would 8. ------- : “Two Wells Open Super Deep Age
have been impossible. of Drilling”, Petroleum Engineer, Mar.
1972, P. 49.
REFERENCES 9. Weeks, Lewis G.: “Offshore Operations
Around the World”, Offshore Magazine,
1. Louden, Dr. L. R.; Matthews, il.R.; June 20, 1968, P. 41
McClendon, Ray; Rehm, Bill and Aud, Bill:

m2’— .— 2,CW- PLES?PL 2,0n

, Ll~

unl’— .— 6,0D - 6/31Y

---
1
I
!nim —
, LltW W W. l!zsm’
.— D,aa,-
w
‘.
16 .
9.0

‘1
.-G-
--
--
T
14JX0’
— .— 14.UD- 14.WI,
.
-. 1
I

Mm

F!g. I - Typical
pro f!le,
pressure
Cal! fornla,
lBsul’-

Fig. 2 - Typ!cal
pro fkle, Call
pressure
fern, a,
F!g. 3 -
pf-of, le,
Typical
Cal,
pressure
fern, a,
Mm’

Fig.
-1
4 - TyP; ca!
prof! Ie, Utah,
. ..=..,..
p, . . . . . .

Santa Barbara Channel Cal usa County (M!ocene) Hum bolt County IMlocene). U!ntah Basin.
(Miocene).
 ..

2Jm’ 2m’

6SU
6JXI’

0
Mm mm
Msco’

9 22

—w 24LUZ
14JJJ2’
14.COZ’

9. 9 k,

Lasm’ Zs.ua
2asLn’

1 !

Fig. 6 - Typical pressure Fig. 7 - TyP Ical pressure

Fig. 5 - Typical pressure profi Ie, West Texas,
prof! Ie, Colorado, profl Ie, Oklahoma,
Anadarko Bas!n Ral ph Lowe Estate
RIO Blanco County.
(Pennsylvanian). (Permian) mud weight.

210% 2,0N
2sm’

w
Gm >“’ EJJ1l’
,’ 6.CID

LIECY
W

\ Mao’ _
20K0’ Msoz’
WGYs+ WL

\
i 9, I ,Wclmr i 9 12.5 !
krllrm-
‘1

14sm’ Mm’
14S02< — !3q&m
q w“’
‘.
. ‘.
T

2aa11’
2asm’ 2asol’
\
+
I t

Fig. 9 - Typical pressure Fig. 10 - Typical pressure

Fig. B . Typical pressure profile, Louisiana,
prof! le. South Texas, profi Ie, upper Texas,
offshore Vermi I ion Parish
Zapata Co. (Jurassic) . (Miocene -Oligocene).
(Miocene -Cretacf.?OUS).
2sm’
II 2m2’
I 2,m - —

6,1X0’-
—
6,K0’
6,1XCI’

I T

mm KllX S-WI — alml

mm-l’ — 9W.EW
losal
II w
M#on’ -
T
—w ~!wt
9
—w
22.5 E
“-w
9 22.5
N U

16,Urn’- i%ae-
14.C02 -w s
Y1.un’ -Sw.Ew

alsn2’- —
lasm’ 2S.WI

I 1 I Y

12 - Typ!cal Pressure Flg. 13 - Typical pressure profi Ie,

Fig. II - Typ!cal pressure Fig.
Miss lsslppi, Wayne County
pro f[le, Lout sl aria,
profile, Loul Sl aria, ~v{i~~i~~ipp: ~:~,er ~e!~~ (Jurass Ic) .
Terre bonne Par!sh
(upper Miocene).
(Miocene).

2,CCD
2,am’ — ?,On’ —

6,K0’ –
— Mm’ —
7
— QHaw.E
6,012’—
—
6,CCIY

<
EC-SIHN

2osJ22’–
—

lz
lom’-
— lom—

9
— d

1
M,(W

# LIPH NE x

14sm’-
— \ 14JYJ2’—
— 14.cm—— 14,011’

— lam— — Z&ml’
— lasm’–
28sal’-

I
16 - Typical pressure Fig. 17 - Typical pressure
Fig. 15 - Typical pressure Fig.
Fig. 14 - Typical pressure pi-oft Ie, North Se?, profi Ie, Northern Europe,
profi Ie, Eastern Canada, profl Ie, North Sea, Zechstein domes.
Ekofisk area (Holocene). Zechsteln salt sect !on.
offshore.
 )
2#oJY
2,au’ 2,cm’
2.all’

- LI~ mo’
—
6.au’

-~~
6SUI’ 6JJJ2’
- Lucwcs
M+IIFF)

\
\
.
---
----,
\
4 [“----- Cw4+.
MSUY
loon’ 10.LW ---
Loscu’

E 9 u 1
9 22.5 .
9 12: 16

141D% 14,ao’
‘x
Mm
—
lz.ao’

I&m’ I&cm’ lam —

lasm’

213 . Typical pressure F!g. 21 - Typical pressure

F!g. 19 - Typical pressure F!g.
Fig. 18 - Typical pressure pro f,le, Indones!a - ppofile, Indonesia -
profile, Africa - N!ger la, pro f!le, East Afrhca, Java (Holocene) .
Sumatra (Holocene) .
(Holocene). off of shield [Holocene).

2011’
4111 I
2sm’

~~

I
UcUKLUnm

6,CUI’ 6K0’

: ‘~

Z!2sm’ Io.ao’

9 u .5 E
9 22,

14LOS lII,CIDPI

F!g. 22 . Typical pressure

lasol’

Fig.
4

23 - Typical
Kal mantan
pressure
low I ands,
profile,
lmo’

Fig.
+11 24 - Typical
profi Ie, North
pressure
New
profile, South China Sea, Zealand, offshore.
marine (Holocene).
(Holocene).