STRATIGRAPHICAL CONTROL OF MINERALISATION

IN THE PEAK DISTRICT OF DERBYSHIRE

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Leicester.

Noel Edward Worley, 1978.

 Abstract

The Pb - Zn - Ba - F deposits of the Southern Pennine

Orefield comprise stratabound rakes, pipes, and flats which are
deve Iopede xclusfve ly in Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian) Limestones
and dolomites lying on a basement of Lower Palaeozoic rocks. The
distribution of these deposits is largely controlled by the occurrence
of favourable lithofacies, located on structural highs, in the uppermost
(Brigantian stage) shelf limestones. These include pseudobreccias,
shell beds, reefs, stylolitically-bedded limestones, erosion surfaces,
and coarse crinoidal biosparrudites. A number of other lithologies
acted as aquicludes and include lavas, tuffs, 'clay wayboards, shale,
and chert beds.

A review of studies of paragenesis, fluid inclusions, and

isotopes has shown the mineralisation probably originated by deep
circulation of connate Dinantian waters- which leached base metals,
barium, and fluorine, from a variety of crustal rocks. Deep seated
sources provided sulphur in some of the sulphide minerals whose
origin was related to crustal rifting in the area during the opening
of the North Atlantic and the formation of the North Sea Basin.

The mineral solutions were acidic and produced a system

of integrated hydrothermal karst cavities known as pipes. Precipitation
of the minerals occurred by an increase in pH, cooling, and decrease in
pressure.

Many of the pipes continued through the Tertiary and Pleisto-

cene to act as water courses, where alluvial placer deposits of galena,
fluorite, and baryte accumulated.
Page No. CONTENTS.

1 List of plates.

Part I Introduction.

5. Methods of investigation, geographical setting, regional

geological setting, acknowledgements.

Part II Stratigraphy and Structure of the Soutre rn

Pennine Orefield.

10. 1 Introduction
25. 2. The Castleton - Bradwell area.
37. 3. The Eyam - Stoney Middleton - Tideswell area.
45. 4. The Bakewell - Lathkilldale - Monyash - Longstone area.
58. 5. The Matlock - Wirksworth - Youlgrave area.
8l 6. Regional correlations and geological history.
85. 7. Structure.

Part III Stratigraphical Distribution and Texture s of the

Mineral Deposits of the Southern Pennine Orefield.
88. 1 Introduction
97. 2. Types of mineral deposit found in the Southe rn Pennines.
100. 3. The Castleton - Bradwell area.
117. 4. The Eyam - Stoney Middleton - Tideswell area.
130. 5. The Bakewell - Lathkilldale - Monyash - Longstone area.
149. 6. The Matlock - Wirksworth - Youlgrave area.
200 7. Summary and di scussion of part IlL

Part IV

2.-n6~ 1 The origins and formation of pipe and flat veins.

2. The origins and evolution of the lead - zinc - fluorite -
218.
baryte deposits of the Southern Pennines.
 Overall thesis summary.

240•. Part V - Pape rs written during the course of the re search

project and presented in support of this thesis.

- I \

~.41. References.
 L

~ist of Plate s

Plate L I

Fig 1 Reef facies Eyam L'irne stone, Jeffrey Lane, Bradwell

Fig 2. Crinoidal cal.cir-udrte, Upper Monsal Dale Limestone.
Moorfurlong Mine.

Plate 2. ,
Fig 1 Grey calcarenite facies limestone, Smalldale Opencast Mine,
photomfcr-ogr-aph, plane polarised light X40.
Fig 2. Grey calcarenite facies Lime stone, Smalldale Opencast Mine,
.
:Photomicrograph plane polarised light X40.
Fig 3. Grey calcarenite facies Iime stone, Smalldale Openca st Mine,
photomicr-ogr-aph, plane polarised light X40.

Plate 3. ,
Fig 1 Lower Shell Bed, Stoney Middleton, Monsal Dale Limestones.
Fig 2. Biomtcarenfte, Glebe Mine, Monsal Dale Limestones.
Fig 3. Reef facies lime stone, Eyam Gr-oup, Raper Fluorspar Opencast I
Youlgrave.

Plate 4. ,
Fig 1 Pseudobrecciated biomicrite, Matlock Lower Lime stones,
Masson Qua r'r-y, Matlock.
Fig 2 Fossiliferous micr-ite, ,Matlock Lower Ltme stone, Masson Quar ry,
Matlock.
Fig 3 Pseudobrecciated bfom ic rudite, Matlock Lower Limestone,
Masson Qua r r-y, Matlock.

Plate 5. I

Fig 1 Biomicrudite, Matlock Lower Lime stone, Masson Quarryl

Matlock. phctomicr-og raph, plane polarised light X40.
Fig 2. Biomtc r-ite, Matlock Lower Lime stone, Tearsall Quarry.
Matlock, photomicrograph plane polarised light X40.
Fig 3. Biomicrite, Matlock Lower Limestone. Tearsall Quar-r-y,
Matlock. photomicrograph plane polarised light X40.
 2.

Plate 6. ,
Fig 1 Fossiliferous ,micrite, dark facies Matlock Lower Limestone,
Tearsall Quarry, Matlock, photomicrograph, plane polarised
light X40.
Fig 2. Biomicrite, Cawdor reef facies limestone, Old Ash Mine,
,
Wensley.
Fig 3. Pelsparite, dark facies Matlock Lower Limestone, Tearsall
Quarry, Matlock, photomicrograph plane polarised light X40.

Plate 7. ,
Fig 1, Pipe vein cavity mineralisation, Smalldale Opencast, Bradwell
Fig 2. Fluorite replacement of reef facies Eyam Limestone, Jeffrey
Lane replacement, Bradwell

Plate 8. ,
Fig l Blue John fluorite replacement, Treak Cliff, Castleton.
Fig 2. Laminated fluorite texture, Nether Fear Mine, Bradwell
Fig 3. "Throstle breasted" fluorite, baryte, quartz replacement,
Hancock Shaft, Watergrove Pipe.

Plate 9. ,
Fig 1 Fluorite quartz ore, Jeffrey Lane replacement, Bradwell,
photomicrograph, plane polarised light X40.
Fig 2. Granular fluorite with galena from the flat in Moorfurlong
Mine, Bradwell, photomicrograph, plane polarised light X40.
Fig 3. Fluorite, baryte, quartz replacement, Hancock Shaft, Water-
grove Pipe, photomicrograph, crossed polars, X40.

Plate 10. ,
Fig 1. Mineralised solution cavity in the cheeks of Hucklow Edge Vein,
Ladywash Mine, Broadlow sublevel
Fig 2. Fluorite baryte breccia, Hucklow Edge Vein, Ladywash Mine,
 3.

Plate 11 ,
Fig 1 Calcite lined pipe vein cavity, Old Nestus Pipe, Masson,
Matlock
Fig 2. Pipe vein cavity with laminated fluorite ba.ryte replacement,
300 ft. level Oxclose Mine, Snitterton.

Plate 12. ,
Fig 1 Fluorite calcite flat, Old Nestus Pipe Masson Matlock
Fig 2. Fluorite flat, High Loft Mine, Masson Matlock

Plate 13. ,
Fig 1 Pseudobrecciated fluorite, High Loft Pipe, Masson Matlock
Fig 2.
.
Fluorite baryte r ossettes, Old Nestus Pipe, Masson, Matlock

Plate 14. ,
Fig 1 Relic calcite pipe vein cavity with fluorite quartz replacement.
Old Nestu~ Pipe Masson Matlock.
Fig 2. Galena mineralisation in dolomite. Old Nestus Pipe, Masson,
Matlock

Plate 15. ,
Fig 1 Pseudobedded fluorite, Old Ash Mine ,> Wensley.
Fig 2. Laminated fluorite baryte replacement; 300 ft. level flats
Oxclose Mine, Snitterton.
Fig 3. Bedded fluorite baryte with clasts of igneous clay. Oxclose
Mine, Snitterton.

Plate 16. ,
Fig 1 Pyritic calcite, Old Nestus Pipe, Masson Matlock, polished
section.
Fig 2. Pyritic calcite, Old Nestus Pipe, Masson, Matlock, polished
section

Plate 17. ,
Fig 1 Mixed sulphide inclusion in calcite, photomicrograph, X120
Old Nestus Pipe, Masson, Matlock
Fig 2. Mixed sulphide inclusion in calcite, Old Ne stu s Pipe, Masson
Matlock. photomicrograph X120
 4.

Fig 3. Mixed sulphide inclusion in ca'Ic ite, photomicrograph, X 12.0

Old Nestus Pipe, .Maeson, Matlock

Plate 18. , .
Fig 1 Mixed sulphide ore, Blende Vein, Magpie Mine, photo-
micrograph X40.
Fig 2. Zebra texture fluorite replacement. Southern end of
Old Nestus Pipe, Masson, Matlock
Fig 3. Calcite speleothem cementing an alluvial deposit of baryte
and fluorite 200 ft. level, Oxclose Mine, Snitterton.

Plate 19. ,
Fig 1 Laminated fluorite - quartz replacement, Devonshire Cavern,
photomicrograph, plane polarised light, X40.
Fig 2. Baryte - fluorite replacement, Oxclose Mine 300 ft. level
Photomicrograph, plane polarised light, X40.
Fig 3. Fluorite - quartz replacement, Old Ne stus Pipe, Masson,
Matlock, Half crossed polars, photomicrograph, X40.

Plate 20. ,
-Fig 1 Fluorite replacement of calcite, Tearsall Quarry, photo-
micrograph, plane polarised light X40.
Fig 2. Granular fluorite replacement ore, Tearsall Quarry, Matlock,
photomicrograph, plane polarised light, X40.
Fig 3. Fluorite replacement with relic calcite, Old Ash Mine,
. photomicrograph, plane polarised, light X40.

Plate 21,
Fig 1 Calcite lined pipe vein cavity, Blende Vein, Magpie Mine.
Fig 2. Solutionally enlarged pipe vein, Watergrove Mine, Forefield
Shaft, Wardlow.
 PART I

INTRODUCTION.
 5.

i) Aims of the project

The research project has sought to establish the stratigraphical

distribution of the mineral deposits contained within the Carboniferous
Limestone of the Peak District more often known as Southern Pennines.
All aspects of stratigraphical control have been investigated including
the regional distribution of mineralisation within certain stratigraphical
horizons and the localisation effects of lithological features such as
lavas, shale beds, clay way boards, reefs, tuffs, bedding planes and
limestone petrofabrics.

The first part of the thesis presents an account of the strat-

igraphy and lithofacies of the Southern Pennine Orefield establishing
the stratal correlations and facies variations. The various limestones
found to be favourable to mineralisation are described in detail This
provides the e asenttal framework for analysis of the stratigraphical
distribution of the mineral deposits, de scribed in the third part of the
thesis. The form, paragenetic sequence, and textures of the mineral
deposits is also outlined in most cases for the first time.

Discussions concerning the origins and evolution of the stratiform

deposits are presented in a concluding part, and these are compared
with similar deposits found elsewhere in the U. K. and other parts of
the world.

ii) Methods of investigation

,
Few of the mineral deposits in the Southern Pennines may be
examined in detail at surface, those localities that are accessible are
usually badly weathered and difficult to study. Therefore, most of the
information for this survey has been obtained from underground local-
ities in both abandoned and working mines. This procedure has nec-
essitated the production of detailed plans and sections as no accurate
surveys exist of these mines and much time has been devoted to under-
 6.

ground surveying using prismatic compasses and in some cases theodol-

ites. From these surv~ys it has been possible to classify the strati-
graphical position of most of the deposits. A large number of the deep
shafts have also been mapped in detail and in many case s have led to.
revision of the established stratigraphical successions.

Much of this underground surveying has been carried out in

extremely arduous sometirres dangerous conditions in localities that
have never been previously subjected to geological investigations,
and as a result it has not always been possible to fully and system-
atically record all the data and collect .sample s, The author has also
been fortunate in that the period of research coincided with two of the
driest climatic periods on record, and previously inaccessible flooded
mine workings have been studied for the first time.

Only during the later stages of the project have provisional

geological maps of much of the area become available and this has
necessitated compilation of geological maps of the area from existing
published sources along with mapping carried by the author and Butcher
(1976). These have enabled a more rigorous analysis of the stratigraph-
ical distribution of mineralisation to be examined.

Many of the limestone and mineral textures have been studied in

polished and thin sections, in a textural and paragenetic study of the
replacement deposits.

Liaison with industrial concerns in the area has also permitted

investigations in previously inaccessible areas which has also enabled
the study of unpublished mine records and borehole logs. This in
particular has permitted a greater understanding of the stratigraphy.

A further source of information have been the County Record

Offices in Sheffield and Matlock where studies of some of the old mine
records and geological sections have been carried out. In some cases
 FIGURE 1
1
30

-.JL

li
80

East Moor

....70 70

::: :.
".:

...
..... ~ ::: '.
i-ss:
'
.......
'
.
..
,
.....
'

60

50 50

Key
_____ limestone boundary

--------- Dry valley

PHYSICAL FEATURES
:,'.'.',',f,',1,,',', Gorge
o 1 2 3 4 5
~~Mlles .J....L1.1li.Lu.J..ll. I
" '.'; Scarp in gr tstone
10 20
 7.

the shaft sinking notes and driving records have provided valuable
clues on the distribution of lavas, clay wayboards, and different
types of limestones.

As a result of the unqrene ss of this investigation it is likely

that the data collected for'this thesis will remain the only source of
information on many of the mineral deposits of the Southern Pennines.

iii) Geographical setting

The area under consideration lies within central northern

England (fig. 1) at the southern end of the north - south trending Pennine
Hills. This area is generally known as the Peak Dfstr-iot, and being
an area of outstanding natural beauty formed one of Britain's first
National Parks.

The Peak District consists of a high peat covered dissected

gritstone plateau which attains altitudes of over 600 metres. Lying at
the heart of this plateau is a central mass of limestone country con-
taining the Southern Pennine Orefield that gives rise to gentler land
forms consisting of valleys locally known as dales crossing the high lime-
stone plateau. This plateau reache sits highe st point in the north at
Eldon Hill 450 m, (1500 feet) falling gradually southwards to 2'10 m,

around Brassington and Wi rkswor-th, before merging into the lower

Triassic midland plains.

A number of rivers traverse the limestone country whose

sources lie generally on the gritstone moors. The principal river is
the De rwent, which flows from north to south and whose main tribut-
aries include the Wye and Lathkill

The upland limestone and surrounding area is sparsely populated

containing two small towm Buxton and Matlock ~the larger villages include,
Bakewell, Bradwell, Eyam, Wirksworth and Hartington.
 A GEOLOGI CAL MAP OF

THE PENN I NES AND

A DJACENT AREAS

AFTER EDWARDS AND

TROTTER 1954

VALE OF
. . . YORK
• '--0' • • • •
• (f\ " •

/,'".....::::r:IJ~rnm
A-H+J
rHH1-H-++++I·
-z. . ~.~==~
.. -z:
:z:.
•
I

t11 •
I
•

)~~~~~i~:~lllli' ~' . .. .~
0
• • • • • , It-H-H--H-H-t-+-

h-----'\f-+Hf-A...
.• . •
. • • .l++++t+-H-+H

~~S,."""_
lfl •

.. .

CHESHIRE PLAIN

1--------------",r.,H.

25 ~o. tf¢.-~~~---------.:.=::::~!;!;t~~NOTT I N GHAM

~ LOWER PALAEZOIC ",I 0 ".: MILLSTONE GRIT ~_ PERMIAN LIMESTONE

~ ROCKS • • • • ~--J

1 ' 1 CARBONIFEROUS _ : COAL MEASURES c===J MESOZOIC ROCKS

L---.JLIMESTONE c==J
 8.

iv) Regional Geological setting

•
The Southern Pennine Orefield lies largely within Lower Car-
boniferous (Dinantian) Limestones (fig. 2), which are surrounded by
younger Upper Carboniferous shales and coarse thickly bedded sand-
o

stones, known as gritstones. A total of 450 m, of limestone is exposed

but deep boreholes have penetrated over ,J. 80.£l metres of limestone at
Eyam which rests unconformably upon Ordovician slates.
r

The limestone and the orefield is separated from the Carbon-

iferous Limestone masses of Yorkshire and the Northern Pennines by
a large tract of deltaic sandstones and shales of Upper Carboniferous
age.
;

Productive coalfields developed within the Westphalian strata

flank the easte rn margin of the Southern Pennines, however, the western
margin .of the area is structurally more complex. and the Upper Carbon-
iferous rocks being faulted against Triassic sandstones of the Cheshire
basin separate the Lancashire coalfield in the north from its southerly
counterpart in North Staffordshire (fig. 2).

The Southern Pennines lies on the southern tip of a large north-

south trending 'tectonic high' which separates two major Mesozoic -
Tertiary sedimentary basins, the North Sea basin to the east, and the
Cheshire - Irish Sea basin to the west. Permo - Triassic sediments
deposited in these basins but against the western and eastern margins of
the Southern Pennines once resting unconformably upon the Carbon-
iferous Limestones. In the south the Triassic sandstones still rest
directly upon the limestone (fig. 2).

v) Acknowledgements

The author acknowledgrs the receipt of a Natural Environment

Research Council Studentship at the University of Leicester during t,he
 9.

period 1973 - 1977. The research was supervised by Dr. T. D. Ford

who provided enthusiastic and constant help throughout the project in
both the field and in the laboratory.

Most of the field work was carried out with my colleagues at

Ope ration Mole, Douglas Nash, John Oakley and Sidney Hirstwood:
very special thanks must go to them for help with all aspectsof this
work. A great deal of field work was also undertaken with Nick
Butcher and John Beck whose help and discussions have been in-
valuable.

.
Important help has been provided by members of the Peak
District Mines Historical Society notably Les Riley, Terry Worthington,
and John Peel Lynn Willies has helped and simplified many aspects of
the mine history in the area also providing valuable documentary data.

Messrs. Tarmac Ltd., are thanked for pe rmts sion to study

many of the deposits which lay within their lease areas. In particular
Frank Hardy and Jack Beck are thanked for hours of discussions and
provision of reports,plans and documents.

John Hedges of Laporte Industries Ltd., and Dr. Mason are

also acknowledged for permission to study Ladywash Mine, Masson
Mines and Raper Mine.

The Central Photographic Unit of the University of Leicester

provided facilities and help with the preparation of many of the figures
and plates.
 PART II.

STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE OF THE

SOUTHERN PENNINE OREFIELD

 10.

1 Introduction

The following account documents and correlate s the facie s

variations developed within the Dinantian rocks of the Southern
Pennine Orefield.

In order to examine the effects of stratigraphy upon min-

eralization an exhaustive description is presented which has
invariably drawn heavily upon previous research. However, a great
deal has been added to existing knowledge by the logging of many mine
shafts, and thorough mapping underground in mines and caves. This
has led to revision of the boundaries of some of the stratigraphical
formations. A number of boreholes drilled in recent years and whose
logs are not published have also been included adding considerably to
the understanding of the stratigraphy.

This chapter provides the fundamental framework upon which

the classification of the stratigraphical distribution of the mineralization
is based.

The Southern Pennine Orefield lies within Lower Carboniferous

(Dinantian) Limestones. The Dinantian includes six stages, named in
upward succession, Courceyan, Chadian, Arundian, Holkerian, Asbian,
and Brigantian. Only the Holkerian, Asbian and Brigantian stages are
widespread at outcrop and representatives of the other stages are known
from deep borehole s which penetrated a basement of Lower Palaeozoic
mudstones, and on the western side of the limestone outcrop.

Shelf limestones were deposited on the Derbyshire massif which

acted as a positive area in the Dinantian, and is flanked to the north,
south and west by basins or gulfs where subsidence was more rapid.
Dark limestones accumulated in the basinal areas now largely con-
cealed by Upper Carboniferous and Mesozoic sediments. Subsidence
within the shelf was uneven generally the northern and southern and west-
ern margins were uptilted and the central - eastern area subsided more
rapidly. Apron reef limestones developed flanking these uptilted areas.
 11

i) History of previous research

a) History of Gove rnmerrt sponsored geological surveys

The earliest Geological description of the Southern Pennines

appeared in Pilkington (1789). In a report made by Farey (1811) for
>

former Government body, the Board of Agriculture, the first outline

geological map was produced He subdivided the limestone strata
into four using the toadstone horizons (basalt lavas) as boundaries
and he considered that these lavas extended laterally in an uninter-
rupted fashion throughout the area. Those toadstones which did not
fit into this pattern were referred to as, "chance beds".

The most recent and only attempt to describe the detailed

stratigraphy of the whole Southern Pennines was by Green e~ al
(1869 & 1887) to accompany the first coloured one inch to one mile
geological maps. More details of the geology of the Matlock area
were added by Gibson and Wedd (1913) in the Derbyshire Coalfield
Memoir.

Re- organisation of the Geological Survey One Inch sheet num-

bers led to coverage of the Southern Pennine Orefield in the form of
four one inch sheets accompanied by descriptive memoirs. Only two
of these have been published, and include the Chapel en Ie Frith memoir
(Stevenson and Gaunt 1971) and the Chesterfield, Matlock and Mansfield
memoir (Smith et al 1967). Parts of the Buxton sheet have been
recently published as 1 : 10 560 provisional dyeline maps and a special
coloured 1 : 25 000 map covering the Millers Dale area was issued in
1976. The area between Monsal Dale in the north to Wensley Dale in
the south, which includes the important mining areas of Sheldon, Monyash,
Alport, Winster and Elton, is currently be ing mapped by the Institute cf
Geological Science s; but it seems unlikely that this sheet will be pub-
lished as a memoir until the 1980's - nearly a century after the primary
survey.
 12.

b) Other Geological research

The lack of mapping and activity in the Southern Pennines by

the Geological Survey has led to the publication of many short papers
covering a~pects of the local stratigraphy with a slight bias towards
deta.iled palae ontological de scriptions.

Whitehurst (l778) in his "Enquiry into the Original State of

the Earth and its Formation" provided the earliest published geolog-
ical sections of the Matlock area. The distribution of the basalt lavas
and limestones was accurately depicted, and they were shown to be
overlain by shales and gritstones. Investigations by the author,
Kirkham (l968) and Willies (19lT~) have shown that by the eighteenth
century the mine surveyors and mine agents who controlled the lead
mines of the are~ had accrued de.taile.d knowledge of the lithological
variations of the Iime stone s as well as the distribution of the lavas
and tuffs. It seems likely that Whitehurst's account drew heavily upon
this knowledge. Unfortunately by the 19th century the decline in lead
mining saw much of this documented knowledge pass into private hands
and it became lost to subsequent generations.

More detailed de scriptions of the strata were provided by White

Watson (1792 to l8ll) in the form of annotated geological sections and a
catalogue of fossils was produced at the turn of the 19th century by
Martin (1809) in Petrificata Derbiensa.

The first petrological analyses of the basalt lavas were provided

by Alsop (1845) and Allport (1874) described thin sections thereof. De La
Beche's (1851) Geological Observer commented on the occurrence of coal
seams in clay wayboards in the Matlock area and also in Matlock Sorby
(1879) added notes on the petrography of the dolomitic limestones recog..
nising that dolomitisation must have occurred afte r deposition of the
.-
limestones. An important contribution to the understanding of the strat-
igraphy was made by Sibly (1908) who applied Vaughan's Avon Gorge.
 13.

palaeontological zonation of the Lower Carboniferous to the Southern

Pennines. He established the thickness of strata exposed in the Wye
Valley, and in Gratton Dale, finding that the limestones belonged to
the D D and D zones. In the same year Arnold Bemrose (1908)
l, 2, 3
.
gave his classic paper on the distribution of the basalt lavas and tuffs
and showed how two principal lavas, upper and lower, outcropped over
much of the area. Jackson (1922) identified the brachiopod Daviesiella
llangollensis in the Wye Valley and recognised that Girvanella sp.
occurred at the base of the D limestones in the Pinda1e area of North
2
Derbyshire (Jackson 1941). The limestone shale contact in the Castleton
area was mapped by Jackson (1925) who considered it to be an uncon-
formity.

The outcrop of the dolomitic limestones in the southern part of

the area was shown by Parsons (1922) to be transgressive affecting
D D and D limestones alike. Chemical analyses and petro-
I, 2, 3
graphical descriptions of the dolomite were produced and this work
remains the only publication on the subject.

Research on the formation of chert in Derbyshire was des-

cribed in Sargent (1921 and 1929) who regarded chert as a primary
precipitate of silica gel from silica solutions in sea water. Morris
(1929) and fellow workers of the Sorby Scientific Society of Sheffield
published L paper on the geology of the Eyam-Stoney Middleton area.
Morris used advanced techniques to describe the limestones which
included detailed thickness measurements, the use of thin section
descriptions, systematic palaeontology, and acid insoluble residue
analysis. The sections de scribed in Stoney Middleton Dale are still
used today and the recognition of knoll reef limestones in the area is
generally attributed to him. Fearnsides (1932) gave a general outline
of the geology of the eastern part of the Peak District which included
important notes on the structural evolution of the area. The Wye Valley
section was revised by Cope (1933 and 1937) who postulated that folding
was in operation during D times, and suggested that the Calton Hill
2
 14.

vent was tIE centre for extrusion of the Upper Millers Dale Lava. The
D / D boundary was ~escribed in detail and Cope found that the
l 2
foraminifera: Saccaminopsis sp. occurred in a band of dark limestones
at the base of the D Station Quarry Beds. Limestones of S2 zone age
2
were also recognised at outcrop in the Buxton area.

Fearnsides (1933) using structural contours described the basic

structure of the Southern Pennine s and attempted to relate it to similar
structures in the adjacent coalfields. He held the opinion thatthe com-
plex fold patte-rns were the result of movements of underlying Pre-
Cambrian and Lower Palaeozoic blocks.

The toadstone s and clay wayboards exposed in the Millclose

Mine were correlated with the volcanic rocks exposed in the Matlock
area by Traill (1940). Traill also found that the lavas were laterally
impersistant and passed into tuffs or clay wayboards. Shirley and
Horsfield (1940) presented a map of the Castleton - Bradwell area and
they considered that the reef limestones exposed at Castleton rested
unconformably upon the shelf limestones outcropping to the south. At
Peak Forest limestones of 8 age were mapped and equated with the
2
8 Daviesiella Beds exposed in the Wye Valley.
2

Parkinson (1943, 1947, 1953 and 1965) contested Shirley and

Horsfield'r. unconformity at Castleton and established the age of the
reef belt as B and PI using goniatites equatin~ it with the D and D
2 l 2
lime stone s 011 the she lf,

Deep boreholes sunk through a Namurian cover in anticlines

north of the limestone outcrop intersected dark shaley limestones
interpreted by Hudson and Cotton{l945a and 19451:» as basin facies.
They considered that these limestones passed laterally into the reef
limestones which lay above a postulated Castleton fault which formed
the northern margin to the limestone shelf. Hudson and Cotton (1945a
p 30) established a P2 zone age on the basis of goniatites for the D
S
 15.

limestones exposed in the Headstone Head railway cutting (Sib1y 1908).

Shirley and Horsfield (1945) extended their mapping to the

Eyam - Stoney Middleton area and found that the Orionastraea
placenta coral band was a useful marker occurring at the top of the
,
D limestones. They suggested that the abnormal thickness of Eyam
2
reef limestone developed on Longstone Edge was related to a
penecontemporaneous Longstone Edge monocline. Unconformities
were recognised at the base of the P 2 age Eyam Lime~tone and at
the base of the D limestones.
2

.Ftrrthe r research on the Castleton reef belt by Fora (1952)

showed that reef development started to occur at the top of the 8
2
zone and not at the base of I?l as was previously thought. The Matlock -
Wirksworth are3: was described by Shirley (1959) who introduced the
. .
terms Cawdor Limestones for the P 2 zone, Upper and Lower Lathkill
Limestone for the D 2 zone, and Via Gellia Limestone for the D zone.
1
Unconformities were found to occur between each of the zones mapped
and Shirley suggested that the absence of dark limestones in the lower
part of the Lathkilllimestones in the Matlock area was due to overlap
by the higher pale grey limestones. The position of the Gratton Dale
lava was considered to be stratigraphically lower than the Matlock
Lower Lava and the previously unnamed Winster Moor Farm Lava was
discover-ed, A preliminary summary of Shirley's mapping was pub-
lished in Shirley (1948) which attempted to correlate the strata from
Castleton to Matlock.

George (1958) reviewed Lower Carboniferous palaeogeography

subdividing the British Isles into a series of major provinces: the
Southern Pennines were included on the southern margin of a Central
Province which cove red much of central northe rn England.

A detailed study of the Castleton reef belt was made by

Wolfenden (1958) who proved that the shelf facies limestones passed.
 16.

laterally through an algal faCies into fore-reef limestones with

steep outward facing depositional dips. Petrographical work on some
of the limestones from the northern part of the area led Orme and Brown
(1963) to recognise various grain growth and cement diagenetic fabrics
in the shelf and reef limestones.

The reef belt in the Bradwell- Pindale area was studied in Eden
et al (1964) who found that knoll and flat reef limestones in the D
2
passed laterally into coarsely crinoidallimestones on the shelf. A
volcanic horizon intersected in boreholes known as the Pindale Tuff
was equated with the Millers Dale Lower Lava.

Geophysical data obtained during the search for oil on the

eastern side of the
,
British Isles was presented by Kent (1966, and. ..
-1967.--;') and showed that the Southern Pennines lay on a north-we st-
ward extending arm of the Lincolnshire shelf. The data obtained by
Kent Ie? him to infer that a series of gulfs containing dark basinal
limestones lay to the north and south of the shelf respectively. This
data was incorporated into George (1967) which updated his views of
Lower Carboniferous palaeogeography.

The unconformity at the base of the Edale Shales was des-

cribed by Simpson and Broadhurst (1969) in the Treak Cliff area and
geopetal depos it ional fabrics in the apron reef limestones showed
that the steep outward dips were in fact of a sedimentary origin.

.Orme (1971 a & b) carried out petrographical and insoluble

residue analysis on the apron reef and shelf limestones at Bradwell
and Stoney Middleton, further refining the facies patterns in those areas.

Details of the mineralogy of the clay wayboards were provided

by Walkden (1973) who proved that many were K - r-ich Bentonites.
Brown (1973) and Butcher and Ford (1973) described the stratigraphy
and structure of the Monsal Dale area finding' that two facie s were
 17.

present in the D limestones:- shelf and basin. Analysis of thick-

2
ness changes within th~ limestones led these authors to postulate
that a deep sedimentary basin centred on Ashford in the Water
existed during D and P 2 times. Brown also described the dis-
2,
tribution of the P reef complex limestones giving a detailed
, 2
lithofacies analysis, and -he considered that the reefs were dep-
osited on local topographic highs on an eroded D limestone surface.
2

A deep bor-ehole was sunk at Eyam (Dunham 1973) which proved

the presence of an expanded Lower Carboniferous succession (1803. 25
m) resting on a Llanvirn basement. In the same year Cope (1973)
published a detailed log of the Woo Dale borehole and commented on the
rapid thinning of the Lower Carboniferous strata on the shelf to the
west.

A new concept of cyclic sedimentation in the. Lower Carbon-

iferous was introduced by Ramsbottc.rn(1973), who established six
major cycles of deposition. The Southern Penriine outcrops are
mainly representative of the 4th, 5th & 6th cycles.

Ixer (1975) revised the stratigraphy of the Masson Hill area,

Matlock establishing the thickness of the Matlock Lower Lava and
the stratigraphical relationships of a number of clay wayboards with-
in the Matlock Lower Limestone. Butche r (1975) and Worley (1976)
described the underground stratigraphy of the Sheldon area noting the
occurrence of a concealed reef knoll near the D / D boundary.
1 2

A major revision of Lower Carboniferous stratigraphy was

carried out in George et al, (1976) which introduced six new stage
names for the Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian). Worley and Dorning
(1977) described the distribution of carbonaceous clay wayboards in
the limestone and obtained spore assemblages from some of them.
 18.

ii) Stratigraphical units and nomenclature

During preparation of this thesis George et al, (1976) revised

the Dinantian (Lower Carboniferous) stratigraphy of the British Isles
and new regional stratigraphical stage names were introduced.
,

The chronostratigraphical terms 'I'ournafsian, Visean, and

Avonian have been abandoned in favour of the biostratigraphical term
Dinantian. Due to this revision some of the old stratigraphical zones
and series names which are used on some of the maps and diagrams
in this thesis are out of date. As it has. not been practical to change
these names explanatory notes have been added below. Despite the
revision of the Dinantian stratigraphy the old local lithostratigraphical
terms have not yet been formalised and this has led to the retention of
a rather complex series of local lithostratigraphical names (fig. 3).

Holkerian (8 zone)
2

Holkerian strata are known at two principal localities; in the

north at Wye Dale near Buxton the limestones are known as the Woo
Dale Beds, whereas in the south the same age limestones are referred
to as the Griffe Grange Beds (fig. 3).

Asbian (D zone)
1

A number of stratigraphical terms are used for the Asbian

lime stones- In the northe rn areas they are referred to as the Chee
Tor Rock and the Millers Dale Limestones, which are separated by
a basalt lava flow, the Millers Dale Lower Lava. Where this flow is
absent the term Bee Low Limestone is used. In the south the Asbian
limestones are named the Hoptonwood Group.

Brigantian (D and P 2 zones)

2

The most widely used term for the D zone is the Monsal Dale
2
Limestones, which was originally used as .a lithofacies name especially
 19.

by Hudson and Cotton (1945 b) and Butcher and Ford (1973), implying
a basinal or dark type of lime stone. However, the term has been
broadened by Stevenson and Eden (1976) to include all the D Lime-
2
stones including the 'shelf' facie So

In the central and .southern parts of the area D

limestone s
2
were formerly referred to as the Lathkill Limestones by Shirley
(1959) and this term is now superceded by Monsal Dale Limestones.

Smith et al, (1967) used the term Matlock Group for the D 2
limestones and lavas in the Matlock - Wirksworth areas. The D
2
zone limestones are now given a Brigantian age by George et al, (1976).

The old P 2 zone limestones now included within the Brigantian

are known in the northern part of the area as the Eyam Limestones
but sometimes the term Eyam Group is used. Shirley (1959) named
the equivalent formation in the Matlock - Wirksworth area the Cawdor
Group and this term was retained by Smith et al, (1967) in the most
recent geological survey of that area. On the latest survey of the
Buxton 1" sheet the Institute of Geological Sciences has extended the
use of Eyam Limestone to include rocks previously referred to as
Cawdor Group.

The use of the term Longstone Beds (Hudson and Cotton 1945b)
has been used in the Buxton sheet revision and represents a mudstone
shale facies of the Eyam Group containing a BrigaI?-tian fauna. Equiv-
alents are known in the Eyam Group to the north and in the Cawdor
Group in Matlock.
 FIGURE 3

i , I
$ 10 10 ~o ~

STRATIGRAPHIC MAP
OF THE
CARBONIFEROUS LI MESTONE
OF DERBYSHIRE
.,Uln
5 , ~ 1
...
i i
o I S 4 J fi

Cw

~
M~
ASHOVER

.:..:.:..:...
:_1111 __

~~IXON
... ". ~"Lt.:
~ - -~;...:

~~-- "1'-'
,~-----
~ -~

~.- --'
~--

ONa
ASHBOURNE
TURNDITCH
~Cw
 20.

Index to stratigraphic map of the Carboniferous Limestone

of the Southern Pennines after, Ford and Ineson (1973),
George et al (1976)

i)
Chadian and Arundian stage s

Cl •••• Cauldon Low Lime stone

It •••. Iron Tor Limestone
Man •• Manifold Limestone
MIl •• Milldale Lime stone
Do •••• Dovedale Limestone
Kn •••• Kniveton Limestone

ii)
Holke dan stage

Br •••• Bradbourne Limestone

G •••• Griffe Grarge Beds
Ha •••• Hand Dale Lime stone
Wo ••• Woo Dale Limestone

iii)
Asbian stage

As •••• Alsconfield Lime stone

Ba •••• Ballidon Limestone
Bl •••• Bee Low Lime stone
CT ••• Chee Tor Hock
Ga •••• Apes Tor / Gag Lane Limestone
Hw ••• Hoptonwood Lime stone
Md ••• Millers Dale Lime stone
Na ••• Narrowdale Lime stone
Vg ••• Via Gellia Limestone
 21..

iv)
Brigantian stage

Ck •.•• Eyam Limestone reef facies

Cw ••• Cawdor Group
Em ••• Eyam Limestone or Group
Ek ••• Eyam Limestone reef facies
Ma ••• Matlock Group
Mo ••• Monsal Dale Lime stone

v)
Volcanic and igneous rocks

MDLL ••• Millers Dale Lower Lava

MDUL ••• Millers Dale Upper Lava
MLL Matlock Lower Lava
MUL ••• Matlock Upper Lava
L • •• •• • Litton '!\iff

'\.
 22.

iii) A summary of Dinantian stratigraphy and structure in the

British Isle s
. '

Analysis of Dinantian stratigraphy and structure has been mostly

carried out by George (1958, 1967 and 1976) with notable contributions
by Ram sb ctt ornflfl'[S],

The distribution and deposition of Dinantian rocks was largely

controlled by basement structure whose alignment and composition
was determined by Lower Palaeozoic and Caledonian events. Armorican
stress fields and trends also exerted major influences especially in
the southern areas. Four major areas of deposition are recognised
within the British Isles, and these include:- the Scottish ?rovince,
centred on the Midland Valley, the Northumberland Province, the
Central Province which includes the Southern Pennines and the
Southwestern Province. The two northern provinces are both clearly
fault controlled by early southwest - northeast trending Caledonian
structures. Sedimentation in both these areas is characterised by
cyclical Yo redale facies limestones, shales, sandstones and coals.
Over 1200 metres of sediments accumulated in these basins and thinner
representative may occur between the provinces on the Southern Up-
lands.

Thinner sequences were also deposited over the Northern Pennine

Alston and Askrigg Blocks which separate the Northumberland Province
from the Central Province to the south. These Northern Pennine blocks
are fault bounded structures underlain at depth by granitic intrusions.

Yoredale facies sediments which were deposited on the Askrigg

block pass to the south into deeper water shale - limestone accumu-
lations in the Bowland trough. The full thickness of sedimentation in
the basin of the Central Province, is not known but figure s in exce ss of
2000 metres are likely.

Basin facie s sediments of Dinantian age are also known to occur

 23.

on the southern mar-gins of the Central Province in the Edale,

Gainsb or-ough, and Widmerpool Gulf's, and a lateral passage into
shelf limestones on the Derbyshire Massif is generally accepted.
The southern margin of the Central Province is complex and is
formed partly by the east-west trending Mercian Highlands and St.
George's Land.

Sedimentation over the St. George's Land - Mercial High-

< lands was absent or minimal during the Dinantian and thus formed
an effective dividing barrier between the Central Province and the
Southwestern Province.

The Southwestern Province trends east-west and its morphology

was probably determined by Armorican structures. Typical shelf
facies limestones accumulated over the northern part of the province
known as the Avonian Basin which are exposed in South Wales and the
Mendips. A southward late rial passage can be traced in north Devon
from shelf to basin or "Culm facies" deposits which represent deep
water shales and sandstones with turbidite sequences.

An outline of the concealed basement structure of the Central

Province which includes the Derbyshire area have b'een described by
Kent (1966)6 Evans and Maroof (1976) and Maroof (1976) using gravity
magnetic and seismic geophysical methods.

Kent (1967 a) established from seismic profiles a contour map

showing the pre-Carboniferous topography of the East Midlands. This
showed that the Southern Pennines was situated over an area of shallow
basement 600 metres to 900 metres below sea Ieve l, linked to the
southwest with another area of shallow basement known as the Lincoln-
shire shelf (600 to 3000 metres). These areas of shallow basement
appear to coincide with areas of shelf facies deposition during the
Dinantian. Steep gradients characterise the margins of the shelf areas
and these pass rapidly into steep sided elongate gr-aben structure s or
 24.

gulfs which are generally deeper than 3000 metres.

Evans and Maroof (1976) from magnetic and gravity studies

postulated that a series of granitic intrusions occurred beneath the
East Midlands and that some even extended to the east of the Southern
Pennines, 'beneath the Lincolnshire Shelf. Similar studies howeve-r,
on the Southern Pennine s have proven the general absence of granitic
intrusions (Maroof 1976). Analysis of the Bouger Gravity anomaly
map for the area has led Maroof to postulate that the basement structure
beneath the exposed limestone of the Southern Pennines has a com-
paratively steep eastward dip with a shallower western margin. The
basement in the north and south is shallower than the central- eastern
area.
 25.

Stratigraphical account of the Southern

Pennine Orefield

Due to the problems of stratigraphical correlation within the

Southern Pennine s it is not possible easily to correlate the lavas and
intervening limestones further than approximately 3 or 4 kilometres
with a high degree of certainty. Paradoxically, it is possible to
correlate detailed and complex stratigraphical sequences over quite
small areas which are often important local marker beds in under-
ground mapping. In order to include the detail and comprehend the
stratigraphy in its widest context, description of the stratigraphy has
been divided into four smaller areal units, these are:-

Castleton- Bradwell
Eyam, Stoney Middleton, Tide swell
Bakewell, Lathkill, Monyash, Longstone
Matlock, Wirksworth and Youlgrave

2) The Castleton-Bradwell Area

The Castleton-Bradwell area lies north of easting 79 (fig. 4)

and is broadly the same as that mapped by Shirley and Horsfield (1940).

A number of valleys, notably Bradwell Dale and Pindale, have

cut through the limestones and have exposed strata from Holkerian to
Brigantian age. The area is dominated by an east-west trending apron
reef complex with steep north facing depositional dips. These reef
limestones are of late Holkerian and Asbian age with some later patches
of Brigantian limestone. A lateral passage from reef to shelf facies
limestones occurs southwards. North of the apron reef boreholes have
proven a sequence of dark shaley limestones with a goniatite and bivalve
fauna. It is thought that the se lime stone s pass transitionally into the
apron reef. Later Brigantian knolls are developed on the flanks cf. Brad-
well Dale and re st on an intra- Brigantian unconformity
 26.

at the base of tbe-Eyam Group

i) The Holkerian Woo Dale Limestones

The Woo Dale Lime stone s outcrop in the core of a small

anticline centred on Peak Forest. Shirley and Horsfield (1940)
recognised that these limestones resembled lithologically the
"DaviesieUa Beds" described by Cope (1933) in the Wye Dale
area, and therefore -sugge sted an S2 age. Stevenson and Gaunt
(1971) described the palaeontology and lithology in more detail
noting that the succession consisted of 40 metres of dark lime-
stone s, thinly bedded in place s,

ii) The Asbian Limestones

The Asbian limestones are represented by the Bee Low

Limestone. In the southern part of the area the pre serce of. the
Millers Dale Lower Lava forms a subdivision for the Asbian
succession, and those limestones below the lava are referred to
as the Chee Tor Rock and the limestone above the lava is called
the Mille rs Dale Lime stone. The Bee Low Lime stone s attain a
thiclmess of 185 metres and are thickly bedded pale grey and
fossiliferous. In place s the rocks become oolitic but are more
commonly crinbidal calcarenites and biosparrites. Shirley and
Horsfield (1940) noted that the Bee Low Limestone is characteristically
mottled, which they considered may be due to incipient dolomitisation,
but is more likely to be a pseudobrecciation effect caused by biotur-
bation. Two prominent shell beds known as the Upper .and Lower
Davidsonina septosa beds some 9 metres apart occur 67 metres below
;

the top of the Asbian.

In the northern part of the area a lava known as the Cave Dale
Lava (7. 62 metres thick) outcrops in Cave Dale, It passes laterally
into a series of tuffs exposed in Pindale and in Hope Cement Quarry
 A MAP SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF LITHOFACIES AND MINERALIZATION-BRADWELL

STRATI GRAPHY AND

ltlJ
1/-
,- flAT. APRON AND
KNOLL REEF FACI ES

./
I-
LITHOFACIES A.P.CJoI. QUARRY
D BACK REEF FACIES

I - ~
I .>-
1- \ .::::'/\-"/
'"\-:::===_
/'/"-'1'"
/)
(

··
:--
-
\/-/
- \ J- \ /' -
.-
-""-/
I
I
I
\
1-,
Pindal.--
·· UPPER MONSAL
DALE BEDS O
2
..
[J SHELF FACI ES

~ EDALE SHALE

EYAM LIMESTONE

..
\'
l ••
.
LOWER MONSAL
DALE BEDS O
Ell DARK FACIES

--
\ 2
• I •
I •

.. .
'" I NERAL VEl NS
'. ..
.\
. \.
.....
. .....
..
\
\.

···...
\
.",...- "1]

. ....
\ PIPE VEINS

.....
BEE LOW
f ••••••• H

1
LIMESTONE

.~ .\

, .
~

. ...... . .
GROUP 0,
G)
c
::0
. ..: .. ..... ...... PIJ>E •
I
I
I
I
lDJ
+ +
TUFF, BASALT ETC.

I
tl:J

.j:l,
r «: :.:.:.~ '.. .
I
VERTICAL SCALE

.. .---:. -.-.:. :.... :·X·

. ..
I
.. .-
_.~
MOORFURLONG P1PE' 0_ _0
.... . .. .
..... ~ . . ~ -A.-;'-'r-'- : • • • .,;...=..:..
•
--~- ., ~ ~
STRATIGRAPHY
AND
LITHOFACIES
BRADWELL
DALE

EYAM
GROUP
P
2 300. It
'00 m
UPPER
MONSAL
DALE

,. BEDS O
2
HAZLEBADGE P1P

.:
HORIZONTAL SCALE

..
o
.-
."
!SO? 3erO II

.......
-.,,'"
 27.

where it adopts the shape of a degraded cone (Eden et al, 1964;

Fearnsides and Templeman 1932).

The shelf facies Bee Low Limestones pass later:ally into

. apron reef facies limestone which is a north-dipping structure
trending east-west (fig. 4). The apron reef was regarded by Shirley
and Horsfield (1940) as lying unconformably against cliffs of the shelf
facies limestone. Hudson and Cotton (1945 b) first suggested that this
apron reef structure lies above a concealed east-west trending structure
called the Castleton Fault.

.
Wolfenden (1958) in a palaeoecological study showed that a
transition from fore-reef limestones dipping northwards to shelf
limestones occurred. Algal limestones and back reef limestones
were also recognised behind the apron reef.

iii) The Brigantian Limestones

The Brigantian stage includes the Monsal Dale Limestones and ..

the Eyam Limestones. They outcrop on the eastern half of the area
occupying the high ground of Bradwell Moor, Hucklow Moor and are
well exposed in Bradwell Dale, Hartle Dale, and Intake Dale (fig. 4).
The base is marked by the top of the Millers Dale Upper Lava in the
south but this dies out northwards and the base is taken as the bottom
of a sequence of dark limestones containing Girvanella and is known as
the Lower Girvanella Band. In the vicinity of Hope Cement Quarry the
Monsal Dale Limestones are divided into upper and lower by a second
band of dark limestones known as the Upper Girvanella Band (fig. 21)

The Lower Monsal Dale Limestones

The stratigraphical relationships of the Lower Monsal Dale

Limestones are not clear in the south as the Upper Girvanella Band
is not well developed. Lithologically the limestones are massive
pale grey highly crinoidal sometime s finely oolitic - typical shelf
 28.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 1

Figure 1 Reef facies Eyam limestone, Jeffrey Lane, Bradwell

The allochems are Rugose corals, brachiopods,
and smaller fragments of crinoid ossicles. These
are bound in a complex micrite, sparite matrix.
A number of stylolite seams are conspicuous.

Figure 2. Crinoidal calcirudite limestone, Upper Monsal Dale

Ltme stone, Moorfurlong Mine. The main allo-
chemical constituents are crinoid ossicles set in
a matrix of micrite and spar Ite, A number of
parallel regularly spaced stylolite seams cut the
specimen.

...
PLATE 1

FIG 1

FIG 2
 29.

facies. However, towards the north on BradwelllVIoor the limestones

develop a series of coarse crinoidal beds 2 to 4 metres thick inter-
spersed with grey brown oolitic limestones, attaining a thickness of
47 metres. Eden et al, (1964) recognised three crinoidal calcirudite
bands the third of which passes into a small reef knoll Exposures
in the Pi.l1d~;l.1e Quarry demonstrate that the lowest or first calciru-
dite passes laterally into the apron reef. The second and third
calcirudite beds pass into knoll and fiat reef limestones exposed in
the Hope Cement Quarry.

The Upper lVIonsal-Dale Limestones

The Upper Monsal Dale Limestones outcrop in the eastern

margins of the area and are well exposed in Bradwell Dale and Intake
Dale. A number of mine workings have penetrated this horizon, and
have facilitated lithological correlation. The base of the Upper Monsal
Dale Limestones is taken at the base of the Upper Girvanella Band
which is O. 6 metres thick. Six coarse calcirudite beds (fig. 21) are
developed in the area around the Hope Cement Quarry which die out
rapidly southwards passing into more normal shelf facies limestones.
These crinoidal beds can be traced northwards into knoll reefs one of
which is known as the 'Main knoll' in the Hope Cement Quarry (fig. 21).
Between the calcirudite beds the limestones vary from dark grey -
black cherty, shaley limestones to pale grey, thickly bedded, fine
calcarenites. Detailed studies have been carried out on the litho-
facies variation within the back-reef facies limestones exposed in the
Smalldale Quarries and in Moorfurlong Mine (fig. 20). The lithol-
ogical changes seen in Moorfurlong Mine are described in Worley and
Beck (1976 p. 52).

Three types of limestone are developed in the back-reef facies

of the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones, grey calcarenite facies, coarse
crinoidal calcirudite facie s, and dark fine grained lime stone facie s,
The relationships between these facies arc summarised in fig. 23 which
 30:

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 2.

Figure 1 Grey calcarenite facies limestone. Smalldale

Opencast Mine. Typical biosparrudite with
foraminifera in a mixed sparite micrite matrix.
Plane polarised light, X40.

Figure 2. Grey calcarenite facies limestone. Smalldale

Opencast Mine. The section shows a fragment
of a bryozoan set in a matr-ix of spar. Microstylolite
contacts are developed between the spar grains which
have replaced the darker micrite.
Plane polarised light X40.

Figure 3. Grey calcarenite facies limestone. Smalldale Opencast

Mine. Crinoid ossicle with syntaxial rim of calcite
which has replaced micritic limestone.
Plane polarised light X40.
PLATE 2

FIG 1.

FIG 2

FIG 3
 31

shows that all the lithofacies may pass laterally into each other.

The grey calcarenite facies is well exposed in the upper parts

of the Smalldale Quarries (fig. 21) where the thickness varies from
.5. 5 metres to 14. 4 metres. In Moorfurlong Mine 10 metres are ex-
posed. Hand specimens of the lime stone are generally brownish grey
to pale grey and occasionally dark grey. This colour variation is
apparently caused by differing quantitie s of organic pigment as
sugge sted by Orme (1971 a). In thin section the lime stone s are
poorly sorted (plate 2 fig. 1 & 2) fine calcirudite s and calcarenite s
with the predominant grain size varying from O. 5 mm. to 4 mm, The
allochemica1 constituents are mainly fragments of crinoid ossicles
with lesser amounts of brachiopod shells which may reach 30 mm, in
length (plate 1 fig. 2). Foraminifera (plate 2 fig. 1) O. 4 mm, in diam-
eter may contribute significantly to the allochemical components.
The matrix varies from heterogeneous micrite but is more commonly
sparite (0. 58 mrn, ) and neomorphic spar frequently' develops at the
expense of the micritic matrix (plate 2 fig. 3). Microstylolite seams ~

are particularly common in the more massive limestones which are

exposed in the southeast. end of Upper Smalldale Quarry (fig. 21).

The distribution of the coarse crinoidal calcirudite facies is

shown in fig. 21 and 22. This study has shown that the calcirudites
form discrete banks or lenses and not continuous beds as was prev-
iously assumed. They are usually 3 metres thick and 100 to 200
metres in length. (fig. 21). A possible correlation of the calcirudite
facies is suggested in figs. 21 and 22 with those intersected in Earle's
Quarry Borehole No. 10. This shows that the ca1cirudites in the
Smalldale Quarry lie on the horizon of the 2nd calcirudite described
in Eden et al, (1964). The calcirudite limestone is usually grey to
dark grey in colour having a roughly laminated depositional texture
(plate 1 fig. 2). Examination using a binocular microscope reveals
that the laminations consist of alternating bands of closely packed
crinoid stems 5 to 12 ems. in length sandwiched between fine grained
 32.

grey fossilferous micritic limestone. The crinoid ossicles are

usually set in a sparite matrix and frequently develop syntaxial rims
(plate 2 fig. 3). Brachiopod shell fragments and tests of foraminifera
often occur in the more micritic layers. lVIicrostylolitic contacts
.are usually developed between the fine and coarser grained limestones
and are oiten coated with hydrocarbons and iron oxides., Silicification
of the limestones is common and takes the form of selective replace-
ment of the allochems by microcrystalline quartz.

The dark facies limestones outcrop on the northeastern faces

of SmaUdale Upper Quarry (fig. 2l)~ and in the Moorfurlong Mine
where it reaches 9 metres in thiclmess. Generally the limestones
consist of very dark grey to black thinly bedded, (0. 3 metres) cherty
limestones and thin brown calcareous shale partings Co O. 03 metres
thick commonly occur. In thin section the limestones characteristically
have a brown colour due to a high content of organically derived mat-
erial; which is evenly distributed throughout the specimens examined.
The majority of the samples studied were fossiliferous micrites and
fine calcarenites with allochemical constituents. being crinoid
ossicles thin brachiopod shell s, ostr-acods, brachiopod spine s,
b ryoz oan s, and foraminifera which vary in size from 1,49 to O. 29 mm,

South of the Smalldale area the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones

are expo sed in Bradwell Dale, where they represent true shelf facies
consisting of pale to dark grey thickly bedded crinoidal cherty lime-
stones. A number of non- sequences represented by potholed surfaces
are also conspicuous. The upper part of the section contains
Orionastrea placenta and was described by Shirley and Horsfield (1940).

The Eyam Limestones

The Eyam Limestones are only exposed in the sides and

flanks of Bradwell Dale where they rest unconformably upon the
Upper Monsal Dale Lime stones. The se have been de scribed by
 33.

Stevenson and Gaunt (1971 p. 97) who distinguished four facies, mud-
stones, dark limestones, grey limestones and reef limestones. A
total of 39•.6 metres of limestones are exposed in the Br-adwefl Dale
Section. Recent fluorspar opencast mining adjacent to Jeffrey Lane
"has led to some slight revision of the Stevenson and Gaunt (1971)
,
mapping as reef limestones resting on dark shaley cherty limestones
of a dark facies are exposed (fig. 24).

The reef facies limestones consists of pale grey massive to

thickly bedded limestone with numerous corals, brachiopods and
crinoid stems (plate 1 fig. 1) which r-eedhove r 4 ems, in length.. Exam-
ination of polished slabs shows a strong development of microstylolite
seams which are discordant to any bedding planes adopting a ramifying
pattern (plate 1 fig. 1). In thin section the lime stone s are coarse
biosparrudites consisting largely of broken brachiopod fragments
spines and shells with crinoid fragments and endothyrid foraminifera.
The allochems are poorly sorted closely packed together, and lie in
a matrix of mixed clear sparite with small amounts of micrite.
Syntaxial rims are commonly developed on the crinoid ossicles.

The underlying dark limestones are well bedded (0. 3 metres)

with numerous shaley partings (0. 1 metres) and black chert nodules.
Allochems are rare and form less than 10% of till rock but include
crinoid ossicles (0. 58 mm, ) brachiopod shells (0. 66 mm, ). Many of
the allochems especially the shell fragments have been entirely re-
placed by fine mosaics of calcite spar which has removed the original
shell structure. A sparite cement infills the crinoid ossicle sand
a strong depositional lamination is apparant in many of the sample s,
 34.

i~) Basin facies Limestones

Borehole s sunk to the north of the reef complex exposed at

Castleton intersected a sequence of dark cherty limestones with a
'fauna of goniatites and bivalves (Hudson and Cotton 1945 a and 1945 b).
The faunal changes seen preclude positive palaeontological zonal
correlatfon of the reef, shelf and basin facies limestones but the
broad correlations are shown in fig. 13•.

Thickness comparisons within the Brigantian Limestones

(P and PI) show that 119 metres \were~ intersected in the Alport
2
borehole which is less than 213 metres known in the central part of
the shelf where .a small local basin develops, and less than the 161
metres measured in the Castleton Bradwell area on the shelf.

. The Asbian Limestones are much thicker in the basin area

attaining 163 metres compared with 145 metres in the central shelf
and only 51 metres at Castleton.

Asequence of- ~ tuffaceous limestone at the base of the Brigantian

is probably equivalent to the Millers Dale Upper Lava. Dolomitic
dark fine grained limestones and cementstones of Holkerian age sim-
ilar to the \"00 Dale Limestones were proven at a depth of 579 metres
and reached a thickne ss of 161 metre.s.

v) Conclusions

The Holke rIan limestones on the shelf have a rather darker

lithological character than the 'succeeding limestones and the presence
of a marine fauna implies a deeper water depositional environment for
these rocks., They pass laterally into true basin facies limestones which
are dark thinly bedded, cherty and dolomitic in places.. The presence
.
of dolomite implies that hypersaline, perhaps approaching evaporitic,
conditions occasionally prevailed. During the upper part of the
 35.

Holkerian the development of the concealed Castleton fault initiated

an apron reef complex and reef building continued throughout the
Asbian. Penecontemporaneous movement of the Castleton fault
created north facing depositional dips in the reef.

,
In the area behind the reef thick sequences of chert free
pale grey bedded limestones were deposited with marine faunas.
The presence of bands of brachiopods such as Davidsonina septosa
suggests a degree of cyclicity during deposition.

Volcanic activity occurred dur~g the Asbian, and centres

developed at Speedwell and in the Hope Cement Works area; close
to the Castleton fault. It appears as if this line was a major line
of weakness and may have acted as a channelway for extrusion of
the Pindale Tuff and Cave Dale Lavas.,

In the basin to the north dark facies, limestones continued

to be deposited in thicknesses broadly comparable with those seen
on the shelf probably in somewhat deeper water conditions.

An un:::onformity marks the top of the Asbian and the basal

Brigantian is heralded by the appearance of a dark lime stone band
with the algae Girvanella sp.• Deposition of the Brigantian Monsal
Dale Lime ntone s is characterised by a back reef environment with
small knoll reefs which pass laterally in to coarse crinoidal lime-
stones. Intervening dark cherty limestones probably represent local
deep water inter-reef facies limestones. Beyond the reef environment
deposition of shelf facies continued and is characterised by non-
sequence sand corallife rous beds such as the O. placenta horizon,
and Lonsdaleia duplicata. horizon. Chert forms a conspicuous ele-
ment in the upper parts of the Brigantian and is facies controlled
being found in the inter - reef and shelf environments. Clay wayboards
inter-bedded within the Monsal Dale Limestones indicate that inter-
mittent volcanicity pe rsisted

•
 36.

A break in sedimentation occurred at the top of the Mon saI

Dale Limestone with some local erosion. Deposition of the Eyam
Limestones commenced with the widespread development of reef
knolls which were complex bioherm structures. There is some
suggestion in Bradwell Dale that these occur preferentially on
,
anticlinal structures. Dark limestones were deposited between the
reefs and closely resemble the back- reef facies of the Monsal Dale
Limestones. Gradual subsidence of the shelf area towards the end
of the Eyam Limestone caused a decrease in carbonate deposition
and an increase in the deposition of mudstones and shales, which
prevented further reef growth.

There is some doubt whether deposition continued on the

apron reef during the upper part of the Brigantian but pocket type
deposits such as the 'beach beds' (Sadler 1964) of P2 age suggest
that deposition had largely ceased Sedimentation in the basin area
continued throughout the Brigantian.

....
A break occurred at the end of the Brigantian and an uncon-
formity marks the junction between the limestone and overlying
Namurian Edale Shales.
 A MAP S HO W IN G THE DISTR IBUT ION OF LI T H OF A CI E S AND M I NERA L IZATION I N THE EYAM -T IDESWELL AREA

'8 19 20 2" 22 23
o 2 KMS
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75

KEY
V E I NS 0, AG E LI MEST ON E E9 O MO NSA L DAL E B ED S
2 DA RK FA CI E S
fi~i{~~~~. UPP E R A N D LOW ER
M I LL E RS D AL E L AVAS
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0 LI TTON TUF F I:::-.. .:.·.
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~ [ i,J ,
 37.

3. The Eyam - Stoney Middleton - Tideswell Area.

- .
The Eyam - Stoney Middleton - Tideswell area is centred on the
village of Eyam and stretches as far west as Tideswell covering
approximately 44 square kilometres. (fig 5~ Asbian age limestones
are exposed in the western part of the area and include the Chee Tor
Rock. Millers Dale Limestone. and Millers Dale Lower Lava. The
top of the Millers Dale Upper Lava forms the base of the Brigantian
and is often accompanied by the foraminifera Saccaminopsis and
dark limestones. A two fold division of the Brigantian Monsal Dale
Limestones is recognised with the dividing boundary lying at the top
of the Litton Tuff. or at the Girvanella' band as in the Castleton -
Bradwell area. A lava known as the Cressbrookdale Lava. known
largely from underground exposures and boreholes. underlies most
of the eastern half of the area, and lies in the Lower Monsal Dale
Limestones below, the Litton Tuff. The Eyam Group rests uncon -
formably upon the Monsal Dale Limestones and characteristically
has extensive knoll reef development passing upwards into a mudstone
facies exposed in the Wardlow outlier. Namurian shales overstep
both the Eyam and Monsal Dale Limestones. A deep borehole sunk
at Eyam proved that the Dinantian limestones in the area are over
1800 metres thick and rest' on a basement of Llanvirn (Ordovician)
slates.

i) Pre-Asbian Limestones.

Pre - Asbian lime stone s are only known from the Eyam
"~orehole (Dunham 1973 p. 85) which intersected an expanded succession
of Chadian, Arundian, and Holkerian limestones. The Arundian and
Chadian stages contain dark limestones with dolomites and anhydrite,
and may represent an evaporitic sabkha facies developed on the
margins of the shelf at an early stage of transgression. Samples of
reddish brown mudstone intersected beneath the Chadian Limestones
were processed for microfossils by Downie (in Dunham 1973) and
 38.

contained an assemblage characteristic of the Ordovician probably

of Llanvirr.. age.

Ii) Asbian Limestones

The Asbian limestones include the Chee Tor Rock, Millers

Dale Limestones, and Millers Dale Lower Lava. The Chee Tor
Rock lies beneath the Millers Dale Lower Lava and the base is not
exposed Exposure'S of the Chee Tor Rock are infrequent, but the
Litton Dale Borehole intersected pale fine grained limestones belong-
ing to the Chee Tor Rock not known at. outcrop lying 43 metres below
the top of the formation. Elsewhere the limestones are pale grey .- .

massive bedded chert free calcarenites of typical shelf facies.

The Lower Millers Dale Lower Lava does not extend far
. .
eastwards from its outcrop as it is not intersected in any of ,the
deep boreholes sunk in the Eyam area (fig. 30). In the EyamBorehole
both lavas are absent and the Asbian Bee Low Limestone consists of
162 metre s of pale to buff coloured lime stone.
. ,

iii) Brigantian Stage - Monsal Dale Limestones

The Brigantian limestones above the Cressbrookdale Lava are

exposed in Stoney Middleton Dale and Cve s sbr-ookdale and have been
penetrated by numerous boreholes and mine workings. Unfortum tely
little is known of the subsurface geology of the Lower Monsal Dale Lime-
. stories. Only the deep Eyam Borehole penetrated the Cressbrookdale
Lava (Dunham 1973), and showed that the Lower Monsal Dale Limestones
greatly expand in thickness eastwards reaching 194 m, being only
70 m. thick in the western outcrops in Cre ssb rookdale (fig. 5).

A dark cherty limestone facies is developed in the Eyam .a rea

and probably represents a deep water facies. The Cr-essbrookdale
Lava is only known at outcrop in Cressbrookdale where it attains a
 39.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 3.

Figure 1, Stoney Middleton Lower Shell Bed" Upper Monsal

Dale Limestones. The sample is a typical
biomicrudite with allochems consisting of
Gigantoproductus edelburgensis, brachiopcrl
spines" and crinoids. The mottling of darker
grey areas is due to bioturbation. Stylolite
seams often develop adjacent to the darker
spots and on the II?-argins of the allochems.,
The lighter areas within the brachiopod shells
are silica replacement of the shell structure..

Figure 2. Biomtcar-enite, Glebe Mine" Upper Monsal Dale

Limestones. The limestone is typically grey
and is cut by closely spaced stylolite seams
coated by bitumen producing a 'chicken wire'
texture.

Figure 3. Reef facies limestone" Eyam Limestone" Raper

Fluorspar Opencast, Youlgr-ave., Pseudobreccia
of micritic lime stone cemented by fine calcite
spar. Some small cavities remain uncemented
within the specimen" and are lined with clear
euhedral calcite crystals.
 P LATE 3

oI C en tn n e tr e s
! !
5
I

FI G 1

oI Centimetr e s
I I
5
I

FIG 2

oI C e n t im e tr e s 5
, I I

FI G 3
 .40.
"

thickness of 10 m., however it has been penetrated by boreholes at

Wardlow, Eyam, Glebe Mine, and Ladywash Mine which show that
it thickens north e aatwa r-ds to 68 In. at Ladywash, eastwards to 76 m,

in the Eyam Borehole and 94' In. in Glebe Mine (fig. 26)

,
Th'e Upper Monsal Dale Limestones lie above the Litton Tuff
which varies from 30m. at Litton thinning eastwards to less than 1 m,
in the Eyam area. It has been recognised in the Burntheath Pipe
but was not recorded further east in either the Ladywash or Glebe
Mine Boreholes. In areas where the Litton Tuff is absent the dark
limestones of the Upper Girvanella Band which rest on the Litton
Tuff have been used by Stevenson and Gaunt (1971) to mark the base -e-

of the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones. In the Burntheath Mine (fig. 2)

the Uppe r Girvanella Band was absent above the Litton Tuff suggesting
that it is of limited value in widespread correlations. There is some
confusion over the delineation of the base of the Upper Monsal Dale
Limestones in Stevenson and Gaunt (1971), where the Upper Girvanella
Band and Litton Tuff were taken as approximate equivalents, but in
the Wardlow Mines B:>rehole (fig. 6) the two are over 24m.. apart. In
view of this the Litton Tuff has been taken where possible as the base
of the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones.

Underground observations have established notable thickness

variations in the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones. In the eastern part
of the area, the Wardlow Basin and Cressbrookdale the sequence
attains a thickness of 104 In. consisting of pale grey cherty limestones.
These thin eastwards to only 47 m, in the Burntheath section where
cherty pale grey calcarenites rest on the Litton Tuff, probably related
to thinning onto a contemporaneous anticline which is centred on the
Burntheath area (fig. 5). The Monsal Dale Limestones above the
Middleton Dale Lower Shell Bed and its lateral equivalents all seem
to be approximately the same thickness (fig. 6). However, the
limestones below this and above the Litton Tuff seem to account for
the dramatic thickness changes, suggesting that rapid subsidence had
 THE DISTRI BUTtON OF MI NERALIZATION AND STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATIONS WITHIN THE UPPER MONSAL DALE BEDS
FOR THE EYAM STONEY MIDDLETON AREA

WARDLOW MIRES WATERGROVE MINE BURNTHEATH SHAFT STOIllEY MIDDLETON DALE GLEBE MINE DUSTYPITS MINE HUCKlOW EDGE
BOREHOLE NO 1 lADYWASH MINE

SHALE Flals

MfTRES

,1. . . 1 _ _
EVAM liMESTONE Fluorll.. IlolS °T
U
P
P
E Fluoril. . , .
R !Ials
M R..dlf'Orns pi Pf'
o USBI~ .. ~ .. :L l~~~·~ Ashlons

l
N
S
l
A

Wat ....qrov.
BB

lSB
IIllck .. rgrov..
M..rlln &
t1•••
.Carlswork PIP"~:''''~''''f-------------
PhIllIps &
Paul P,p"

.I I~:--~·'
Broadlow Cav.rn
~ i. ... ,I t..:..".. pIp"
Fluorol .. !loIs 50
E
B
E
D Fluoril. r.plac.....nl
S
+• • ++

+ •• + +
+ + +
// + +
+ + •
+ +
Upp.r G"van..lla + + +
....-/ + +
+ + +
Band + + • + • ++
~....-/ + + +

·.
+ +
+ + •

:.:-:
+ +

+ +
+ ••
+ + +

; .. + + +
+ •
+ + •
+ •
+ + +
+ +

·. · ..
+ + •
• +
• ++++
+ + +

..
+ • + +

··..
• + •
• + • + + +
+ +

+ •
·.
+ + •
+ + •
· ..
+ • + .. • 4'
• + +
+• +++
+ • +
...,
+ • + + +
+ + • + •
H
+ + + +
+ •
••
+
+ + +
•
g
• +

+ ·· ..
•
+
+
•
Fluorol.. m'rI ....lizal'on
~
CRESSBROOKDAlE lAVA
+ ••
+
·. + •
+
·. ••
Intors.deod In borf'hol.s
betcw 1M lava
•
•
..
····..
•
+
+
0'1
+ + •

...
····..
··.
··.. ....
..
·..
.
USB =UPPER SHEll BED BB. BLACK BED lSB = lOWER SHEll BED NOEL WORLEY 1976
 4L ,

largely stopped by the Lower Shell Bed.. times .and the bed represents
more stable deposition over the area. This hypothesis is supported
by the lithofacies data which implies that the upper parts of the Monsal
Dale Limestones represent condensed sequences characte rtsed by very
shallow water lagoonal type limestones as stated by Orme (1971 b).
Detailed petrographical work on the Lower Shell Bed has substantiated
Orme's interpretations establishing that extensive burrowing has
taken place. A similar situation exists over much of the remainder
of the area where the lower part of the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones
expand to the east reaching 72 m, in Glebe Mine and 79 IDe in
Middleton Da1e- but thinning rapidly northwards onto the Hucklow
Edge anticline to only 40 m,

Iv) Eyam Group

The Eyam Group has been described by Stevenson and Gaunt

(1971) and Brown (1973). They rest unconformably upon the Monsa1
-Dale Limestones but there is little evidence to show that any sub-
-stantial thickness of Monsa1 Limestone has been removed. A clay
wayboard resting on an erosional surface up to 1 m, thick often
marks the base of the Eyam Group seen in Glebe Shaft, in Middleton
Dale (Stevenson and Gaunt 1971) and in the Burntheath S haft. The
Eyam Group attains a maximum thickness of 35 m, in the Glebe Shaft
but elsewhere is thinner due to erosion
,
before deposition of the over-
lying shales, which also overlap the limestones in the Wardlow Basin.
Lithofacies variations in the area consist of a series of reef knolls
-and shelly flat reefs with quaquaversal dips passing laterally into
inter-reef limestones consisting of thinly bedded dark cherty lime-
stones with shales and paler grey cherty limestones. The details of
the facies changes have been described by Morris (1929), Shirley and
Horsfield (1945), Stevenson and Gaunt (1971) and Brown (1973).
 v) Petrography

The Upper Monsal Dale Limestones ofthe Stoney Middleton

Dale section have been described by Orme (1971a) who paid particular
attention to the White Bed (Or-me 1971 b). carried out insoluble
residue tests and used X-ray diffraction techniques to determine
the clay mineralogy. Thin sections demonstrated that the limestones
consisted largely of micrite and fine calcarenite sized calcite with
. silicified micro-crinoid plates. and casts of Giganto productus aft
giganteus. A microfauna of silicified and kaolinitised gastropods.
Lingula. sponge spicules. conodonts, der-mal, plates. small fish
teeth, and spines was described. Similar work has been carried
out on the Lower Shell Bed on sample s collected at various localities
in Stoney Middleton Dale. The Lower Shell Bed consists of a single
bed of limestone approximately 1 Ill. thick but it may reach 2 Ill. in
Burntheaths 'haft.. The basal section is usually occupied by a prominent
bedding plane or in some cases a clay wayboard as seen in Nickergrove
Mine (Beck and Worley 1977) and also in Burntheath &haft. Above this
the limestone has a pseudobrecciated texture with areas of darker
micrite limestone in paler brownish micrite which resembles
animal burrows (.plate 3 fig. 1). The allochems in this part of the bed
constitute about 15% of the rock and consist of poorly sorted brachiopod
fragments including numerous spines. and crinoid debris of fine cal-
cirudite size. Large brachiopods ~estinp' with convex valve downwards
appear abruptly in the upper part of the bed and are usually 5 to 6 ems.
long. They have been identified as Gigantoproductus edelburgensis
by Stevenson and Gaunt (1971). The shells may be partially silicified
and stand out from the rock surface upon weathering. The density
of brachiopods decreased upwards and the bed in its upper part is
scattered with shells. There is no definable upper limit to the shell
bed as it passes rapidly into more normal massive bedded grey lime-
stone. In some places chert nodules may replace the shells.
Lithostrotion colonies are common and are usually associated with
the brachiopods. A number of stylolite seams with amplitudes
 43.

of 2 to 3 cms., cut the shell bed, frequently intersecting the brachiopod

shells ("plate 3 fig. I). The stylolites are usually coated with hydro-
carbons and are very porous acting as lines of weakness along which
the rock readily crumbles. Some surface exposures are frequently
badly weathered due to the presence of stylolite seams and this con-
siderably hampers collection of representative samples. Or-me (1967)
has also described the section as consisting of calcarenite limestones
and noted that an algal limestone occurred 3m. below the White Bed..

.
Samples of limestone collected in Glebe ~ine have been ex-
amined in detail and show extensive development of interconnecting
stylolite seams forming "chicken wire" texture (p'late 3 fig. 2)., The
larger seams are made conspicuous by a coating of hydrocarbons.
Brachiopod shells form the principal allochemical constituents with
lesser amounts of crinoid debris, foraminfera, in a matrix of
heterogeneous micr-Ite, These vary from 5. 8 mm, to 1 8 mm, in
size and are poorly sorted constituting about 10% of the rock. Some
of the allochems show replacement by mosaic s of paraxial spar with
•
microcrystalline quartz mosaics and spherulitic cha'lcedony., A
characteristic feature of the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones is the
abundance of pale grey chert' which is pale blue in places. It has well
developed stylolitic contacts with the limestone indicating that it is an
early product of diagenesis. Some. of the chambered fossils show
internal sediments of structureless micrite with later radiaxial and
paraxial c1e,ar calcite spar cementa

vi) Conclusions

The Eyam-Stoney Middleton area is underlain at a depth of

some iab.oJ m., by a "basement" of Llanvirnian slates. The Dinantian
strata represent a condensed evaporite Sabkha facies deposited in a
carbonate platform environment. More rapid but episodic subsidence
. I
occurred during the Asbian times with the restoration of nor-mal marine
conditions., A marked break at the end of Asbian times probably
 44.

resulted in the initiation of east-west folding (Shirley and Horsfield

1945). This continued }nto the Brigantian Monsal Dale Limestones
which initially were deposited in the same shelf environment. Local
subsidence of the platform during deposition occurred producing local
deeper water conditions and darker shaley lime stones were deposited
during Lower Monsal Dale Limestone times. The latter part of these
was characterised by extrusive vulcanism which deposited the Cress-
brookdale Lava from a centre in the vicinity of Glebe Mine. A second
major volcanic episode above the CressbrookdaleLava centred on the
Litton area deposited the Litton Tuff which is more locally restricted.
The thickness variations in the lower sequences of the Upper Monsal
Dale Limestones indicates that differential subsidence was probably
related to development of the present fold systems. By Lower Shell
Bed times subsidence was more re str-icted and the upper sections
represented condensed sequences in very shallow lagoonal shelf
conditions. Towards the end of Monsal Dale Limestone times a
tectonic break occurs as an unconformable relationship exists in
places with the overlying Eyam Group. A clay wayboard was deposited
•
above this unconformity marking the base of the Eyam Group and
probably represents local penecontemporaneous volcanic activity.
Depositional changes established in Eyam times are a puzzle and
the question remains why a series of reefs were established with such
rapidity at the end of the Brigantian.
 45.

4. The Bakewell Lathkill Dale Monyash

I
Longstone Area

2
The area covers 150 km and is centred on the town of Bake-
well (fig. 7). Perhaps the best exposures of the Derbyshire Limestone
,
succession outcrop along the incised valley of the river Wye which
,
has uncovered strata from Holkerian to Namurian age. Holkerian
'strata are referred to as the Woo Dale Limestones, and are dark
grey thinly bedded limestones with occasional dolomitic bands. The
Asbian limestones are represented by the Chee Tor Rock, Millers
Dale, Beds,and Bee Low Limestones of standard shelf facies. Both
the Millers Dale Lower and Upper Lavas are present in the area but
die out to the south the latter being the most pe rsistant. Brigantian
Monsal Dale Limestones cover most of the area and consist of two
lithofacies, shelf and basin. The basin facies lime stones outcrop in
an area centred on Ashford-in-the- Water and pass laterally into shelf
facies. A number of volcanic horizons lavas and tuffs are well dev-
eloped in the Monsal Dale Limestones and include the Cressbrookdale
•
Lava, Shacklow Wood Lava, Litton Tuff, Lees Bottom Lava, Lathkill
Lodge Lava, and Conksbury Bridge Lava. The correlations between
these volcanic horizons are controversial but the Cressbrookdale
Shacklow Wood and Conksbury Bridge Lavas all appear to be on the
same stratigraphical horizon. The Eyam Limestones rest uncon-
formably upon the Monsal Dale Limestones and reach their maximum
.
thickness in this area. Namurian shales were deposited unconformably
upon th~ limestones in some cases overstepping the Eyam Limestone
onto the Monsal Dale Limestones.

i) The Holkerian Limestones '

The Ho1kerian stage is represented by the Woo Dale Limestones

and contains the diagnostic brachiopod DaviE!..~~lla ll~~!i~g~~~nsis

described by Jackson (1922). Cope (1933) first described the Woo Dale
Limestones which he, referred to as the Daviesiella Beds, they are'
 FIGURE 7

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 MILLERS DALE SIIZ7SW lONGSTONE FI ELOGROVE MINE MOGSHAW MINE MAGPIE MillE 51116NE SHELDON GREENSWARD HUBBAOALE MINES SII16NW MONUSH SIIZ6NW BAIIEWELL
EOGE MINE

P
z
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.:.:+:+" a_orlng
cow
C,..sbrookdol. m.asur.s
O ~4!- _
2 +•••••••
Low., Shocklow Wood F,.ldg'oY.
Monsol
Dol.
Lst
LQt;'Q' V•• n
cw
81.nd. V.,n
Chat.worth Cay
~ I::::::::j -----n:::u "'l
H
@
::0
L•• s Bottom Lava tJj

Up,",r MI".'5 001.

--------------- CD
Lava
------------
---
0
1
M,lI.rs
Dol.
lsI

Low .. ' Mtll.,. 001.

w
lava ~ "'onsol DOl. lit _ "'onsol Dol. LSI Orlonastra.a

0
1
~
~ Bosall loyos L:..:.:.:.:J 5...11 lac... DO'k lac...
~
~ A•• f foc, •• lsi 8 plac.nta band

Ct>. .
To, TI. lin•• IpKylatlY. cw. Cloy woyboo,d
Rock Ray_nsdal. Tuff

100 "'.1'"
" " ' ' - ' If. .

Sz
Woo
001.
~Sl

CORRELATIONS OF VISEAN STRATA IN THE BAKEWELL LATHKILLDALE MONYASH LONGSTONE AREAS

r:
;u:;: '""";"4 _" , k ,~?"
 46.

dark grey thinly bedded limestones with shaley partings sometimes

becoming coaly or car?onaceous (Worley and Dorning 1977). Most
of the limestones show evidence of penecontemporaneous deposit-
ional folding. The Woo Dale Borehole (Cope 1973) proved a thick-
ness of 315 metres of Woo Dale Limestone resting on 25 metres of
,
Courceyan Limestones. The Lower 130 metres of the Woo Dale
" attributed to the Arundian
Limestone are .
and Chadian stages (George
et al, 1976) and represent an attenuated sequence compared with that
seen in the Eyam Borehole.

The Asbian Bee Low Limestones are pale grey thickly

bedded, chert free, sparsely fossiliferous limestones. A thickness
of 145 metres is attained and includes the Ravensdale Tuff previously
thought to be an equivalent of the Lower Millers Dale Lava in
Butcher and Ford (1973).

•
The Lower Millers Dale Lava lies 31 metres below the top
of the Asbian Limestones and reaches a thickness of 27 metres.
This lava horizon forms a subdivision of the Asbian with those
limestones lying below the lava being referred to as the Chee Tor
Rock and those above the Millers Dale Limestones.

The boundary between the Asbian and the Brigantian is taken

e'ithe r, at the base of the Millers Dale Upper Lava, or locally at the
base of the Station Quarry Beds (fig. 8).

iii) The Brigantian Li.me stone s

The facies changes first described by Cope (1937) and later by

Stevenson and Eden (1976) in the former D zone limestones have been
2
used as mapping criteria. This has led to the delineation of two major
lithofacies within the Monsa1 Dale Limestones. the pale or shalf facies,
 47.

and the darker cherty shaley limestones of the dark or basin facies.,
, The distribution of the~e facies is shown in fig. 8.

iv) The Monsal Dale Limestones, Dark Facies

.
The dark facie s of the Monsal Dale Lime stone s attains a max-
imum thickness of 200 metres (including lavas) Iru the Monsal Dale
section (Butcher and Ford 1973) and (Stevenson and Eden 1976) (fig's.
7 & 8~ They consist of very dark grey to black thinly bedded, bit-
umenous, sparsely fossiliferous, cherty" micritic limestones" with
shale partings.. The sedimentological detafl s of this facies have been
described in Butcher and Ford (1973). Away from the Monsal Dale
section this facies becomes thinner and interdigitates with the shelf
facies limestones (fig. 8).

In the north on Longstone Edge (fig. 7) only 25 metres of dark

limestone is exposed and thins out progressively northeastwards

..
towards Calvar and Castcliff, although it is present underground in
-Sallet H;ole Mine (fig. 7) level (SK 219742) and Coombes Dale. To the
West on ,the Brushfield plateau these limestones rapidly die out and
are progressively replaced by the shelf facies. A similar relation-
ship is seen in the Taddington - Monyash area where in the Hubbadale
Mine only 25 metres of dark facies is present, which thins out
completely towards Monyash.

To the south the facies is more persistant being exposed in

the gorge of the Lathkfll, where it is equivalent to Shirley's (1959)
Lower Lathkill Limestones. The dark facies is also seen underground
between Monsal Dale and Lathkilldale in old lead mine workings.
Detailed examinations have been carried out on these underground
exposures and this has allowed the lithological thickness changes
within the Monsal Dale Limestone dark facies to be analysed.

In the Magpie Mine (fig. 7) and Sough dark limestones rest ,on
 .
··48.

top of the Shacklow Wood Lava (fig. 8) with a basal thin algal pyritic
I band O. 3 In. thick. Dar-k limestones are also seen in the Magpie sough
beneath the lava (Butcher 1975) often with cherty lenses and occasional
entire large Productid shells. The se dark limestones are exposed
in the Fieldgrove Mine where they interfinger with thickly bedded
,
pale biomicrite s probably of shelf facie s. A combined t~iclmess

of 96 metres of interdigitating shelf and basin facies limestones

was intersected he re., Further south detailed surveying underground
in the Magpie. Red Soil and Bole Vein Mine s (fig. 8) has proved a
thickness of 76 metres largely of dark cherty thinly bedded line stone
.with shale partings containing occastonal large Pr-oductids., The se
dark limestones are intercalated with pale grey limestones of shelf
facies.

Towards Lathkilldale and in the lower parts of the Greens-

ward Mine only 25 metres of dark limestones are exposed., However.
Inthe Mandale Mine an expanded succession of 122 metres of dark
lime stone ("blSlckstone ") is indicated <?n old mining documents
(Rieuwerts 1973). This thiclmess seems rather abnormal and was
-not confirmed by recent explorations.

Observations in the Mandale Forefield ~haft indicate that

the calculated 122 metre thickness is misleading as it contains dark
limestones interbedded with paler shelf facies limestones. (Worley
and Ford 1976). Even taking this into account an overall southward
thickening of dark limestones into the Lathkill syncline probably does
occur.

.
Plotting the thickness changes within the dark facies of the
Monsal Dale Limestones reveals that they can be related to the
structural evolution of the area which ~as been partially deduced by
Cope (1937). Butcher and Ford (1973). and Butcher (1976). The
thickest sequence of dark limestones lie in the Priestcliff syncline
which trends. roughly west-northwest to east-southeast parallel
 49..

with Monsal Dale. Towards the Taddington Mogshawe - Bakewell

anticline in the south, the Hubbadale, Magpie and Fieldgrove Mines
sections have proved attenuated sequences of dark limestones (fig. 8).
Correspondingly towards the Lathkill syncline the thickness of dark
limestones again increases as seen in the Mandale Mine section.

v) Monsal Dale Limest~nes~ Pale or Shelf facies lim~ston~~_

The Monsal Dale shelf facies are equivalent to Cope's (1937)

Priestcliff Bed s, the Upper Lathkill Limestones of Shirley (1959)~

and the D limestones of Shirley and Horsfield (1945). They attain

2
a maximum thickness of 180 metres(Stevenson and Eden 1976) in
the western part of the Monsal Dale section. Elsewhere the full
thickness is rarely exposed either in mines or in incised valley
sections.

In the northern most exposures on Longstone Edge an expanded

section of 145 metres of shelf facies above the Litton Tuff is exposed.
.-
.These may be considered as Upper Monsal Dale Limestones as the
Litton Tuff is recognisable and follows the divisions established by
Stevenson and Gaunt (1971) in the Eyarn-Btorry Middleton Area.

In the area around the Brushfield plateau and in the southwest

the shelf facies interdigitates with dark basin facies limestones. An
attenuated sequence of shelf facies limestones is developed attaining
a total thickness of 90 metres in the Hubbadale Mine resting on the
Upper Millers Dale Lava, Here the limestones are very pale grey
generally thickly bedded biomicrite s~ and biosparrite s, They are
usually cherty with lenses and nodules of greyish blue chert. A
similar situation exists in the Monyash area where only 100 metres
of shelf facies limestone rests on the Upper Millers Dale Lava. Part
of this succession is seen in the Knotlow Mine (SK 677143) and consists
of thickly bedded grey limestones frequently cherty with numerous
stylolitic partings. At about 50 metre s from the top of the Monsal Dale
 50.

Limestones a series of extremely coarse crinoidal biosparrudites

is exposed in the Crim~o swallet section.

In the south the pale shelf limestones progressively increase

in thickness at the expense of the basinal dark limestones; however',
,
as Lathkillda1e is approached these progressively give way to darker
limestones.

A persistant shelly limestone bed known as the Lathkill

Shell Bed consisting mainly of Gigantoproductus s. 1 is present
over much of the area. This lies towards the top of the Monsa1
Dale Limestones and was first recorded by Shirley (1959 p. 414)
in Lathkillda1e containing the br-achiopods, Productus cf. hemi-
sphaericus (J. Sowerby) and Gigantoproductus giganteus Pae ckelman,
and was tentatively correlated with the Lower Shell Bed of Middleton
Dale. It has been possible to locate this horizon underground in the
upper pale grey limestones in the Magpie Mine and adjacent shafts
where it conaists of a bed up to 4 metres thick scattered with
silicified shells with the convex ventral valves downwards in life
position. Shirley and Horsfield (1945) also de scribed the Middleton
Dale Lower Shell Bed from Coombes Dale although this has remained
unnamed on recent geological maps suggesting some doubt over this
correlation.

Shelf facies limestones have been intersected in the southern

end of the Magpie sough where they are pale grey and porcetlane ou s,
passing into sparsely fossiliferous massive grey limestones with
stylolitic partings. They probably repre sent the lowe st part of the
Monsal Dale Limestones. A reef knoll occurs at this horizon eithe r#
at the base of the Brigantian limestones or at the top of the Asbian
which, in the absence of the Millers Dale Upper Lava, are parts of the
Bee Low Limestones. The details of this reef have been given in
Worley (1975 and 1976). A reef has also been mapped by the 1 G. S.
lying 38 metres below the Rosewood Marble in Shacklow Wood
 ~ 51

(SK 176697) at a higher stratigraphical horizon than the one exposed in

the Magpie S:>ugh. This reef limestone is pale gr-ey, and massive
with numerous silicified Pr-oductids, and appears to be quite different
litliologically and faunally from the one exposed in the Magpie Sough.

.
In the Fieldgrove Mine, shelf facie s limestone s were inter-
sected in the lower levels but these are no longer exposed as the mine
is partly flooded, .The se were referred to by the 19th century mine
agent Wyatt as the igreystone' or, 'bearing measures' (Rol:ey1966).
Mogshaw Mdne also worked in the 'greystone' below the 'blackstone'
(Monsal Dale Lime stone s dark facies) which is again probably
equtvatent to the Monsal Dale shelf facies.

To the southeast in !he Greensward Mine 75 metres of pale

grey thickly bedded cherty' limestones are exposed above the dark
facies. An attenuated sequence of Upper Monsal Dale limestones
(34 metre s) rests on the Conksbury Bridge Lava (= to the Litton
. Tuff) in the Youlgrave - Bakewell area in the southeast (fig. 8). These
. -~ . .
are exposed in Shining Bank Quarry, and Shankdale Quarry. A
further 30 metres of pale limestones are exposed in the lower
reaches of Lathkil1dale, but unfortunately the base of the limestones
is not exposed.

vi) Distribution of basal t 1avas# tu.!~~!.1.9 waIE2~~Y:~E_~h~_

Briganti~n lime stone So
,
Four basalt lava horizons have been recognised within the
Brigantian limestones by ,Stevenson and Eden (1976)# these are,
the Millers Dale Upper Lava, the Lees Bottom Lava, the Shacklow
Wood Lava and the Lttton'Iuff,

The Millers Dale Upper Lava

The Millers Dale Upper Lava attains a maximum thickness

 52.

of 18 metres in the Millers Dale area and the base of the flow is
taken as the base of the Brigantian stage. To the north the lava
outcrops sporadically and is only represented by a thick clay
wayboa rd in Cressbrookdale (Shirley and Horsfield 1945).

Previously outcrops of basalt at Lee s Bottom and Shacklow

Wood recorded by Arnold Bemrose (1908) were correlated with the
Millers Dale Lower Lava (Butcher and Ford 1973) and the higher
flow \"J1th the Millers Dale Upper Lava. However, in Stevenson and
Eden (1976) the underlying and intervening limestones are mapped
as Monsal Dale Limestones of shelf facies; placing the overlying
Iava s Emtirclywithin the limestones, stratigraphically much higher.
Underground the Millers Dale Upper Lava has only been intersected
,in two places, in the Hubbadale Mine (Kirkham 1964 a) at a depth
of 109 metres and may have been intersected in the Highlow Mine
as suggested by Farey (1811). This however, seems unlikely as this
, ..mine would probably have to reach a depth of 540 feet (164 metres)•
The Millers Dale Upper Lava was not intersected in the Magpie Mine
,
but is probably represented by the 630 feet wayboard (fig. 8); how-
ever, the evidence for this correlation is rather insecure.

Further south at both' outcrop and underground the Millers

Dale Upper Lava is absent, though this is frequently due to the lack
of penetration by many of the mine s, A depositional limit may be
placed on the extent of the lava and this indicates that a line from
Litton to lVIonyash may represent its furthest eastward extent. There
is some unpublished borehole evidence on Longstone Edge suggesting
that an arm or equivalent separate flow exists to the north.

The Lees Bottom Lava

Outcrops of lava at Lees Bottom (SK 173702) were formerly

equated with the Millers Dale Lower Lava by Brown (1973) and Butcher
and Ford (1973) but revision by the L G. S. indicates that it is strat-
 53.

.
igraphically higher and lies at a variable interval above the latter.
It is the least extenstve of the lavas in the area however, it is
. .
represented by one of the three flows seen in the Dirtlow Mine.
Elsewhere, this lava horizon may be equated with clay wayboards
seen at 167 metres (550 feet) in Magpie Mine and the thin clay way-
board 9 metres above the lava at Hubbadale Mine.

, The Lathkill Lodge Lava, some 6 metres thick, appears

to lie on approximately the same horizon but it is a separate flow
confined to the south around the Lathkilldale area.

Shack10w Wood, Cressbrookda1e, and Conksbury Bridge Lavas

The Shacklow Wood Lava outcrops in the Wye Valley and

beneath the Shacklow Wood northwest of Ashford in the Wate n,
It was previously equated with the Millers Dale Upper Lava but
it is now regarded as an equivalent of the Cressbrookdale Lava;
. a separate flow known mainly from boreholes and in mines to the
north. The lava attains its maximum thickness of 30 metres in
the Magpie Sough (Butcher 1975, and Worley 1976) but appears to
thin rapidly westwards and is not seen in either Monsal Dale or
Millers Dale. Towards Magpie Mine the lava thins to a clay way-
board and was equated with a thick clay wayboard at the 146 metre
(480 feet) level by Varvill (1959). The 109 metre (360 feet) clay in
Fie1dgrove Mine is also probably equivalent to the Shacklow Wood
. Dtva (fig. 8).

In the Dirtlow Mine (SK 190685) the lava may represent

the middle of the three lavas intersected and is probably the lowest
lava (33 metres thick) in Mogshaw Mine (SK196678). This lava was
also penetrated by a rise on the 167 metre (480 feet) drive east from
Magpie Mine to beneath True Blue Mine (fig. 8). El.scwher-e a thick
clay wayboard is often present at the appropriate horizon 'as in the
Hubbadale Mine where the Great White Wayboard outcrops 19 metr-es
 -
54.

above the Upper Millers Dale Lava. (fig. 8) (this may also be
equivalent to the Litton tuff). A separate flow in the southe rn part
of the area mapped by Shirley (1959) called the Conksbury Bridge
Lava is roughly equivalent to its counterparts in the north the
Shacklow Wood and Cressbrookda1e Lavas, It attains a maximum
thickness of 31 metres in Lathkilldale but can be traced northwards
where it outcrops northwest of Bakewell and is associated with a vent.
This lava also formed the sole to the fluorspar workings on Long
Rake, Conksbury Quarry, and Raper Quarry (fig. 8).

The Litton Tuff

The Litton Tuff outcrops only at the head of Cressbrookdale.

It is known underground to the east where it has been passed through
in Wager's Level and Engine Shaft (Kirkham 1966 c & d and Willies
1976) and in the Sallet Hole Mine. To the south this volcanic horizon
is not widely known at outcrop but a thin tuff band outcropping at
Mogshaw Rake and intersected underground as the highest 9 metre
'toadstone' was correlated tentatively with the Litton Tuff by Butcher
and Ford (1973). Other thick wayboards in the Red Soil, True Blue,
and Bole Vein shafts may also be equivalent to the Litton Tuff, al-
though this correlation is speculative (fig. 8).

The closeness of the Shacklow Wood Lava and Litton Tuff

hinders reliable correlation across wide areas, and the Great White
Wayboard at Hubbadale Mine could be a representative of either the
Litton Tuff or Shacklow Wood La va,

The Eyam Limestones were originally mapped as Limestones

and Black Shales by Sihly (1903) who assigned them a D age. Estimates
3
of 23 metres were given for the thickness of the section exposed at the
western mouth of the Headstone cutting, where they rest conformably
 55.

on Brigantian strata. Further north on Longstone Edge ihe Eyam

Limestones were described ·by Shirley and Horsfield (1945) as
. .
resting unconformably on Brigantiln limestones. Two lithofacies
were recognised, 'reef' limestones and 'inter-reef' darker cherty
limestones and were first established by Morris (1929) in Coombes
Dale.

A detailed petrographical and lithofacies analysis has been

carried out by Brown (1973) on the Eyam Limestones. He found that
the reef 'flats' and knolls' of Stevenson and Gaunt (1971) consisted of
a central lens of micritic lime stone, which passed laterally into
algal limestones, crinoid marble, gastropod beds, and giganteus
beds. The relationship of these facies is summarised in fig. 9. The
reef complex limestones pass laterally into the inter- r-eef ~.5.rncstones

dominated by the dark bitumenous, thinly bedded, cherty, limestones

with shale partings. Large Productid .brachtopods are the most
conspicuous fossils.Brown (1973) found that in the Headstone cutting
section the giganteus ·'beds facies referred to as the Ashford Beds
(Butcher and Ford 1973) rested conformably on the basin facies of
the Monsal Dale Limestones and attain ~ thickness of 30 metres.
However, both to the north and south of this area reef limestones are
commonly developed. The definition of the base of the Eyam Lime-
stones appears to be considerably easier underground than at surface
and is usually marked by a thick clay wayboard resting on an erosional
surface. This has been seen in Greensward Mine, Knotlow Mine, and
in the flnorspar- quarries at Youlgrave (fig. 8) A corresponding
r-alationahip was noted by Morris (1929) in Coombes Dale.

Brown did not recognise that these clay tuff bands (Walkden
1972) regarding them as weathered soils. Further mapping e stabl Lshad
that these clays rarely lie at the base of the reefs sensu _~!:!c:t..£.
but are intercalated with the crinoid marble facies. However, else-
where reefs are absent a clay wayboard marks the base of the 'uppo r
giganteus facie s dark limestones.
A DIAGRAM OF THE TYPICAL 1I THOFAC/ES DEVELOPED IN THE EYAM(CAWDOR LST.

· ..
.. ...
·... .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . - - "]
~p f
. . . . . . • • . . . . • . • .• 0
.... ·.
_
~
r-
•....•.•••.•••••. •
t -4 - -; c r'"
• • • • • • •

....
• • • •

I
• •

i .I
5

I
T I
'%J
H
G)
c::
~
\0

E5:9 GJ GAN TEUS BEDS OR

INTER REEF FACIES
EJ REEF FACIES
0
~ GASTROPOD BEDS ~ CLAY WAYBOARD FACIES
<S <S <S

(.e~~l CRINOID MARBLE ~ MONSAL DALE OR 10 J METRES

•• MATLOCK LMST.

ADAPTED FROM BROWN 1973 nf~~ (41f.

 O'

5'S.

viii) Conclusions

The fragmentary evidence available from the borehole s

that have passed completely through the limestone sequence in-
dicates that the basement rocks in the Bakewell, Lathkfl.l.,
dale, Monyash, Longstone area consist of a complex of Lower
Palaeozoic rocks. Great thickness changes observed between
the Eyam and Woo Dale successions suggest that the carbonate
platform was subsiding more rapidly on the eastern side during
the Lower Dtnantian, The facies observed from the boreholes
within the Courceyan, Chadian, Arundian, and Holkerian show that
°they are dominated by dark limestones some with normal marine
faunas, with large dolomitised sections. In some cases anhydrite
is developed. Coal seams and carbonaceous partings are common
in the Holkerian strata in both the Eyam and Woo Dale sections.
These data indicate that deposition of these limestones may have
been cyclic as Ramsbottom (1973) suggested, representing suc-
cessive transgressions and regressions. The dolomite and
anhydrite deposits indicate that hypersaline conditions prevailedwliich would
have developed during regressive phases. Deposition of coal and
carbonaceous shale apparently occurred during periods of emergence
when land plants temporarily colonised the land surface. A major
facies change occurred at the end of the Holkerian and the Asbian
Limestones were deposited in truely marine carbonate shelf con-
ditions. Extrusive vulcanicity occurred throughout the Asbian
represented by the Millers Dale Lower Lava and numerous clay
wayboards which often rest on emergent potholed surfaces., The
end of the Asbian is marked either by deposition of the Millers Dale
Upper Lava or in some cases a major facies change.

Dark limestone deposition starts to occur within the Brigantian

as penecontemporaneous tectonic activity produced a major sedimentary
basin centred on the Ashford area. North- south anticlines also devel-
oped during this period and the Brigantian limestones of shelf facie,S
 57.

become thinner over these areas. Thickness changes in the

Brigantian (fig. 8) ind.icate that the platform was still subsiding
more rapidly on the eastern aide,

Vents and igneous intrusions are often located at cores of

,
these major anticlines notably the Calton Hill complex and the
Cracknowle vent, Bakewell Towards the end of the Brigantian an
unconformity occurs and marks the base of the Eyam Limestones.
In the Ashford area deposition was still continuous and an expanded
dark cherty limestone facies was laid down. On the sur-r-ounding
shelf knoll reefs were deposited between the darker inter-reef
limestone s. There is some suggestion that a basin centred on
Monyash started to develop during Eyam Limestone times and may
be of a similar age to the Wardlow Basin further to the north.
 58.

5. The Matloc~Wirksworth-YoulB'raveAr~~

The Matlock- Wirksworth- Youlgrave area is the most

southern limestone outcrop of the Southern Pennines and covers
approximately 160 square kilometres. Only small areas of Hol-
kerian limestone outcrop known as the Griffe Grange Beds and Woo
Dale Limestones. The boundary between the Holkerian and Asbian
Hoptonwood Group/Bee Low Limestone cannot be defined in the area
but appears to represent a diachronous facies change. The top of
the Asbian is locally marked by the base of the Winster Moor Lava
and elsewhere is marked by lithological change but this is often
obscured by dolomitisation. Dark limestones occur in underground
exposures and in boreholes in the Brigantian Matlock Group and
Monsal Dale Limestones which consistsat outcrop of pseudobrecciated
shelf facies limestone. Correlations of the lavas and tuffs within the
Brigantian are complex and tnttcate that the Matlock Upper Lava is
equivalent to the Conksbury Bridge Lava, and the 144 Pilhough Toad-
stone, the Bradford Dale Lava and the Lathkill Lodge Lava. The
Matlock Lower Lava appears to be an extens ive volcanic horizon
In the area but counterparts outside the area are not known. The
Eyam and Cawdor Limestones rest unconformably upon the 1\1 atlock
Group and Monsal Dale Limestone, and completely overstep in the
south onto the Hoptonwood Group. Namurian shale rests unconform-
ably on the limestone sequence and in places completely oversteps the
Cawdor Group.
 59.

i) Holkerian Limestones

The Holkerian stage limestones are named the Griffe Grange

Beds in the southern part of the area and the Woo Dale Limestones in
the north., Outcrops are only known at two localities; one a fault-
.
bounded inlier northwest of Pikehall and the other in the Via GeUia
(~ig. Il), In the Via Gellia the lime stones are known as the Griffe
Grange Beds and were gtven an S2 Holkerian age by Smith et al,
(1967) on the basis of a few scattered Daviesiella sJ>-_~I:ells. The
base of the sequence is not exposed but a thickness of 30 metres of
pale porcellaneous limestones outcrop's, with a number of prominent
bedding planes. Many of these are clay covered and may represent
non-sequences. It is not possible to define clearly the top of the
Griffe Grange Bed' as it passes tr-anstttonally upwards int~ the over-
lying Hoptonwood. Group, therefore it. was taken locally as the highest
porce~laneous limestone band by Smith et al, (1967). Recently two
deep boreholes inter-sected the Griffe Grange Beds, at Low Mine (SK
283587) and Middleton Mine (SK 277 558) (fig. 10) and these add con-
siderably to the knowledge of this formation. At the Low Mine Bore-
hole (fig. 12) 32. 80 metres of dark grey micritic thinly bedded lime-
stones oolitic in parts with dark carbonaceous partings were bter-
sected beneath the Hoptonwood Group., This darker lithofacies
is unknown elsewhere in the area and is comparable with the Woo.
Dale Limestone exposed in the Wye Valley section (Cope 1933). More
recently an underground borehole drilled in the Middleton Mine proved
a thickness of 22. 6 metres of Griffe Grange Beds beneath an atten-
uated Hoptonwood Group sequence. In this case the Griffe Grange
Beds consist of more characteristic porceUaneous limestone with
numerous clay partings and occasional oolitic horizons. Mottling
(pseudobrecciation) and stylolite seams are commonly developed.

Plotting the top of the Griffe Grange Beds shows that in the
Low Mine area it lies 148 metres below the base of the Matlock Lower
Lava (fig., 12) whilst in the Via Gellia 2. 3 kilometres south it is. only
 60.

76 metres below the same lava. At the Middleton Mine the junction
lies 100 metres below ~he base of the lav-a (fig. 10). Mapping under-
ground on Middleton Moor failed to clearly define the top of the Griffe
Grange Beds.

According to Green et al, (1887) the 'Holy stone tjGr-iffe Grange

Beds)a porcellaneous limestone occurred at a depth of 45 metres in
, the Snake Mine Shaft: however, the measured shaft section (fig. 10)
clearly shows that Green's section which is widely quoted in the
literature is incorrect and the source quoted 'an old miner' seems to
be unreliable. Only the Partridge Mine (fig. 10) section proved the
presence of porcellaneous limestone at a much greater depth than
. anticipated.

It appears therefor-e that the Griffe Grange Beds pass

transitionally probably in a diachronous manner into the Hopton-
wood Group over a considerable stratigraphical interval The
contact defined by Smith et al, in the Via Gellia based on a small
amount of outcrop evidence. cannot be easily traced to, either the
north or south.

ii) The ~sbian LiEIe ston~_~ Hopton'!~9~.2.!'~~E-and Bee I:.~~

Limestones.

The Asbian limestones have been named the Hoptonwood

Gr-oup by Smith et al, (1967) and are known as the Bee Low Lime-
stones in the north. The outcrop occupies a large area and includes
the high (300 metres) flat-topped ridge between Grangemill and
Pikehall Better exposures occurr in the sides of the Via Gellia
and north of Hopton (fig. 11). The base of the Hoptonwood Group,
is only exposed in the Via Gellia where they pass transitionally into
the Griffe Grange Beds. Elsewhere the base of the Hoptonwood Group
cannot clearly be defined (fig. 12), as it passes gradationally into
the Griffe Grange Beds. A thickness of 76. 0 metres is given for the
 Partridge, Mine !' 8H,MMl Sc muet Mine Crof 8H MMU19
I ! ,f Middleton

I T QUr
,

.. 8RIGANTIAN MATLOCK
GROUP

I I
I
... _J...~
I
__ ~__ E l_:J---
• I I I . III

a
------- ~

,
- I
H
-----
-----1---------------------
s
/I I I ------------------- 61
~
o

50
-- ------= - - - - -
------------ = ----------------------------
i ------------- --- ----
---------~----------
_ - - _-1= .
.......

HOLKERIAN GRIFFE
GRANGE BED

100 M. o ROADWAYS IN MIDDLETON MINE

B CLAY WAY80ARDS

SOURCE F. HARDY
I :;/,'; I DARK LIMESTONE N.E.WORLEY

CORRELATIONS OF STRATA IN THE MIDDLETON MOOR

AREA, WIRKSWORTH.
 F IGURE 11

.
~ ~ ---.J I II
o ---,

:H
.. ,

'~] [] 0

,..
I
I

t ,I
I
I
. .e ;'
' " .. ,"
"r
.: . I, ,
• I

{9
.0
o...J
oW .....
{9
~ .

. .
.
.
.
.
,.
··
. ·
.'
~

.... -:.
~
u :i,
.' ' . .>.: : . ".-:,' :; ~

. . . .. ..
... .
. .. .. ... .. .
, "

.:~
. _ ::IIiII. .~_L1
 61
•

Via Gellia section.

Lithologically the lime stone s are remarkably uniform

consisting of pale grey thickly bedded biomicrudites and biomi-
carenites. The allochemical constituents are largely fine grained
.
broken crinoid debris with lesser amounts of brachiopod shell
...

material In a few places notably the Via Gellia the Hoptonwood

limestones are mottled with darker diffuse spots circa 4 cms.. in
diameter enclosed by the standard pale grey fine granular limestone.
This lithological feature was also recorded further north in the
Asbian Bee Low Limestones at Taddington by Barnes and Holroyd
(1900). Fossils are rare in the Hoptonwood Group and when present
consist of bands of shells. Among these Shirley (1959) noted the
occurence of Davi~~onina_Eep!.~~~ and Productus cf. maximus which
are typical Asbian fossils.

The limestones are characteristically thickly bedded

especially towards the top 40 metres of the sequence where beds of
5 metres thick are usual In the lower part of the section a number
of clay wayboards or tuffs which may reach a thickness of 1 metre
occur at approximately 10 metre intervals (fig. 10). The limestones
are generally more thinly bedded in this area. Erosional bases
are frequently developed at the bottom of the clay wayboards dem-
onstrating that they represent non- sequ mce s, These clay wayboards
have been examined in the vicinity of Middleton Moor and it is
possible to correlate them throughout the area (fig. 10). However,
it is not possible to correlate these beds beyond a radius of 1 kilo-
metre and no comparison can be made with the clay wayboards inter-
sected in the Low Mine Borehole (fig•. 12).,

The shelf facies limestones of the Hoptonwood Group are

inferred to pass southwards into an apron reef complex adjacent to
Yokecliff Rake (fig. ll). The evidence for this facies change is scant
and is based upon exposures of contorted limestone in Bailey Croft
 62.

Quarry, Wirksworth.

.
Further to the northwest exposures of the Hoptonwood Group
are known as the Bee Low Limestone. No facies changes are ob-
served and the limestones are lithologically broadly similar. Much
of the rock however has suffered extensive dolomitisation and combined
with very sparse exposure denies any detailed correlations with the
southern outcrops.

The top of the Hoptonwood Group was taken by Smith et at

(1967) at the base of the Matlock Lower Lava. Shirley (1959) r-ecog-
nl sed that the Matlock Lower Lava died out to the north and was able
to map the boundary between the Asbian and Br-igantian ustng the
sharp lithological change between the Hoptonwood Limestone and the
Matlock Group. A lava, lower than the Matlock Lower Lava, called
the Winster Moor Farm Lava (Shirley 1959) was not recognised by
Smith et al, and outcrops on Bonsall Moor and Winster Moor (fig. 11).
A sequence of dark limestones occur above this lava also outcrop In
the same localities. Dark limestones also occur beneath the Matlock
Lower Lava in Gratton Dale (SK 205605) and landslips In the sides
of the dale indicate the position of a tuff band equivalent to the
Winster Moor Farm Lava at the base of the dark limestones. The
Low Mine BJrehole intersected dark lime stones and tuffs below the
Matlock Lower Lava- one of these tuffs is probably equivalent to
the Winster Moor Farm lava, and the overlying dark limestones lie
at the same stratigraphical horizon as those in Gratton Dale.

The data indicates that a revision of the Asbian - Brigantian

boundary in the area is necessary as dark limestones occur in
apparently Asbian Hoptonwood Limestones. Therefore, for the
purpose of this account the boundary is taken at the base of the
Winster Moor Farm Lava and if this is absent the base of the
lowest dark limestone bed. This revised boundary cannot be
recognised in the southern part of the area as the Winster Moor Farm
STRATIGRAPHICAL CORRELATIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALISATION IN THE MATLOCK WIRKSWORTH YOULGRAVE AREA

WATTS SHAFT OXCL05[ "'NE SIIANTS OUARRYIIH ""TLOCk IIASSON LOW"'NE USUO USUOOOH' EXSUD DOH IJ WI""SWOltTH
AL'ONT W'NSUN ELTON W'LLS FOUNOU PlLHOUGH RISE NO 2 WINlE ANEt. NOI W'NlE AREA MOLETRAP
OOH 10-11 SPEEOWELL RI( "' OOlE TON MOOR
SHA,T

----- CAWOO"
[T.. M
LIMESTONE ·.... ·····I~ ~GAOUP

//J ......... HT£RW

U'F
i
:~~~~~~~~~~~~3 ~::,.
·:·:·:·:·:'IMATLOCK UPP£R
-::-:: -. ,~ LST

'~~ilit1~1b:iOC"
W:>"SAL
C......E BRADFORD
.' . -:.' jlYATESTOC
" ".' - IpL.A"l'<~TT
-:." :-.: !POR;W'Ay
I -: :. . il&
E..TON
MA.TLOCk
LOWER
t-4~'
• ,"
(w). .
. -_~
UPPU

'
·
::::::::::::~
-'cw~·.

t;t 10
." . . "HOPPING
_ . • =,-.....,
1=......
I

L!N[STON~
l5T. cw2: SPEEDWELL
DALE L.VA-t.·~ <wI
....••.•..-,

M,t,nOCK
LOWER
lA.VA

Ili)[!I;
BEE lOW
lIwESTO"ll[
KEY
o

~ SHALES

o C"WOOR GROUP ANO [,("''4 L' ....ESTONE

50
~--,
~
~ MATLOCK GROUP AND MONSAL OALf l5T 5"[1.' FACIES t'Ij
Hi
G)
ED DAN" FAC'ES

~.
D BH lOW LST ANa HOPTONWOOO GP ""'00

a GRIFFE GRANGE IEOS ....

f\)

B CLAY WAY80ARDS
ISO
~
L...:::..:J rUFFS
:1
~ 8ASALT LAVAS i,
SPECULATIVE CORRELAT'ONS lM200llETRU

SOURCES 'GS 1917-1' TRAIL '940 WORLEY '971

 ---,,---=------------ --------- -

63.

Lava and the dark limestones die out south of the Bonsall F'ault.,
The boundary taken by: Smith et al, (196'7) in the southern part of
the area at the base of the Matlock Lower Lava has been retained.

Tracing the Asbian and Brigantian limestones northwards into

,
the Millclose Mine shows that the revised boundary probably lies at
the Lower 129 ftrn Toadstone which can be correlated with the Winster
Moor Farm Lava (fig. 12). This. interpretation remove s the problem
of an extremely thin Matlock Group which was formerly a hindrance
in correlation with surface exposures. The 129 ftmLimestone is
now regarded as Brigantian in age in~tead of Asbian.

The 10 ft.,Limestone in Millclose Mine (fig. 12) lies within

the Asbian and consists of pale grey very coarse crinoi:lallimestone.
A basalt lava the Lower Pump Station Toadstone also lies within the
Asbian stage but cannot be correlated outside the mine as lava flows
are not known elsewhere in the Hoptonwood Group though wayboar-d s are
common. Outside the Matlock area lavas are known in the Asbian
notably in the Wye Valley where the Millers Dale Lower Lava lies
within the Asbian..

iii) The Winster Moor Farm Lava

~.!--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --

The Winster Moor Farm Lava outcrops only on Winster Moo:'

where it attains a thickness of 10 metres (fig's. 12 & 13) (Butcher 1976)
It can be traced to the west towards Gratton Dale where it is rep-
resented by a tuff or clay wayboard which soon dies out to the north..
To the east the lava also thins out and its outcrop becomes confused
by a series of vent agglomerate exposures on the crest of the Matlock
ant icl.ine.. It may be equivalent to one of the clay wayboard s
inte r sected in the Low Mine Borehole as bdicated in fig •. 12.

The lava was first named by Shirley (1959) who depicted its
outcrop below the Matlock Lower Lava equating it with the Gratton
 " . "
64.

, .
DaleLava, The Gratton Dale Lava has been subsequently mapped
as the Matlock Lower Lava on recent Institute of Geological Sciences
maps [Ch . i'sholm 1976) in accord with Bemr-ose
, . ts (1908) original
inte rpretation.

Iv) The Brigantian Limestones between the Winster Moor Farm

Lava and the Matlock Lower Lava

These have been described from the Moor Farm Opencast

Mine by Butcher (1976 p. 80) where they attain a thickne ss of 18 metres.
Two clay wayboards 10 metres above the lava are present separated
by 5 metres of partly dolomitised black limestone. The 129 fathom
Limestone in the Millclose Mine lies between the Lower 129 fathom
Toadstone (= Winster Moor Farm Lava) and the Upper 129 fathom
Toadstone (= Matlock Lower Lava) and consists of pale grey coarse
limestone. This limestone is also known in Gratton Dale where it
consists of intercalated pale grey and very dark grey thinly bedded
limestone 20 metres thick, referred to as 'grey limestones' by
Sibly (1908). Elsewhere, these limestones have been intersected
in the Low Mine Borehole where they are grey cherty limestones with
occasional dark shaley partings. Approximately 50 metres were
proved but this oorrelation is speculative (fig. 12), being solely
based on equivalence of clay wayboards -vith the Winster Moor Farm
Lava.

v) The Matlock Lower Lava

The outcrop of the Matlock Lower Lava was originally

defined by Bemrose (1908) who showed that it extended from Gratton
Dale in the north to Middleton Moor in the south reaching its max-
imum thickness on Masson Hill It also outcrops at Grange Mill
. , and Aldwark in the west where it forms a complex faulted outcrop
pattern associated with the Grangemill vent. (fig. Il), At Shothouse
Spring the lava is largely tuffaceous and is known thereabouts as the'
Shothouse Spring Tuff. Earlier accounts on the stratigraphy of the
 65.
..
Matlockarea (Green et al, 1887; Whitehurst 1778) suggested that
the Shothouse Spring Tuff lay 30 metres below the Matlock Lower
. '

'Lava; but mapping by Eden and Rhys (1961) established that the
Lower Lava in the Vif-. Gellia passed laterally iIt 0 the tuff•
•

.
IIi the Mi11c1ose Mine the lava is -represented by the Upper
129 fathom Toadstone which is 8. 2 metre s thick and is likely to be
a separate flow lying on the same horizon. Further north a lower
lava flow has been intersected underground in mine workings in the
A1port area' in the sinking of Wheels Rake Shaft. This lava flow lies
14 metres below the Bradford Dale Lava and was reported to be over
. '

102 metres thick (Carruthers and Strahan 1923 p. 67). It has been
equated with the Matlock Lower Lava by Chisholm (1976) anditis...pr-ebable
that since the Matlock Lower Lava dies out north of Gratton Dale the
lava at A1port is a separate flow.

Boreholes at Low Mine and on Masson Hill (fig. 12) proved

that the thickness of lava varies between 76 metres at Masson Quarry
and 99 metres at Low Mine with a sequence of tuffs at the base named
by Ixer (1975) the Masson Tuff. Tuffs also occur at the top of the lava
and one of these outcrops at Masson Quarry consisting of a.hard grey
calcareous pyritic tuff with foraminifera and small brachiopod shells
named the Upper Masson Tuff (Worley and Dorning 1977). The same
tuff has been encountered underground at the Jugholes Mine where it
consists of green-grey clay with nodules of fine-grained limestone
coated by pyrite (Worley and Nash 1977). A biscuit coloured tuff
also outcrops at the head of Nor'the rn Dale resting on the Matlock
Lower Lava and in thin section is composed of zeolites and mont-
morillonite with some calcite. At the Will's Founder Mine the top
of the Matlock Lower Lava was intersected at 120 metres, where
the upper surface of the lava displays a series of pillows circa 1
metre in diameter with an outer coating of grey-green clay (Worley
1977). A winze sunk off the line of the main shaft passedthrough at
least 30 metres of basal~ but did not reach limestone indicating that
 66.

the lava is at least 30 metres thick in the Winster area. The lava
also outcrops in the lower levels of Partway Mine Winster (Dunham
1952 a) but the thickness is unknown.

Tracing the Matlock Lower Lava south from Low Mine the
top has been intersected in boreholes (fig. 12) at Speedwell Mine
and Moletrap Rake. The lava is also exposed in the Via Gellia
and from its outcrop pattern is clearly substantially thinner than
at Low Mine in the north. This relationship is maintained further
south on Middleton Moor where the Lava is only 10 metres fhick '
in Messrs Tarmac's BHMMI (fig. 10) and 3 metres thick in Bradhouse
Mine (fig. 10) where it has become a tuff. Gibson and Wedd (1913 p. 30)~

howeve r', give the thickness of the lava in Bradhouse Mine as 23. 7
metres which is incorrectarrd also inconsistant with southward thinning
of the lava. South of Partridge Mine the lava dies out complete ly, but
makes a brief app~arance south of Gallows Knoll (SK264 546) before
dying out again north of Hopton (SK257533).

vii) The Brigantian Limestones Matlock Group and Monsal Dale

Limestones.

The Matlock Group includes the Matlock Lower Limestone

the Matlock Upper Lava and the Matlock Upper Limestone. In the
absence of the Matlock Upper Lava which has a restricted di st r ibutfon
the limestones are collectively referred to as the Matlock Group.
In the north around Alport and Winster the Matlock Group is rep-
resented by the Monsal Dale Limestones.

viii) Matlock Lower Lime stone

The Matlock Lower Limestone outcrops typically in Matlock

Dale and forms apr-ominent east - west trending scarp from
Jugholes to Winster (fig. 11). The Matlock Upper Lava which marks
the top of the limestone is absent south of the Bonsall Fault and con-
 67.

sequently the Lower Limestone is included within the Matlock Group

description. The lim~stone attains. a maximum thickness of 54. 50
metres in Matlock, I?roven in the Smarts Quarry Borehole. Two
principle lithofacies were intersected.. a dark Hme stone which
alternated with paler grey shelly usually pseudobrecciated limestones.
A simila~ somewhat thicker succession known as the .'Main Limestone"
.was encountered in the Millclose Mire 50 to 65 metres thick, and
also consisted of alternating pale grey shelly limestones with a
darker more thinlybedded facies (fig. 12).

Elsewhere thinner successions are more general; on Masson

Hill, 33. 5 metres of partially dolomitised limestone outcrop which
are strongly pseudobrecciated in the lower parts. (.plate 4 fig. 3.).
A thinner sequence has been measured between the lavas in the
Jugholes Mine where only 27. 5 metres of limestone are seen. This
. .
succession is strongly pseudobrecciated in the lower half and the
lowest, 2 metres of limestone are coarse crinoidal biomicrudites
and biosparrudites. Towards the west the succession thickens
slightly and over 40 metres of limestone are exposed in the Oxclose
Mine with over 3 metres of dark rather sparry shelly limestone at
the base. The dark limestone facies can be also found at outcrop
south of the Oxclose Mine and it is possible to trace it as far as
.Tearsall Mine (fig. 11) where it rests directly on the locally tuff-
aceous Matlock Lower Lava. The whole Matlock Lower Limestone
succession is only 27. 5 metres thick at Tearsall

A number of tuffs or clay wayboards are char-acte rtsttca'lly

developed in the Matlock Lower Limestone. Some of these have been
described by Dunham (1952 a) and Ixer (1975) from Masson Quarry,
and . Butcher (1976) from the Wapping and Hopping Mines. The
lowest of the se lie s 2 to 3 metre s above the base of the Matlock
Lower Limestone and was called the 'little toadstone' by Dunham
(1952) {fig. 12}. It outcrops in Masson Quarry where it is no more
than a few centimetres thick,and can be traced underground into the
 68.

Jugholes Mine where it varies from 1 em to 1 metre in thickness.

An almost grey-white clay O. 3 metres thick (CW. I fig. 12) also
occurs in a similar stratigraphical position in Oxclose Mine. It
has not been possible to locate this wayboard south of Masson Quarry
or we st of Oxclose Mine.

A number of other thin tuffs are commonly encountered and

over six were recorded by Worley and Nash (1977) in the Jughole
Mine. and 7 are also known in Oxclose Mine. One clay wayboard
in particular can be traced throughout the area. It is known as clay
.. wayboard 4 in Masson Quarry and the. 4 clays in Oxclose Mine where
it contains numerous brachiopod shells and a thin coal seam lying
~5 metres above the Lowe r Lava. The distribution of this clay way-
board is describe d in Worley and Dorning (1977) and can be mapped
from Tearsall Mine to Wapping Mine where it occurs as a group
of closely spaced clay beds separated by dolomitised limestone.
Comparison with the sections of strata recorded in the Millclose
Mine shows that the 103 fathom Toadstone encountered in the nortbe rn
end of the mine and present as a clay wayboard elsewhere, lies in a
similar position to the thick clay wayboard 4 in Masson Quarry (fig. 12).
This new interpretation is important as it resolves the problem
over correlation of the Alport Lava and 103 fathom Toadstone with
surface exposures (Smith et al, 1967).

'West of Tearsall the Matlock Upper Lava is absent and the

limestones have all been extensively dolomitised obliterating most of
the lithological characte ristic s,

The Monsal Dale Limestones of areas to the north are assumed

in the Winster Elton area to be equivalent to the Matlock Group. though
the absence of the Matlock Upper Lava makes thickness comparisons
with the south unreliable. Dolomitisation has also selectively affected
much of the limestone in the Winster area making the overall picture
somewhat incomplete.
 EXPLANATION TO PLATE 4.

Figure 1 Bdomicr-udite, Pale pseudobrecciated limestone

Matlock, Lower Lime stone, Masson Quarry.
The section shows a brachiopod shell replaced
by calcite spar, with an unaltered outer micrite
envelope. Calcite spar has replaced much of the
micritic matrix producing a clotted texture.
X40 plane polarised light.

Figure 2. Fossiliferous micrite, Matlock Lower Lime stone,

Masson Quarry. The dark micrite matrix is cut
by areas of calcite spar some of which may rep-
resent calcite cemented burrows.
X40 plane polarised light.

Figure 3. Spotted pseudobrecctated btomtc rudite, Matlock

Lower Lime stone, Tearsall Quarry. Two types
of dark spots dark grey and lighter grey occur
in a paler grey groundmass. The contacts
between the spots and groundmass often become
. \

stylolitic.
 PLATE 4

FIG 1

FIG 2

oI Ce nt im et r e s
'"

FI G 3
 70.

ix) Petrography of the Matlock Lime stone

Two distinct lithofacies can be recognised within the Matlock

Lower Limestones, dark facies and pale grey facies. The pale facies
limestones are the most abundant being thickly bedded, chert free,
.
fossiliferous limestones. Frequently these limestones exhibit a
mottled appearance in hand specimens (plate 4 fig. 3). The mottling
consists of numerous closely spaced spots of dark lime stone usually
roughly circular or ovoid in cross section and varying from 5 mm
to 20 mm in diameter. Often two distinct colours, .one medium grey
and the other dark brownish grey are developed, and these are evenly
distributed within the paler grey limestone gr-oundma ss, Examination
of polished slabs of the limestones shows that the contact between the
spots and groundmass is microstylolitic. Weathering of the lime-
stones picks out the microstylolite seams producing a series of
ramifying interconnecting joints.

Spotted or mottled limestones occur elsewhere in Lower

Carboniferous shelf facies limestones notably in the Asbian of
Yorkshire, North Wales and South Wales, where they have been
termed pseudobreccias. Bathurst (1959) attributed the pseudobrec-
dation to calcite grain growth which he considered created patchy
coarsening of the limestone. In thin section the dark patches rep-
resent areas of grain growth and consist of translucent calcite spar.
However, in the case of the Matlock Lower Limestone, the mottling
or pseudobrecciated texture evident in hand specimens cannot be
distinguished in thin section. Even careful marking of mottled areas
on acetate peels failed to reveal any marked petrographic difference
between the darker spots and paler matrix.
 71.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 5.

Figure 1. Biomicrudite, Matlock Lowcr Lirne stone ,

Masson Quarry. In the thin section silicified
brachiopod shells, crinoid ossicles, fora-
minife ra, and bryozoa, are present. Calcite
spar has replaced the dark micritic matrix.
X40 Plane polarised light.

Figure 2~ Biomicrudite, Matlock Lower Limestone,

Tearsall Quarry, Dark facics limestone. In'
the left hand side of the photomicrograph a
large crinoid ossicle with a syntaxial rim of
calcite is pre sent. An ostracod is partially.
infilled with micrite sediment and cemented
by later calcite occurs towards the centre.
X40 Plane polarised light.

Figure 3. Biomicrudite, Matlock Lower Limestone,

Tearsall Quarry, Dark facies limestone. The
section illustrates a brachiopod shell fragment
replaced by calcite spar.. Fragments of bryozoa
occur in the top left hand corner.
X40 Plane polarised light.
PLATE 5

FIG 1

FIG 2

FIG 3
 72.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 6.

Figure 1 Fossiliferous micrite, Dark facies Matlock

Lower Limestone, Tearsall Quarry. In the
centre of the photomicrograph are a gastropod
test and a small juvenile brachiopod whose
original shell structure has been replaced by
a. calcite spar mosaic. The se are bound in a
dark micritic matrix.
X40 Plane polarised light•

Figure 2.
.
Biomicrite, Old Ash Mine, Cawdor Group Reef
facies. Fragments of crinoid ossicles from the
major allochemical constituents and bryozoans
are also present. The micrite matrix has been
partly replaced by calcite spar which has dev-
eloped adjacent to the crinoid ossicle s,
X40 Plane polarised light.

Figure 3. Pelsparite, Matlock Lower Limestone, Tearsall

Quarry, Dark facies. Rounded micritic pellets
of fine calcirudite size with some shell fragments
occur in a clear calr-ite spar matrix.
X40 Plane polarised light.
PLATE 6

FIG 1

FI G 2

FIG
 73.

The colouration of the limestone is generally an indicati on

of the amount of carbonaceous organic matter: dark limestones
containing large amounts of carbonaceous material. and finely
divided pyrite is also more common iih: the darker limestones.
Therefore, it can be argued that the pseudobrecciation is a result
of uneven' distribution of carbonaceous material within the limestones.
The shape of the darker spots suggests that they may be the result
of bioturbation where darker sediment was introduced into paler lime
sediments by burrowing organisms. Many of the spots have rather
squashed cross sections indicating that this process took place whilst
the sediments were unconsolidated.

In thin section the limestones consist largely of brachiopod

shell debris including many spines, crinoid ossicles, foraminifera,
bryozoans, md.luscs and micrite intraclasts (plate 4 fig. I, and plate 5
fig. 1). These collectively constitute over 10% of the specimens ex-
amined. The matrix of the limestones is generally brownish-grey
micrite which has been altered and replaced by the development of
neomorphic calcite. spar (Bathurst 1975). (plate 4 fig. 1) and often
results in a clotted texture of islands of micrite surrounded by
clearer calcite. This grain growth texture cannot be related the
mottling seen in hand specimen which occurs on a much larger scale.
Syntaxial rims of clear cal cite are developed frequently on the outside
of the crinoid ossicles, but sometimes this type of grain growth is
not in optical continuity and not syntaxial Syntaxial calcite is also
common within the reef facies of the Cawdor Group and has often
replaced the original micritic matrix (plate 6 fig. 2). Sometimes
the original shell structure of the brachiopods are replaced by mosaics
of clear calcite spar (plate 4 fig. I), but the process often preserves
micrite envelopes which occur on the outer parts of the allochems,
(plate 4 fig. 1) (Bathurst 1975). In some case s chalcedonic silica may
replace the shell structures preferring the brachiopod shells, (plate
5 fig. 1).
 74.

Finer porcellaneous lime stone s also occur within the Matlock

Lower Limestone pale facies especially towards the upper parts of the
sequence. These are often pseudobrecciated but as with the other
limestones the darker spots cannot be identified in thin sections. In
some cases small cavities O. 3 mm in diameter filled with clear calcite
,
spar cements are common (plate 4 fig. 2). and appear to represent
animal burrows.

The darker limestones vary from btomicmrlite s to pel-

spar-a renite s (plate 6 fig. 3) being medium to dark grey in colour
and are highly bitumenous. Allochems consist of brachiopod shells
crinoid ossicles, gastropods (plate 6 fig. 1), foraminifera, bryozoa,
pellets, and algae, usually constituting less than 10% of the limestone.
In many cases the original shell structure of the allochems is replaced
by calcite mosaics (plate 6 fig. 1 and plate 5 fig. 3); this feature
becoming mor-e common the the dark facies limestone, rather than the
grey facies. Geopetal sediments of dark micrite often occur in the
bases of the chambered fossils and are later cemented by clear calcite
spar (plate 5 fig. 2).

The Matlock Upper Lava outcrops in a broad arc from the

head of No:·thern Dale southeastwards to Bonsall It reaches its
maximum thickness on Masson Hill of 35 metres thinning to 26 metres
in Oxclose Mine. In the Mi llclo se Mine the Upper Lava intersected in
Watt s Shaft has been equated with the same flow, but it die s out north-
wards to be replaced by a few metres of tuff (the Intermediate Tuff in
No. 1 Winze). Shirley (1950) raised the question as to whether the
103 fathom Lava or the Alport Lava,which were intersected in the
northern end of the mine ,should be equated with the Matlock Upper
Lava. Detailed mapping underground by the author has r-esolved this
question demonstrating that a tuff in the Matlock Lower Limestone is
probably equivalent to the 103 fathom Toadstone and that the higher
 75.

Alport Lava (fig. 12) lies on the same horizon as the Matlock Upper
Lava.
I

In the Alport - Winster area the "lipper now is known as the

Conksbury Bridge Lava which is absent in the Winster area but may
.
be represented by one of the clay wayboa rd s seen in 'Will's Founder
Mine as shown in fig. 12. Southwards from Masson Hill the Matlock
Upper Lav~ become s thinner and is only 10 metre s thick in the Mole-
. ,

trap Rake Borehole•. South of the Bonsall Fault the lava dies out and
is likely to be represented by one of the thicker clay wayboards seen
~nderground on Middleton Moor (fig. l~).

xii The Matlock Upper Limestone, the Galena Beds and the 84
fathom Lime stone

The 'Matlock Upper Limestone is the uppe~ division of

limestones lying above the Matlock Lower Lava. They are well
exposed in' Matlock Dale where they have been extensively quarried
notably in Harveydale Quarry (SK 295603). The only quarry
currently working the Matlock Upper Limestone is the Hall Dale Quarry
near Snitterton. Approximately 27 metres of Matlock Upper Limestone
are exposed in the Matlock area. They are generally grey to pale
grey pseudobrecciated limestones and are distinguished by the abundance
of lenses and nodular cherts. A number of porcellaneous bands have
been recognised by Smith et al, (1967) who also noted the presence of
algal limestones. The author has not been able to identify these algal
limestones at outcrop; however, fragments of finely laminated grey
porcellaneous limestone with complex convolutions have been found
on the flanks of Northern Dale approximately in the middle of the
Matlock Upper Limestone. A similar type
. .
of limestone can be found
on the spoil heaps at Watts "Shaft Millclose Mine, which intersected
the Cawdor Group ('Black Beds') and the Galena Beds or Matlock Upper
'Limestone. It seems likely that this porcellaneous limestone lies in
the same position in the Watts -Shaft section in the Matlock Upper Lime-
. .
br
 76.

stone.

Elsewhere underground the Matlock Upper Limestone was

encountered in the ,Johannesburg Consolidated boreholes at Riber Mine
which proved a thickness that varied from 32. 12 metres to 27. 85 metres.
,
The limestones were largely pseudobrecciated rarely oolitic with
porcellaneous and darker limestone bands.

In Oxclose Mine 17 metre s of thinly bedded che rty pale grey

~imestone becoming darker towards the top is exposed in the main she;tft.
Unfortunately the Matlock Upper Lime stone is dolomitised over wide
areas and this precludes further lithological description.

xiii) The Monsal Dale Lime stone and Matlock Group

In the Alport- Winster-Elton area the Matlock Group is

referred to as the Monsal Dale Limestones. Exposures are rather
limited and confined to the upper most parts of the succession con-
sisting of grey to dark grey cherty limestones. The Orionastraea
placenta band also outcrops in Bradford Dale marking the upper part
of the Monsal Dale Lime stones. A typical section is exposed in
Shining Bank Quarry (SK 227650) which consists of rather thickly bedded
grey to pale grey crinoidal cherty limestones with numerous bitumen-
coated stylolite seams.

In Gratton Dale the Monsal Dale Lime stone s are 50 metre s

thick and are thickly bedded grey crinoidal limestones with occasional
darker beds. Shirley (1948 p. 31) described the occurrence of
Girvanella in dark limestones resting on top of the lava exposed
at the base of the Monsal Dale Limestone.

Three kilometre s to the east of Gratton Dale a complete

section isexposed through the Monsal Dale Limestones in the Will's
Founder Mine (fig. 12). The basal part of the section consists of dark
 77.

finEh.grained pyritic limestone with dark spots which represent

bioturbation. Dolomitisation has affected the central part of the
section which still preserves a thickly be dde d character with some
shell beds. In the upper part of the section the limestones become
slightly darker and contain a number of thin (0. 1 to O. 5 metres)
black shale beds. Over 97 metres of limestone are exposed nearly
twice the thickne ss observed in Gratton Dale which appears to be
abnormally thin (fig. 12).

South of the Bonsall Fault the Matlock Group has been des-
cribed by Smith et al, (1967) in detail . It forms the plateau surface
of Middleton Moor. Generally the limestones become less cherty
but darker southwards becoming progressively thinner as they have
been eroded being overlain unconformably by the Cawdor Group.

xiv) The ~yam Limestone and Cawdor Group

The Cawdor Group outcrop as an irregular band of limestones

and the outcrop broadly follows the limestone shale boundary (fig. 11).
In the north the Cawdor Group is known as the Eyam Lime stone.
(Chisholm 1976). Two principle lithofacies occur-, knoll reef cOJT,lplex
and dark inter-reef facies limestones. The distribution of these is
shown in fig. 9 and has been described by Smith et al, (1967) and Brown
(l973~. Throughout the area the base of the group is marked by either
an erosional surface with a O. 3 thick clay wayboa rd which is coaly in
places. In the south this becomes an angular unconformity and the
Cawdor Group oversteps the Matlock Group at Middlepeak Quarry,
Wirksworth to rest on the Asbian Hoptonwood Group.

The Cawdor Group is knowna s the 'Black Be ds ' underground

in Millclose Mine where they are 11 metres thick. A large reef knoll
is also known underground in Millclose Mine (fig. 39).

The uppermost sections of the Cawdor Group become highly

sha1ey and contain ostracods described by Robin SOll (1959). This shale
 78.

., unit has been remapped as the Longstone Mtdstones in the northern

part of the area.

xv) Dolomitisation

;
Epigenetic dolomitisation has affected all the limestones
in the Matlock- Wirkswortl;1.- Youlgrave area. They were first des-
cribed by Sorby (1879) who recognised original organic remains in
the limestone. The distribution was described by Parsons (1922) who
also produced a sketch map. The dolomitisation is concentrated
along a broad belt that closely follows the Bonsall Fault and Matlock
,
anticline (fig. 11). Other areas of dolomitisation also seem to be
associated with anticlinal structures, notably in the area west of
Wirksworth. This association seems to support Dunham.] 1952 b)
who suggested that the dolomitisation resulted fr-om downward move-
ment of magne sium- rich brines through a Namurian cover. . Such a
shale cover is likely to have been thinnest over anticlinal areas
allowing an easier downward movement of solutions.

xvi) Conclusions

There is insufficient data to produce a coherent account of

depositional environment for the Holkerian stage limestones in the
Matlock-Wirksworth- Youlgrave area. Two lithofacies can be recog-
nised the thinly-bedded dark oolitic limestones seen in the Matlock area
and the porcellaneous sometimes oolitic limestones exposed in the Via
Gellia and intersected in Middleton Mine Borehole. These were dep-
osited in tranquiL marine conditions and the paucity of macro-fossils
suggests that the limestones may have been deposited in hypersaline
conditions. The folding of the limestone in the Via Gellia indicates
that penecontemporaneous tectonic disturbance was taking place and
was possibly a local effect produced by a pr-otn-Bonsal.l Fault, The
numerpus
.'
erosion surfaces in the sequence implies that rates of
sedimentation were generally low. "
 79.

There was no clear break in -sedimentation at the end of the

Holke rdan, and the base ,of the Asbian cannot be defined in the area with
any degree of ce rtainty. It appears that the change from Griffe Grange
Beds to Hoptonwood Group limestones is a facies change and is likely
to be diachronous:

Deposition of the ,Asbian Limestones, the Hoptonwood Group,

and Bee Low Limestones was more or less continous. Extrusive
volcanicity is known for the first time at this horizon and a lava the
Lower Pump Station Toadstone was deposited in the north. Volcanic
activity is represented elsewhere by m~merous tuffs or clay wayboards.
Algal bands, crinoid ossicles and brachiopod remains in the Hoptonwood
Group suggest that marine conditions prevailed. The presence of
spotted or pseudobrecciated limestones may indicate that burrowing
was taking place in an environment with slow rates of sedimentation.

The end of Hoptonwood Group times is marked by extrusive

volcanicity with deposition of the Winster Moor Farm Lava and
Lower 129 fathom Toadstone in Millclose Mine. South of the Bonsall
Fault this relationship is not maintained and it appears that either:
(a) Hoptonwood Limestone facies deposition continued or, (b) a
substantial non- sequence occurs at the top of the Hoptonwood Lime-
stone. It is not possible to resolve this question without further
detailed palaeontological inve stigations. In areas north of the Bonsall
Fault a marked lithological break occurs at the end of the Asbian with
the appearance of darker limestones with Brigantian faunas.

The Brigantian Matlock Group and Monsal Dale Limestone is

characterised by fossiliferous pale grey pseudobrecciated limestone
which are frequently cherty in the upper parts. Dark thinly bedded
limestones and numerous lavas and tuffs are also present in the
Brigantian. Masson Hill seems to have been the major centre for the
extrusion of the lavas as they mostly appear to thicken towards it
A second volcanic centre may exist beneath Alport but the evidence
 ao.

for this is scant. During deposition of the Brigantian Limestones

penecontemporaneous folding accompanied deposition of the limestones.
The sequence exposed on Masson Hill lying on the crest of the Matlock
anticline are thinner showing strong evidence of bioturbation. Thicker

.
sequenceswith dark limestones are generally encountered away from
the principal anticline s as Millclose Mine and in Smarts Quarry Bore-
hole. Small local tectonic features superimposed on the Matlock
anticline also appear to have affected the pattern of sedimentation
"and thinner sections are recorded in boreholes and mine sections
situated on the anticlines. The numerous clay wayboards indicate
that sedimentation was not continuous and coal seams described by
Worley and Dorning (1977) demonstrate that terrestrial conditions
were established on volcanic islands.

A substantial break in deposition occurs at the base of the

Cawdor Group and Eyam Limestones and over 15 metres of limestone
were eroded from the Matlock Group in the Wirksworth area. Elsewher-e,
the unconformity is less severe and is marked by a thick, often
carbonaceous, clay wayboard resting on an erosional surface. Dep-
osition in the upper part of the Brigantian is characterised by the
development of reef knoll limestone with dark cherty and thinly-bedded
inter-reef facies.
 81

6. Regional correlations and geological history

The Dinantian limestones of the Southern Pennines were

deposited on a "basement It of Lowe r Palaezoic rocks. Caledonian
structures' are likely to be present in the basement rocks and the
interaction of these and Variscan orogenic activity controlled the
structural and stratigraphical evolution of the area.

Little is known of the earliest stages of Dinantian sediment-

ation on the shelf apart from the records of deep boreholes at Eyam
and Woodale. It is evident from these boreholes that only the reg-
ressive evapor-ite phase of the first Coure-eyan cycle of sedimentation
is present. Direct evidence of the age of the earliest sediments in the
gulfs has not been established due to lack of penetration by boreholes
and the date of subsidence in these areas cannot be defined. It can
be argued from the broad regional patterns of sedimentation in the
Central Province in the Carboniferous that the gulf areas, Widme rpool,
Edale and intervening massifs probably existed at the beginning of
Dinantian time s.

During the Chadian, Arundian and early Holkerian stages

greatly expanded thicknesses of dark limestones with evaporites
deposited on the eastern - central part of the massif,compared with
only 103 metres in the west in the Woodale bor-ehole, indicates that
more rapid subsidence was occurring on the eastern margins. Even
greater thicknesses of sediment accumulated in the gulf areas which also
have evaporites in marginal sabkha facies deposits. Analyses of
the se evaporite sequences on the margins of the gulfs reveals that
sedimentation was frequently cyclic.

Towards the end of the Holkerian gentle folding of the existing

limestones occurred in the north and the Peak Forest Dorre was probably
initiated. More rapid subsidence of the gulf areas possibly led to the
 DUFFI ElD BH
STRATIGRAPHICAL CORRELATIONS OF 01 NANTIAN ROCKS IN THE SOUTHERN PENNI NES
1.11 LlERS DALE MONYASH ELTON WI NSTE.R MILLCLOSE MATLOCK
ALPOR T 8H CASTlE70N BRAOWELL EYAM BH
St.v.nson & Ed.n A,tkf'nhf'od ChIsholm Trail!
Hudson & Cotton St@l'vflnSon & Gaunt Dunham

TUFF

TUFF

,"
~
~r-
-,~'/;\. t ,

.... '/
IBR'GANt~ .", .'.~

~ I
.,.", "" ... i::-;in::1<I--- I.'"
__ r.. + +
...
-+ +
MATLOCK
GP

~
LIMESTONES BRADFORD:.·.· -:
~c=-=
< DALE LAVA .
~.
r .: ............... "' '"...
144 PI LHOUGH
r

»»:
• • • • ~ MATLOCK
TURBIDITES

b )f:~,.......
................... 1' '" +
129 TDST lOWER
144 PUMP STA ••••••••• LAVA

WINSTER
~~~~jTDST :=:=:=:=:
"
0-
~,;/

\ / , \.
"~\ ...~
,- ,
MOOR FARM
LAVA
I I BEE LOW lST

"" ...............

«~:+:+
.
.: -, ::=::::::
-

~
TUFF "
•a \ \. ,.....
_
.
~
~--~.

~~
HOPTONwg~D II I I ~
b..::=::.r..::: "I.1
H
~
r----,
BEE LOW
LST
so ! Gl
c::
:::;:r;::::= ~
-----r-----
...,...0-...--.
I .
~

t L _;--'1 .....
W

roo METRES

SHELF < BASIN>

< BASIN :> E SHELF) ~h-~'I :>
BASI N
• lli
o EYAM & CAWDOR GP
cr:=:::I woo
~ GRIFFE
OAL E &
GRANGE BEDS

MATLOCK GP &
rr-I MONSAL DALE LST ~ BASIN FACIES lST
c:o SHELF FACIES

~ BASIN FACIES o
t=:-
REEF FACIES LST

ARUNDIAN CHADIAN AND COURCEYAN STRATA

INTERSECTED RESTING ON A LLANVIRN
~
BEE LOW LST
HOPTONWOOD GP
o BASALT lAVAS

BASEMENT AT 1803 M
 82.

development of the Castleton fault above which apron reef limestones

accumulated. It can b~ argued by analogy with Castleton that early
east-west faulting took place in the south beneath Yoke cliffe with
similar apron reef development. The massif continued to act as a
positive area throughout late Holkerian and Asbian times and typical
,
shelf facies limestones were deposited. Development of east-west
fault structures during this period on the margins of the shelf may
have been connected with initiation of an early east-west fold pattern
over much of the massif. Extrusive volcanicity in the form of basalt
lavas and tuffs appears in the Asbian on the massif. A number of
volcanic centres appear notably at Pindale, Taddington, and in the
Matlock area each of which was probably associated with a general
doming in these areas. The Millers Dale Lava. Pindale Tuff. and
Lower Pump Station Toadstone were all deposited at slightly different
times in the Asbian. Comparable thicknesses of basin facies sed-
iments amassed in .the gulf areas (fig. 13).
,.
A major sedimentary break occurred at the end of the Asbian
and general uplift of the northern and southern margins of the massif
was initiated. Knoll reefs developed behind the apron reef in the north
where a greatly attenuated succession of Brigantian strata were dep-
osited.indicating that subsidence was less rapid and intermittant. It
seems likely that apron reef development also ceased in this area at
the same time. More rapid subsidence took place in the Eyam area
where a local basin developed with thick deposits of dark limestones.
A similar basin development developed beneath the Ashford area
associated with a proto-Priestcliffe syncline and large thicknesses of
basin facies limestones accumulated. There is some evidence to
sugge st that both the Lathkill and Stanton syncline s also in existance
by Brigantian times as thinner accumulations of basin facies limestone
are known in these areas.

In the basin or gulf areas to the south of the massif large

thicknesses of mudstones with turbidites were deposited in the Widmer-
 83.

pool gulf (~ig. 13).: however in the northern ba sin, the Edale gulf, less
rapid subsidence is reflected in athinne r succession.

Volcanic activity is more evident during the Brigantian and

.
often marked the onset of this stage. The Millers Dale Upper Lava,
Lower 129 fathom Toadstone and Winster Moor Farm Lava were the
first flows to be deposited all lying approximately on the same horizon.
Large later flows include the Matlock Lower Lava, in the south and
even higher stratigraphically the Shacklow Wood and Cressbrookdale
Lavas. Doming or up-folding is often associated with the main vol-
canic centres notably at Masson Hil1 6 .on the Matlock ant icl.ine, and'
at Calton Hill on the Taddington anticline. North south folding is
associated with a vent near Bakewell which formed the centre for
a flow equivalent to the Conksbury Bridge Lava exposed in Lath-
kffldale, (figs 7 & 8).

Major uplift occurs towards the end of the Brigantian. This

uplift becomes most pronounced in the south where much of the Mat-
lock Group was eroded and Cawdor Limestones overstep onto Asbian
Hoptonwood Limestones. In the central area in the Ashford basin,
however, deposition appears to have been continuous and no break
has been observed. Some penecontemporaneous folding occurred
during deposition of the Eyam and Cawdor Groups with the devel-
opment of .he Monyash and Wardlow basins, and Longstone monocline.
Knoll reef limestones grew upon an eroded Matlock Monsal Dale Lime-
stone surface and were probably initially developed on topographical
highs. Sedimentation was continuous in the gulf areas with thicker
sequences deposited to the south in the Widmerpool gulf. Reef growth
appears to have ceased towards the end of the Brigantian as rates of'
subsidence increased and mudstones were deposited.

By the end of the Brigantian major diastrophic activity led

to continuous tectonic activity along established structural lines and
some local erosion took place especially in the north. Subsidence and
 84.

transgression followed and the Derbyshire massif was rapidly buried

by deposition of the Namur-ian shale.

i) Post-Dinantian Geological History

It is lmown that during the Upper Carboniferous the gulf

areas continued to subside more rapidly than the massifs. Isopachytes
drawn by Ramsbottom (1967) indicate that a condensed 300 to 600
metres of Namurian sediments accumulated and 1200 to 1000 metres
of Westphalian. Thus a combined maximum of 1 6 kilometres of
Upper Carboniferous sediments cove red the Lower Carboniferous
Limestone Massif.

A period of folding took place at the end of the Carbonife rous

and imposed the final major structures upon the area accentuating
the existing monocline s and faults.

Uplift at the end of the Carboniferous period followed by

Permian erosion must have stripped large amounts of Upper Carbon-
iferous cover. The Upper Permian Zechstein sea probably covered
much of the Southern Pennines and saline Mg - rich brines migrated
through a thinned shale cove rand do1omitised much of the lime stone
in the Matlock area.

Little is known of the ensuing Mesozoic sedimentation but

the removal of the PermianLimestone and Triassic Sandstones by early
Tertiary fluviatile erosion is Iikcly.a s representatives of these deposits
are common preserved in later Tertiary (Pliocene) solution collapse
structures. Many of the Tertiary sand filled collapse pockets rest
on an Upper Carboniferous shale layer. Laterly Pleistocene glacial
and periglacia1fiuvia1 erosion has incised the limestone areas of the
Southern Pennines depositing acr-ee s, sand s, g ravel s, and boulder
clays.
 85. '

7. Structure

The structures developed in the Southern Pennines were

first described by Fearnsides (1932 and 1933). He recognised that
the Southe~n Pennines were dome-like in structure with superimposed
east-west fold structures giving the eastern margin of the limestone
outcrop its indented pattern. Gibson and Wedd (1913) recognised the
presence of north- south minor folds crossing the main east-west
trending Matlock anticline, but did not extend their work to other
parts of the lime stone outcrop.

More detailed structural interpretation was carried out on

the eastern side of the Southern Pennines by Shirley and Horsfield
(1940 and 1945) and Shirley (1959). Notes on the structures in the
Wye Valley were added by Cope (1933 and 1937). Shirley and Horsfield
(1945 p 299 fig. 2) used structural contours based on the Orionastrea
placenta horizon to illustrate the structure of the Eyam district. The
Hucklow Edge anticline and Longstone Edge monocline, and Wardlow
basin were delineated thereby.

The structure of the Matlock- Wirksworth area was portrayed

using the same analytical technique; this revealed the presence of the
Long Rake anticline, Stanton syncline, Middleton Moor anticline, and
Matlock anticline. A number of smaller structures crossing the
Matlock anticline were also contoured. The Bonsall fault was recognised
as a division between two areas of different structural character with
the area to the south being dominated by Graben tectonics which include
the Gulf fault (fig. l4) Shirley recognised that the present fold structure
were initiated during the Brigantian, citing the Stanton syncline as an
example. A major unconformity at the base of the Cawdor Group was
stated to ~e a manife station of persistent uplift in the south around
Wirksworth, that occurred throughout Brigantian times.
 FIGURE 14

10
20 Ant.
Hope Valley
Anticline

10
eo
SYNCLINE

HUCk/ow,Edge Vein Ant. Q _

HUCk/ow Edge Monocline

"'..., 0£01\<
)J,I/f;c/'
Ine

,Chesterfield )J,nt.
'e ---.....

CHATSWORTH
70
SYNCLINE

So 50

Key Anticline
tL
II
"

~~==:i_,,"=::i_-==-_=~Kilometres
MAIN fOLDS
of the
--~... Syncline SOUTO PEUUIfJE OnEflUD
'i._":::=:::iI__c==-_.5 Mil e s
V '-' Reef Belt
V Limestone
~ Boundary
10 20 30 N J 0 BUTCHER Sept 75
 86.

The structure of the northe rn part of the area was covered

in Stevenson and Gaunt (1971). They summarised the tectonic history
as follows:-

1) Holkerian. Broad uplift north of Peak Forest

heralding 2).

2) Asbian. Strong progressive uplift in the

Castleton reef belt; inferred B PI faulting
2
at Pindale.

3) Brigantian. Local uplift in marginal areas

in a broad zone, leading to the formation of
knoll reefs. Some strong local erosion giving
non- sequence s,

4) Pre-Eyam Limestone. Angular break in

marginal areas possible non- sequences
elsewhere. Emergence near Longstone
Edge anticline.

5) Late Eyam Limestone. Strong unconformity

at the base of the Namurian shales. Emergence
or near emergence of the salient of lime stone
near Mam Tor.

Butcher (1976) de scribed the folding and faulting within the

Southern Pennine. Orefield (fig. 14). The basic fold pattern is one of
interference of three basic trends; (a) Norih- south developed on the
west side of the area (b) Northwest to southeast developed around
Wirksworth. (c) East-west developed down the eastern side of the
Southern Pennines. These trends can be related to similar structures
observed and described by Butcher in the surrounding coalfields.
However, he found that the axial traces of the folds cannot be clearly
followed into the equivalent coal field structures, as originally suggested
by Fearnsides (1933).
 87.

Three phases of folding occurred.. beginning in mid-Dinantian

times and five phases of uplift were recorded but these were not
related chronologically to the stratigraphical evolution of the area.

Butcher also produced a map showing the distribution of

.
faults and mineral veins and their relationships to folding. Two
types of fold-related fault occur; (a) the reverse fault associated
with east-west asymmetrical anticlines and monoclines such as
the Longstone Edge monocline and Yokecliffe 'monocline (b) the
normal fault related to post-compressional relaxation of anticlines
for example Moss Rake.. Dirtlow Rake. This latter type of fal lting
is probably a result of Lower Carboniferous\N"amurian tectonic
activity and later movements associated with the mineralization have
occurred The areal distribution of trends of folds and faults des-
cribed by Butcher were attributed to the influence of basement
structures deduced by Maroof (1974 and 1976) from gravity geophysical
studies. These investigations led to the subdivision of the Southern
Pennine Orefield into four bloc ks, a northern, centr-al.. southern..
and southwestern which acted as graben and horst type structures.
The central area Bakewell acted as a graben and is characterised by
a large number of folds. Upfaulted horst areas lie to the north and
south ie. Castleton - Hucklow Edge and Matlock- Wirksworth. These
areas have less folding with a thinner sedimentary cover. The fourth
area to the southwest is highly folded and acted as a downward moving
north- south graben structure.
 PART III

STRATIGRAPffiCAL DISTRIBUTION AND TEX-

TURES OF THE MINERAL DEPOSITS OF THE
SOUTHERN PENNINE OREFIELD
 88•
•

1 .Introduction

The following chapter presents the results and conclusions

from an extensive underground and surface survey of the mineral
deposits of the Southern Pennines. Details concerning the strati-
graphical position of the mineral deposits, stratigraphical controls
on mineralisation, ore textures, and paragenesis have been collated
and presented in the form of a series of maps and diagrams. The
stratigraphical distribution of the mineral deposits is described and
related to the lithofacies and stratigraphical changes outlined in
part II •.

Most research has been devoted to a study of the stratiform

pipe and flat veins and the preliminary interpretations of this type
of deposit by Ford (1969) have been updated and applied to other deposits.

The replacement deposits of the Southern Pennine Orefield

comprise stratabound fissure veins, or rakes, and replacement
deposits known as pipes and flats. An examination of the strati-
graphical distribution of the se deposits has shown that the pale or
shelf facies Brigantian Limestones are the most favourable for the
development of replacement and transgressive deposits. Within
these horizons other lithological features control the distribution
of the deposits. These include lavas, tuffs, prominent bedding places,
abundance of stylolite seams, potholed erosion surfaces, shell beds,
cherty bands, reefs, pseudobrecciated limestones, clay wayboards,
and shale beds.

The distribution of the shelf facies limestones is at least

partly controlled by the development of penecontemporaneous anticlines.
Thinner sequences of shelf facies limestone being deposited over the
anticlinal areas and passing laterally into thicker sequences of dark
basinal facies lime stones, in the synclinal areas.
 89.

The favourable lithologies within the shelf areas include

limestones 'which are more porous and permeable than the compact
shaley basinal facie s lime stone s and hence are more favourable for
the development of mineral deposits. Tensional fracture systems
are also more strongly developed on the limestones of the anticlinal
areas and the coincidence of favourable lithology and fracture systems
has led to the location of most of the deposits on anticlinal areas.
 90•
•

a) Government Sponsored Research

The earliest government sponsored research on the mineral

deposits was by Pilkington (1789) who distinguished three main types
of depoait, pipe ve ins, flats and rake veins. Farey (1811) included
an extensive list of known mine s and noted their stratigraphical
position. Twentyone pipe veins were recorded by him but only three
fiats were described. A numerical analysis of the veins ledFl.:.rey to
conclude that the uppermost limestones were the most pr-oductive, and
that mineralisation only rarely occurred in basalts or shales. The
term 'bearing me asur-e s ', originally an old miners term was used by
Farey for those limestone beds which were most product Ive,

Green et al, (1887) provided a detailed description of many

of the mines and mineral deposits. They were the first to recognise
that many of the pipe veins acted as water courses and that the earlier
mineral fill had been partly removed by erosion. The favourability of
certain limestone horizons owing to "their greater solubility" were
described in relation to the development of pipe veins. Farey's
hypothesis that most of the productive mineral veins occurred in
the upper most limestone beds was amplified.

Increasing industrial activity and the importance of fluor-

spar in steel manufacture led to the publication of the first Fluorspar
Memoir by Carruthers et al, (1913). The distribution of fluorspar
mineralisation was briefly covered but descriptions were limited and
confined to known and working deposits.

Some details concerning the mineralisation in the Matlock-

Wirksworth area were added in Gibson and Wedd (1913) but this memoir
appears to have been heavily based upon Green et al, (1887). Lead and
Zinc deposits were described by Carruthers and Strahan (1923) which
 91
"

included valuable descriptions of activity in Magpie Mine.

Fluorspar again was the subject of a mineral resources

memoir (Dunham 1952a) which gave a more detailed account of
the occur-rence, stratigraphical distribution and petrography of
,
fluorspar mineralisation. A description of the Golconda Mine,
Brassington, and Portway Mine, Elton, we re included in the
Wartime Pamphlet on barytes (Dunham and Dines 1946).

The only recent Institute of Geological Sciences publications

on the distribution of mineralization occurs in the form of short
notes added to the Memoirs on Chapel en Ie Fr-ith, (Stevenson and
Gaunt 1971) and Che ste r-fie ld, Matlock and Mansfield (Smith et al, 1967).

b) Other Geological Research

The first general description of the types of mineral deposits

found in the Southern Pennines appeared in the Miners Dictionary
(Hooson 1747) which recognised the occurrence of pipes, rakes flats,
and scrins. More information about the various types of minerals
found in Derbyshire was provided by Mawe (1802), which also des-
cribed the nature of some deposits.

Watson (1811) showed by means of geological cross sections

the stratigraphical distribution of some of the mineral deposits. Many
of the mines were also noted by Stokes (1879 published 1880-81) who
produced the first accurate vein map; but his review tended to dwell
on the laws governing the working of the mines.

It was not until the late 19th century that a detailed description
of a mineral deposit was published by Parsons (1897) on the Mi11close
Mine. He described the first paragenetic sequence and recognised that
the deposit occurred in the form of transgressive veins with caverns
(= pipes) containing broken rock and ore. He considered that these
 92.

provided much of the 'lead ore. The rising importance of fluorspar

as an industrial mineral prompted Wedd and Drabble (1908) to conside r
the distribution of fluorite in Derbyshire. They held the opinion that
most of the deposits occurred in the upper 600 feet of limestone and
that the greatest concentr-atlons were in the uppermost 300 to 400 feet.
These authors were the first to recognise that an east west zonal
arrangement of the gangue mine rals was evident, which they
attributed to a form of stratigraphical" control

Stuckey (1917) also descr-ibed the Millclose Mine and drew

the first geological section through the m ine, showing that the mine
. lay above the Matlock Upper Lava. Millclose was also the subject of
Varvill's (1937) description of mining practice in the Pennine Orefields.
He classified- the deposits into those that were tr-ansgre ssfve, and
those deposits that were formed by dissolution of wallrocks. This
latter class included flats~ pipe s, and wing deposrts, which according
to Varvill were stratabound deposits whose distribution was controlled
by impervious strata such as tuff's, Iava s, and shale beds. Certain
types of limestone beds in Millclose Mine were considered favourable
to the development of pipe vein cavities and were generally grey to
pale grey thickly bedded limestones.

Traill (1939 and 40) summarised the developmental histo ry,

miner-alfsation, and stratigraphy of the Millclose Mine. His attention
was particularly drawn to the occurrence of favourable ore-bearing
limestones. He carried out chemical analysis in order to distinguish
these limestones but his results showed that a favourable limestone
bed had a similar chemical composition to one considered to be un-
favourable. Trail! concluded that mineralisation was produced by a
series of ascending solutions whose direction of flow was controlled
by impervious st rata, faults, and joints, compar-ing them with the
"manto" deposits of Mexico.

The future of lead - zinc mining was considered in Williams

 93.

(1940) who recognised the importance .of stratigraphical controls

over the dfstr-ibutton of mineralisation. He advocated a search
beneath the concealing Upper Carboniferous rocks to the east of
the orefield for further ore-bodies.

Structural analysis of mapping in the Eyam - Stoney Mid-

dleton area by Shirley and Horsfield (1945) showed that many of the
major fissure veins occurred along or adjacent to the crests of
anticlinal structures. An early phase of pre-mineralisation
cavernisation was thought to be related to the Dinantian - Namurian
unconformity.

The advent of diamond drill exploration methods led to their

application in the search for extensions of Great Rake at Matlock
beneath the shale by Johannesburg Consolidated Mines. described
by Dennison and Varvill (1953). Schnellmann and Willson (1950) and
Schnellmann (1955) summarised the geology of the Huckl.ow Edge
vein sy ste m, based on exploratory work carried out the English
Lead Mines Exploration Ltdc , They concluded that anticl.inal areas
east of the present limestone outcrop should be explored as they may
contain concealed lead - zinc mineralisation. Williams (in
Schnellmann and Willson 1950) again drew attention to the fact that
certain limestone strata were more favourable to the development
of replacement orebodies than others. This he considered was not
due to the original porosity or permeability but the response of
these rocks to mechanical pressure by fracturing. He suggested
that fine-grained rocks would only fracture under tension and ore
would only occur in them as space fillings. whereas medium-
grained limestones would probably fail by tension and shear-ing, giving
rise to an intimately shattered rock susceptible to mine ralization
by open space filling and replacement. Schne Ilrnann and Willson
(1950 in reply to Williams p 582) commented that "there is nothing
intrinsically to distinguish a favourable from an unfavourable lime
stone." and concluded that the blanketing effect of the shales and
toadstoncs was more important.
 FIGURE 15
10 "S io zs 10 JS

THE ZONING OF THE HYDROTHERMAL MINERAL DEPOSITS

OF DERBYSHIRE
, s
AFTER G. MUELLER

N 10

7$

o
I
2
!
3
I
'10

61

ASHOVER

eRICH
/('1\1,1
. I

.1
" ';? l
" lJ...I ''-
I"
I I~

20

.-" Lower Carboniferous

r" limestone-shale boundary
t(!i;.'f; 'Purple fluorite" zone

~ Hydrothermal veins and pipes ii1f1lll 'Bcritic" zone

,~':
,111rm 'Pyritic fluorite" zone /', ',',' 'Pyritic calcite" zone

L~~ 'Bradwell spar" zone ... :-:::~:::~ 'Ecton type" mineralisation

'0 ,I
 94. ,

Mueller's work on the distribution of the coloured varieties

of fluorite (Mueller 1954a
. and 1954b) led
.
him to refine the mineral
zonation. He established the following sub - zone s, Bradwell
fluorite.. pyritic calcite, purple fluorite, and pyritic-fluorite (fig. 15).
Mueller concluded from a study of the hydrocarbon contents in the
0
fluorite crystals that a temperature in the vicinity of 300 C. for
the formation of the ore- deposits was likely.

The first thorough description of a Derbyshire pipe vein

was presented by Ford (1955) who described the Treak Cliff Pipe
-in his account of the Blue John variety of fluorite. Ford noticed
how the pipe consisted of a series of interconnecting cavities which
reach 1 3 metres in diameter lined with purple and colourless
fibrous fluorite. Many of the cavities are developed adjacent to
prominent parting surface s in the reef lime stone in which the
._..deposit occurs.

E1. Shazly et al, (1957) presented the results of trace element

analysis of sphalerites and galenas from the United Kingdom, which
_--included some samples from Matlock, Millclose.. and Ashove r, This
showed that the galena was defficient (5 - 50 ppm) in silver and most
other trace elements compared with other U. K. samples: but con-
tained high antimony (500 - 1000 pprr.), Analyses of sphalerites at
Millclose gave Cadmium values of up to l~o. . . .

The future of lead - zinc mining was summarised in Varvill

..{1959) who postulated that the rich lead deposits in the Southern
"
Pennines lay along a series of northwest - southeast trending belts.
He recommended eastward continuat.ion of these as exploration
targets beneath the shale cover.

U~ing the Lead Isotope ratio method Moorbath (1962) deduced

. that the mineralisation occurred at two periods.. one at 280 my (~ 20rny)
+ .
and 180 my (- 40 my).. Ford (I9Gl) revtewed the distribution of the
 95.

mineral deposits in the Peak District and concluded that by analogy

with Dunham's Northern Pennine zones that solutions derived from
a cooling granite was the, most likely source of the mineralization.
However, he noted that this gr-anite intrusion was not known. Ford
and Sargeant (1964) listed a hundred or so minerals that have been
reported or recorded in the Peak District including the hypogene
alteration products of lead and zinc sulphides.

The baryte pipes worked from the Golconda mine, Bras-

sington, containing laminated baryte - galena - calcite deposits in
the bases of cavities were considered by Ford and King (1965) and
King (1966) to have resulted from downward movement of mineral-
bearing solutions during the Permo - Trias. The laminae developed
within this type of deposit was regarded as quasi sedimentary in
origin.

In a comparative article Dunham (1967) described the deposits

of the Southern Pennines likening them to those occurring in the
Mississippi Valley.

More details were added by Ford (1969) on the laminated

deposits in the floors of pipe vein cavities which also showed replace-
ment margins at Treak Cliff Mine. The laminae were considered to
be a calcite rhomb - fluorite sediment in which quartz needle s
replaced both fluorite and calcite authi .genically.

Wall - rock alteration haloes adjacent to veins were described

by Ineson (1969) in the Eyam area. The trace elements Zr and F were
shown to have obeyed a logarithmic depletion away from the vein in
Ladywash Mine and certain trace elements were also found to be con-
centrated beneath volcanic tuff horizons. However on Longstone Edge
at Sallet Hole Mine dispersion aureoles were more restricted with
a 5 feet wide diffusion aureole. : other concentrations occurred at
15 and 38 feet. Parageneti.c studies were also made on the Raper Mine,
 ------------~---~"~--------~===~

96•
..

Long Rake, near Youlgrave, by Ine son ami Al Kufaishi (1970), who
found that repented phase s of fault i-ig and brecciation, alternated
with successive generations of fluorite, baryte, and galena..

The fluorite potential of the Southern Pennines was revised

in Ford and Ineson (1973) who advocated a number of targets for
future exploration, largely in areas of concealed limestone beneath
the shale cove r,

A reappraisal of the distribution of non- metallic gangue

minerals was made by Firman and Bagshawe (1974). They recognised
an early phase of calcite mineralization which was overlapped by
later fluor-ite mineralization, and found that major faults may have
acted as hydrological barriers during mineralisation.

Paragenetic and textur-al studies on the Masson fluorite

deposit (Ixer ~974) showed a complex sequence of mineralization
with bravoite crystals occurring as inclusions within fluorite
crystals.

Worley and Beck (1975) described the geology of the Moor-

furlong Mine noting that an early phreatic system of mineralised
cavities was cut across by later Pleistocene solution and that alluvial
or placer deposits of fluorite, baryte, and galena occurred in sed-
iments of possible fluvioglacial origin. The fluorite replacements
flats associated with the pipe vein were shown to be lithostrati-
graphically controlled, being largely developed in pale grey stylolitic
crinoidallimestones.

The influence of various lithological and di.age ne t ic fabrics

upon the distribution of mineralization in the Blende Vein Pipe of
Magpie Mine, Sheldon, described by Worley (1976) who found that
porous reef limestones were the most favourable lithology for the
development of pipe vein cavities.
 97•
..

The types of mineral deposit found in the Southern Pennine

Orefield are summarised in fig. 17. These include the transgressive
fissure veins or rakes, and the stratabound pipes and flats which are
generally confined to certain favourable lithostratigraphical horizons.

j) Transgressive deposits

The transgressive veins are known as rakes and scrins. Gen-

erally these are cross-cutting mineralised high angle faults which
usually show evidence of transcurrent or wrench type movements. Ver-
tical displacements across these faults are generally small and in places
indeterminable. The terms "rake" and "vein" are inte r-changable, often
being used for the same deposit ego Hucklow Edge Vein or Rake. Some
of the larger rakes extend for a strike length of over 9 km s, and may
attain widths of 40 metres, but 1 to 2 metres is more usual Collect-
ively transgressive deposits are the most abundant type of deposit
found in the area.

The distribution of the major veins has been analysed by

. Butcher (1976) (fig. l6) which has shown that there is a dominant east-
west trend but other trends, northeast - southwest, northwest-south-
east and north - south are locally important. Scrins are the miners'
term for mineralised joints and do not normally exceed 10 cm s in width.

Simple columnar cavity infilling texture s are usually developed

in veins but these are often complicated by post - mineralisation fault
brecciation, and wall - rock replacement. Solution cavities are often
developed in the cheeks of fissure veins and are similar in character
to those contained in pipe S.
 98.

ii) Stratabound Deposits

a. Pipes

The "pipe veins" are strata - bound deposits generally

confined to' certain beds of limestone. They consist of a series
individual cavities (plate 21 fig. 1) sometimes 3 metres in diameter
but O. '5 metres is more common. The cavities are connected by a
series of mineralised joints known as pipe leaders; when the leader
is mineralised it is known as live, but when unmineralised is referred
to as barren.

The base of the pipe vein is generally called the sole, the
upper margins the roe! and the sides of the pipes are known as skirts.
Most pipe veins occur as linear structures and may attain lengths of
three kms. for example at Millclose Mine, but it is more common to
find them less than one km, in length. Widths are highly variable but
do not exceed O. 5 km s, and are normally much less than this.

The cavities are generally infilled with columnar calcite or

fluorite interlayered with baryte, galena, sphalerite, or more rarely
pyrite, (plate 11 fig. 1 and plate 21 fig. 1). Commonly the limestone
'walls of' the cavitie s show extensive wall - rock replacement which
often takes the form of a laminated monomineralic rock (plate 11 fig. ]
and 2).

Later karst processes have solutionally enlarged many of the

pipe veins and this has led to solutional collapse and the formation of
alluvial or placer deposits. These deposits consist of jumbled masses
of limestone blocks, laminated silts, and mineral gravels often con-
sisting of fluorite, calcite, and baryte with rounded fragments of galena.

b. Flats and hadings

 99.

A ".flat" is a mining term used for cavity lining deposits

developed along solutionally enlarged bedding plane s. Flats often
occur in association with pipe vein cavities and a gradation occurs
,
between the two. The dimensions of flats are generally smaller than
pipes, the'thickness rarely exceeding O. 3 metres.

Mineral textures developed are largely similar to those in

pipes; however, true wall - rock replacements often occur along
favourable lithological horizons and this type of flat is distinguished
by the absence o~ columnar cavity lining textures. A special type of
flat known as a ',hading' occurs at one locality, on Longstone Edge.
This type of deposit has not been examined widely in the field as both
underground and surface exposures are sparse. Studies from old
photographs have shown that they are developed in thinly bedded lime-
stones and dip steeply being developed on the monoclinal fold; hence
the term 'hading'. The deposits occur along bedding planes which do
not show evidence of solutional enlargement. It is likely that the bed-
ding planes were forced apart during compression on the Longstone
Edge monocline (fig. 14) and were later filled with mineral material.

Comparable deposits have recently been worked on the western

end of Longstone Edge on the southern facing limb of the monocline.
 FIGURE 16

25 30 35

80
N

~L
II 75

•I ,
Mlle~

I I
i i i
0 1 2 3
Kilometres
70

15 65

./
Bulltotr••

30

VE INS OF THE PEAK DISTRICT

 TYPES OF M INERAL DEPOS I T AND TEXTUR ES I N THE SOUTHERN PENN I NE OREF I ELD

TRAN SGR ESS I VE STRATA BO UND CA V IT Y F I L lI NGS OR P I PE S

S imp le ca v it y f i l l or
F issur e ve in or ra ke p ipe v ei n

Co m p le x p ip e w it h ba s al c ha n ne l fill s
a nd pseudo- b e d d e d ca v i ty floor replacem e n t

'"':1
H
G)
'~IIlD:
. r:rt9.4:0
. . JIIll11Tf.ccrIDrrJ:t~~ c:
~
l-'
Bedd i ng p i a ne c o n t r oll ed cavi ty o r f l at -..J

STRATA BOU ND REPLA C EMENT S --- 'w i t h pseudo -bedded re p l acement

So lut io n co l lapse w ith ce m e n t a t i o n

Jo i nt contro ll e d B e d d in g pl an e contro l led fl a t of l i m e st on e or basa l t bl o c k s by
l at e r mi n er ali z a ti o n

,1!lf~i
A ll uv ia l or p lacer depos it
i n so l ut i ona l l y e n l arged
p ipe v e in w ith sp e l eoth em
r
cover i ng

N EW 1976
 100.

3. The Castleton Broadwell Area

The Castleton - Bradwell area is traversed by many powerful

west- southwest trending fissure veins. These include Odin vein, Horse
Stones Rake, New Rake, Dirtlow Rake, Moss Rake, Shuttle Rake, and
Earl Rake (fig. 18). For much of their length these veins bear calcite
with baryte, fluorite, and galena. Moss Rake has been mined opencast
for calcite, baryte and fluorite recently, and fluorite is also mined
from Shuttle Rake.

Most of the fluorspar production is currently won from a series

of pipe veins and other replacement type or-ebodte s, at Smalldale,
Hazlebadge, and Jeffrey Lane" (fig. 4). A small amount of fluorite
is worked for ornamental purposes at Treak Cliff Mine Castlet on.

Studies have been carried out on the deposits at Smalldale,

Moorfurlong, Moss Rake, Jeffrey Lane, Treak Cliff" and Shuttle Rake.

i) Treak Cliff Mine Fipe

Treak Cliff Mine (fig. 19) has worked a pipe vein trending
northeast- southwest and has been described by Ford (1955 and 1969).
The deposit lies partly in the apron reef limestones of Asbian age with
mineralisation occurring in the limestone boulder bed beneath the
Namurian Edale Shale. Mineralization also occurs in karstic solution
caves beneath the boulder bed, presumably of mid-Carboniferous age.

The limestones are massive grey and shelly with stromatactis

cavities. Large parting surfaces about 4 metres apart are conspicuous
underground.

Mineralisation consists almost entirely of the variety of

fluorite known as Blue John which is a deep purple colour with paler"
 UN 14
TREAK
ClIFF
83
w/fi
~pcedwd Mine
•
Giants
ttJ(c

I'Jj
H
g
£g
t-'
CD

Skdch map of lead Veins

81
near Casttdon.

~ ~
•
~
, T Mile ,

12 14 15

-,
.: () '.
 101

purple and colourless bands. The fluorite has a radiate habit. and
lines a series of cavities attaining sizes of up to L 3 metres in dia-
meter. The deposit in the mine extends approximately 122 metres
in length and reaches nearly 40 metres in width but outcrops extend
well beyond this. Secondary minerals include limonite, pyrolusite,
malachite; cerussite and pyrite. Pyrite sometimes occurs as in-
clusions within the fluorite crystals (Ford 1954).

At the bases of some of the cavities Ford noted that the

limestone is replaced by purple fluorite adopting a laminated texture
{plate 8 fig. 1). These replacement selvages are usually only a few
centimetres thick but may reach over O. 3 metres in some places.
Fossil fragments such as crinoid ossicles and brachiopod shells often
remain unreplaced and stand out against the deep purple fluorite.

Some cavities are also developed within the pre-Namurian

conglomerate known as the boulder bed. Laminated fluorite replace-
ments also occur within this bed and Ford (1969) considered that it
was in part a sedimentary infill consisting of calcite rhomb - fluorite
accumulation in which quartz needles protrude from a metasomatic
quartz. replacement selvage.

A number of lithofacies controls on the distribution of miner-

alised cavities is evident in the Treak Cliff deposit. Cavities frequently
develop adjacent to bedding planes which are often stylolitic, and wall -
rock replacement is usually more strongly developed in the coarser
shelly limestones. The boulder bed, by virtue of its po ro slty, is also
a favourable horizon for the development of replacement and cavity-
fill mineralisation.

ii) Other pipes in tl~Castleton area

A number of other pipe veins are known to occur in the

Castleton area. They include Old Tor :pipe,
.
Windy Knoll Pipe,
~
 ODIN MINE and TREAK CLIFF
N MAPA TOR
CASTLETON
SHOWING VEINS, CAVES and BLUE JOHN DEPOSITS

?' 2,00 1Z~;:po e.o~a '900 're

, , ,,-
, I

,
,,

~
1,,', , ~

~
~
~f1uorspar0.;)/ _kll\CJ

In 1940,

/ / , ;.. :.~~ ••e-,

• tI''''

,':"T-REAI<
.....~ ...

~.....~~,
",:~. CLIFF "'~,
,y , '{,
" \'

------- .. ... ~
---\-~
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I
,, .,. . . a , ;'1,'::0 \\
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.: ~
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......' ,:
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~.
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.... ~~ -~ ~\' \\
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.....•.:....:,.
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TREAI<
--~ -.:- ,:~;.
.'t ~
.....01·" -.- I;. ~- _ I-'

."'" t(l
TREAI<

C' i JOua"y a ~~=

~

....
'

__
~ ~ 1~, .. _
-J
_. "7 CLIFF " ~"-=
1·:.- · -.: :-.-
': ..-
.... C'
.p /' : ' , Windy knol CAVERN ~t~~o/~~

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.-. :;""tndt :
£0 •

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Q.. tJ
t<nnll '\I ~ca ...
, :)... ~
tilIt

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....- •• Cliff Blue
I . • '. (::

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~ 'winnoJ. =t. t .· I Veins

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'V
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:;: :.:.-.:.:~:
..........-...
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: : ;,.
..... . ....' - ~
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....- ,~,
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.. =C::'iCfe • __ --. -s-: t"..

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..... "". . -,- ' ,....
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,;:.'
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L

I I.
 102.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 7.

Fig. I Pipe vein cavity mineralisation, Smalldale Cpencast,

Bradwell The sample represents the basal floor section
of a typical pipe vein cavity. The floor of the cavity con-
sists of partially silicified pale grey micrite, and is in-
filled by baryte, columnar fluorite, and scalenohedral
calcite. Later fluorite mineralisation has partially
replaced the calcite.

.Fig. 2 Fluorite replacement of reef facies Eyam Limestone,

Jeffrey Lane replacement, Bradwell
Polished slab of typical fluorite replacement of Eyam
Lime stone reef facies. The original texture of the reef
limestone is, clearly recognisable; silicified brachiopod
she Ils stand out against the fine grained darke r grey
fluorite. Late r coarse granular fluorite appears to
replace the earlier fine- grained fluorite.
 =

PLATE 7

FIG 1

FI G 2
 l03~

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 8

Fig. 1 Blue John Fluorite replacement, Treak curr, Castleton.

Coarse granular purple fluorite alternating with layers of
ffue grained silicified limestone al.locherns, which include
crinoid ossicles and brachiopod shells. The laminated
texture developed parallel to the floor of the cavitie s
representirrg a series of replacement fronts.

Fig. 2 Laminated fluorite textur-e, Nether Fear Mine, Bradwell

A small cavity which has developed by solutional enlargement
of a bedding plane in a coarse crinoidal bdo spar-r-udite, is
lined with early columnar clear calcite. Later laminated
mauve fluorite has developed by either replacement of the
limestone walls
,
or by infilling in the form of
.
sedimentary
fluorite.

Fig. 3 "Throstle breasted" fluor-ite, baryte quartz, replacement.

Hancock Shaft, Watergrove Pipe.
Fine grained grey fluor-Ite, baryte, and microcrystalline
quartz intergrowth. The sample was collected from the
base of a series of large calcite filled cavities representing
laminated replacement texture.
 P LAT E 8

o L" 111t l ll p t r l .... ~)

L J

F'I~ 1

oI Centimetres 5
I I I

FIG 2

o Centimetres 5
I I I

F'IG 3
 r' -'-"Z'TQ

1'04.

Rock Pipe, and Longcliffe Pipe (fig. 18).

The Old Tor Pipe is still accessible its entrance lying in the
side of the Winnats Pass, and is developed in Asbian reef facies lime-
stones. Cavities are lined with alternating bands of fluorite and baryte
,
known as 'hatterel' (Ford 1954 p, 41) associated with scaJenohedral
calcite. The cavities often develop along prominent bedding planes
within the lime stone s,

Waterhole Pipe has been intersected by the Blue John 1Hne

and is essentially similar to the karst cavities of Treak Cliff, but it is
below the boulder bed. Pipes are known from old records in the
Castleton area and some of these include the Rock Pipe and Longcliff
Pipe (fig. 18). These pipes appear on old mine plans and are
associated with Faucet Rake. They are no longer accessible and
little is known of them but it appears from the geological map that
they are situated within the shelf facies Asbian Limestones.

iii) Sln;,al1dal~~pe

The Smalldale Pipe trends northwest- southeast (fig. 4) and

extends for approximately 500 metres attaining a width of about 50
metres. Towards the southeast the pipe is known as Moorfurlong Pipe.
A number of northeast-trending fissure veins inter-sect the pipe at
right angles and these include Long Rake and Nether Long Rake (fig. 20).

The vein is being worked by opencast methods from three

quarries, Upper Smalldale Quarry, Lower Smalldale Quarry, and
Nether Fear Mine (fig.. 20). Little has been published about this
deposit but Stevenson and Gaunt (1971) noted that a pipe vein outcr-opped
at Smalldale and was developed in coarse crinoidal limestone. Other
brief accounts appear in Mason (1973 p. 18) who described the depo s it
as a pipe with pre-mineralisation pillow - shaped cavities develope d
in coarsely crinoidallimestone infilled with mauve fluorite, and galena.
r'

A MAP SHOWI NG THE MI NES I N THE SMALLOALE AREA

A.P.C.M.
QUARRY

NORTH

....,
I-l
G)
C
~
l\J
o

SCALE
o

"14J~ "10.
 105.

Detailed mapping in the quarries has shown that the orebody

lies within a sequence of back-reef facies lime stones. These consist
of coarse crinoidal banks surrounded by thinly, bedded, cherty, or
shaley, dark limestone, and pale grey, thickly bedded, cherty cal-
carenites ,(figs. 21, 22 & 23). The distribution of the lithofacies is
shown in figure 21 comparison with the boreholes drilled in quarry
development for A. P. C. M. IS Hope Quarry have shown that the
limestones belong to the Upper Monsa1 Dale Limestones.

Three types of mineralisation texture can be recognised

within the orebody; cavity fillings, replacements, and disseminations.
The cavity filling textures are the most common, individual cavities
adopting an elliptical shape in cross section, attaining 1 to 2 metre s
in size and appear to have formed by dissolution of the limestone
hostrocks. They are generally interconnected by mineralisation along
joints and bedding planes. The limestones walls of the cavities are
always replaced by fluorite. Examination of these altered margins
under the microscope shows that they consist of fluorite (0. 18 mm, )
with subordinate microcrystalline quartz (0. 12 mm. ) and calcite.
Quartz forms less than 10% of the samples and has a poikolitic texture
with numer-ous birefringent inclusions of calcite. Generally the
majority of the altered cavity margins are composed of anhedral cal-
cite grains which vary in size from O. 12 mm. to O. 82 mm, ; however,
the proportions of the three minerals may vary and samples consf.st ing
wholly of fluorite are not uncommon. Alteration of this kind usually
bleaches the darker lime stones to a paler greyish colour but in the
case of the paler grey limestones slight darkening may occur due to
the presence of quartz. Most cavities show the maximum amount of
alteration on the base with little alteration on the roof, or sides.

One of the replacement margins examined from the base of a

cavity contained fragments of unreplaced calcareous brown shale. These
fragments were between 5 and 100 mm, in size and were surrounded by
a matrix of calcite, fluorite, and quartz. It is likely that this texture
r EARLES QUARRY IIOREHOLE NO 10 SMALLOALE OPENCAST
MI NE STRATIGRAPHY AND
M I NERALIZAT I ON

----------

O UPPER
2
"'ONSAL
DALE
BEDS V...tlca.I scal.
e

10

15m.I,..

Upper GirYGnella Band

1999 1
O2 LOWER I I
"'CNSAl I 1
DALE BEDSI I -EL
I I
I
I
I
I NORTH (mag)
~....
•• Crlr'toldal cOlclrudl t. faci.s

D ColcGre·nit. faci.s

~ Thinly b.dd.d da,k IIm.~lon. fac,. .

~ Ch.,t nodul . . and bands

[;J M I ""rat!zf'd COYI t •• s

t":i Are-as of tt uoret. replacemlPnt

Horlzo"tat scate
o 16

..., "t_J_ . . . . _~
r'

SMALLDALE OPENCAST MINE, LOWER QUARRY SHaWl NG THE VAR1AT ION OF L1THOFAC I ES AND
MINERALIZATION o

t:<T-TT--r-=r.:----
/f-
o;
area currentiT/, ""'T--r!' T-- Vertical
{r being backfill E'er <,»:
,~ f~ Scale
-c
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....__..J.. ..l.. ~ II'- '\./
True Nerth
------:-..l..-4..4.
- J. \r
\ "

I r ~
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y I'!j
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10 metres G'l
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fg

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:-v

o
.- -.
Hen zental Seal e
'.~:~: .:: :~ ..
l1£OnlQ./ ('f16·
 106.

arose from solutional stoping of overlaying shale bands in the dark

facies limestones during
. cavity formation.
.

The cavities are often completely infilled by fluorite" c alc ite,

galena and baryte. Fluorite is the most abundant mineral and vari-a s
,
from pink to purple in colours It adopts a columnar habit and several
individual generations are recognisable. Galena usually occurs as
large inclusions (c. 1 em across) forming zones within the fluorite.
Calcite forms columnar bands or may develop as bands ci. partly
interlocked scalenohedra several centimetres in length. Fragments
of corroded calcite, sometimes with relict scalenohedral form, are
also found within the fluorite layers. The typical arrangement of
minerals is shown in plate 7 fig. 1

Paragenetic studies have been carried out on the deposits

worked in the quarries and the results are summar~sed L"1 figure 31
Cavity formation appears to have been the first event but this survey
has shown that the paragenetic sequence within them varies consid-
erably and only those cavities in close proximity to each other show
any similarity. Full paragenetic sequences are only seen on the
floors or bases of the cavitie s and thinre r sequence s often with bands
missing are developed on the roofs.

The replacement mineralisation is largely confined to the

southern end of Srnalldale Upper Quarry, the northeast end of Small-
dale Lower Quarry, and in Nether Fear Mine (fig•. 23). It consists
of large belts of almost complete replacement of the limestone by
fluorite. The fluorite is usually orange-brown in colour very porous
and friable. Small specks of galena may occur as inclusions and late
baryte mineralisation fills many of the interstices in tl-P fluorite.
Secondary bluish-green powdery azurite also farms within these
replaced zone s.

Fragments of earlier cavity lining mineralisation and chert

 107.

are included within the replacements indicating that the main phase of
fluorite replacement is a late stage feature, post dattng cavity for..rn-
~ "

ation and infilling.

Disseminated fluorite commonly occurs throughout the orebody•

•
Generally it is a deep purple colour and is found along stylolite seams
in the Hme stone, coating [oints, and replacing carbonate riC~l portions
of calcareous shale partings.

An unusual form of blue banded fluorite has been intersected

,.
in Nether Fear Mine (fig. 20). It is fi,?-ely banded showing alternating
layers of pale blue and darker blue fluorite: Some of these bands are
arranged in a cross-bedded type of structure. This type of fluor-ite
appears to lie at the base of small cavities about 10 ems. across and
in places appears to be r-eplacing columnar calcite rp late 8 fig. 2).
It seems probable that this is a replacement texture but the nature of
. the exposures denies full confirmation.

The distribution of mineralisation is to a large extent con-

trolled by lithological structures and lithofacies. Cavities tend to be
situated along prominent bedding plane s, particularly at the base of
the coarse cr-Iuoidal limestone facte s, where cavity fin miner-alis at lon
extends along the same hor-Ison for a distance of 17 metres. Mineral-
. .
ization in the dark limestone facies is restricted to development of
cavities within the thin limestone beds as the shale bands usually form
,
floors to the cavities. Replacement is restricted within this lithofacies
and consists of minor cavity-wall replacement and replacement of
carbonate- rich layers within the calcareous shale beds. The abundance
. of cher-ts, and unreplaced shale in this lithology imposes an overall
lowering of the grade of mined fluorspar ore. Replacement type
fluorspar ore in this darker limestone also tends to have a higher
I
quartz content."
)
t Replacement fluortte. mineralisation favours the grey cal-

I
1.
--------_ ......

A CROSS SECTION SHOWI NG THE DISTRI BUTt 0 N OF LITHOFACIES AND MI NERAll ZATION I N THE SMAllOAlE AND MOORFURlONG PI PES

Smalldal. P, p. • Moorfurlong PIp.

IIW
•

I I
NETHER

I
t

(
-- .. MOOltnMlONIMI •• .I o
-!ll.

>~ -'---:-::::<T:::~«)))
ClU.CAItOIln MelES
QUA_ "!j
(
M" QUARIlY
H

~
'0 FTI
l:...iJ ca"eoiDAL CAL,CtttUDITI "ACIES

tIj

- - - ~
30

~" ..
TM"LT IEDDIO DARK LllIIESTOtll 'ACIES

'I:-, I
- - :--0---_-
:- :- -- -' : :- -I
- i>
- f$ii'tl>:
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- :-,_-_____ - : -,
: : : : - : : : : : : :: :-
1!1'MI",,, :::
:- ::-: __ , ' ___ _ __ :_: :_: ':: : : - : - : :- : - - - -- - - - -- - ,- - - / " I
I\J
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1O
ARE'AS OF' FlUORIT!: R£PlAClMltIT

'<"
10I - - - •------ - - '- / I 1"'" .' .. __ :;;:!; l:l AJtIAS OF'CAVITY lINING'MINr'UUZATtON

.~
~
JI
I
100 MORtZDNTAl SCALE Jl
-
" l WnU-/ ,,~ .
 108.

carenite facies limestones in both the Upper and Lower Smalldale

Quarries and in the Nether Fear Mine (fig, 23), Chert is present
in smaller quant it ie s in this lithology and its lower concentration
does not seriously lower the grade of mined ore. Forms of
microcrystalline quartz are generally less frequently encounter-ed
,
and the absence of baryte intergrowths with a low percentage of
galena permits processing of this ore type for Metallurgical grade
fluor-spar; to be done by simple log-washer.

Extensive bands of chert may also act as lithological controls

over the di strlbut io.r of miner-alf satfon, and mineralised cavities are
often located above chert bands. Cavities may also develop between
chert nodules where the intervening limestone has been previously
dissolved (fig. 23 ~

The geological evolution of the Moorfurlong Pipe has been

described by Worley and Beck (1975), It lies in a similar strati-
graphical position to the Smalldale Pipe, being developed in Upper
Monsal Dale Lime stones, in both dark and cri.1oidal calcirudite
facies.

The pipe consists of a series of mineralised cavities which

are developed in favourable stratigraphical situations. Prominent
bedding planes and shale beds often act as loci for the development
of cavities which have been subsequently mineralised. Some small-
scale wall- rock replace-ment by fluorite-baryte galena appears to
have been associated with the cavity fill mineralisation (plate 9 fig., 3).

Extensive fluorite wall-rock replacement followed the cavity

lining mineralisation (plate 9 fig. 3) in common with the par-ageuetic
sequences in Smal ld ale ;A.pe. However in detail the cavit ie s s'row
quite varied sequencc s and are generally different from those at Small-
 109.

dale. Fluorite wall- rock replacement has produced a fiat-type deposit

which is exclusively co?fined to the coar se crinoidallimestones.
Worley and Beck have shown how the presence of closely spaced
stylol~te seams have controlled the development of the fiats.

•
Later karst pnoce sses have led to the formation of a series
of bedding plane caves which have cut across the earlier mineralised
veins", These have been infilled by sediments which contain a sig-
nificant proportion of mineral material derived from erosion of the
pipe vein as well as clays, silts and sands etc., washed in from the
surface.

v) Jeffrey Lane replacement

The Jeffrey Lane replacement is situated on the western side

of Bradwell Dale' (f ig. 4) and fluor-spar is currently being worked.
Extraction has taken place on a comparatively small scale using a
tractor-mounted back-acter bucket aided by occasional blasting•.

The orebody is of the replacement ty.pe and is developed with-

in a complex series of vertical parallel fissures which trend east-
south east. It has been worked over a length of 100 metres up to a
depth of 10 metres.
.
The average width of extraction is 4 metres.,
Horizontal slickenslides are common on most of the joints but
vertical movements have not been detected during inve sttgattons in
the quarry., A small vein marked at surface by a line of old mine
wmps trends northeast and forms the northwe stern limit to the deposit.
Sphalerite.. fluorite .. and' calcite are evident in the hillocks associated
with this vein.,

'.
The host rocks consist of dar-k, che rty, thinly-bedded lime-
stones which are overlain by massively bedded, pale grey.. shelly
, limestones of fiat reef facies dipping east at about 10 degrees. Both
types of limestone belong to the Eyam Group.
 110.

In marked contrast to the northeast-trending vein the deposit

.
consists almost entirely of fluorite with some baryte and a little galena.
Quartz is commonly associated with the fluorite in a finely intergrown
form.

It' is evident from an examination of the depos it that structure

and stratigraphy controls the distribution of mineralisation. The ore-
body is developed along an east- southeast-trending fault zone and it
appears from the current workings that it extends southeast towards
Jeffrey Lane (fig. 24). Investigations carried out by the author failed
to detect any east- southeast extension of fluorite mineralisation.

The influence of wall- rocks at this locality has a profound

effect on the distribution and grade of fluorspar worked. Replacement
by fluorite in the dark limestones whose distribution is shown in fig.
24 produces a low grade fluorspar ore with a high silica content. This
is on account of the presence of numerous chert nodules and shale
partings that occur within the dark lime stone So The re sulting ore type
in this lithology is a very dark grey blue or black fine- grained quorite.
Cut - polished surfaces show that the colouration is not uniform and
most samples collected have a mottled appearance. Numerous small
vugs 3 to 10 mm in diameter lined with euhedral blue or yellow
fluorite crystals are also present.

I Faulting has locally brecciated the deposit and fragments of

chert or shale may occur in a matrix of fine-grained purple fluorite.

A number of small flat like deposits are developed along

prominent bedding planes in the both the northern and southern walls
of the deposit. These rarely exceed O. 40 metres in thickness and are
normally O. 1 metres thick consisting of high grade silica free blue to
transparent saccharoidal fluorite..

Replacement mineralisation in the pale grey shelly reef lime-

 A PLAN OF THE ..JEFFREY LANE OPENCAST MINE SHOWING THE GEOLOGICAL DETAILS

SECTION OF STRATA EXPOSED IN THE

QUARRY

Flat r ••f facl.s

11uont. fjPplac.m.nt

P2
EYAM
Th,nly b.dd.d dark GROUP
o ltm.ston. facl.s
w,th thin fluor,l.
flots •

"':l
H
G'l
C
10 f1uor,l. r.plac.m.nt
~
. ch.rty limnton. N
TIps maInly and fluorspar
ovprburdf'n .l::>

V.rtical
scal.

30

I
........... --- \ .......
"'
Probabl. downdip
contInuatIon of tM

-?i - <,
",
ItolLJ m.tr.s ".bOdY

I Contact -b.tw•• n th. dark I,m.slon.

(10 th. northw.st) and th. pal. llr.y
'r•• 1' I,mnton.s (to Ih. south.ast)

'"
""<, ""
Horozontol scal.
o 'n 20 30

" E..I.J",*" -lf~.

 111

stone,which contains far less chert,consists of a bluish grey fine-grained

. I
fluorite with silicified relict fossil fragments (plate 7 fig. 2). This
tends to be less siliceous than that developed in the dark limestones
and higher grade saccharoida11ump fluorspar has been worked on the
northern side of the deposit adjacent to the barn (fig. 24). The reef
limestones contain a closely interconnecting system of stylolite seams,
(plate 1 fig. 1) and it is probable that the presence of these ha-s increased
the porosity of this type of wall- rock. As a re suit the reef facie s is
more favourable to fluorite replacement. The lower proportion of
silica in the form of chert in the reef facies also improves the grade
of the fluorite replacement.

Within the orebody two distinct types of replacement are are

developed, fluorite replacement of the reef facies limestone and
replacement of the dark facie s limestone.

(a) Replacement of the reef facies lime stone

In hand specimen this type of are consists of grey brown

granular fluorite with white silica pseudomorphs of brachiopod shells
3 cms in length (plate 7 fig. 2). Later amber, purple orv cl.ea r zoned
fluorite has cut across the earlier fluorite; small acicular baryte
crystals are present in small vugs in the are.. In thin section two
mineral phases can be dl stingul she d flue-rite and quartz (plate 9 fig. 1).
Fluorite is the most abundant mineral and may constitute 70% of the
thin sections: quartz forming the remaining 300/0. The two minerals
are discretely intergrown, quartz occurring interstitially with respect
to fluorite porphyroblasts. Sometimes quartz may occur as large
granular aggregate s attaining over 5 mm, in size (plate 9 fig. 1). .
I

Several different types of silica can be recognised and the se

have been classified in terms of crystal textures in a similar way to
those de scrIbe d by Or-me (1973). They are; (1) concentrically banded
rounded intergrowths 0•. 58 mm to 0.,87 mm, in diameter known as

b
 112.

Fig., 1 Fluorite-quartz ore, Jeffrey Lane replacement, Bradwell

SJmall turbid euhedral fluorite crystals with subordinate
interstitial clear microcrystalline quartz., The larger clear
area on the left hand side is a fragment of brachiopod com-
pletely replaced by spherulitic chalcedony.
Photomicrograph, plane polarised light, X40.

Fig., 2 Granular fluorite with galena from the flat in Moorfurlong

Mine, Bradwell
Coarse granular fluorite replacement consisting of a
mo aa ic of subhedral clear fluorite crystals with opaque
anhedral inclusion like grains of galena.
Photom~crographplane polarised light, X120.

Fig. 3 Fluor-Ite, baryte, quartz replacement, Hancock Shaft,

Watergrove Pipe.
The sample represents the mineralised base of a pipe
vein cavity and consists of a laminated fluorite,baryte,
microcrystalline quartz,replacement intergrowth. The
baryte occurs as large fibro- radiate crystals intergrown
with fine anhedral isotropic fluorite and smaller amounts
of microcrystalline qua rtz,
Photomicrograph, crossed pol.ar s, X120.
PLATE 9
 113.

spherulitic chal.cedony, wh ich occur-s pseudomorphing brachiopod

. I

shell structures; (2) coarse recrystallization mosaics consisting

of large grains of quartz containing numerous birefringent inclusions
of calcite and pyrite. The grain boundaries between quartz crystals
are usually straight but may be sutured. (3) Microcrystalline
quartz is a polycrystalline aggregate of very fine grained quartz
crystals which vary in size from O. 012 mm, to O. 024 mm. They
typically exhibit undulose extinction patterns in polarised light. The
boundaries between "the grains are generally sutured and irregular.
The fluorite in the ore is generally equig ranula r, consisting of inter-
grown euhedral or subhedral c ry stal.s, O. 29 to O. 30 mrn, in size.
Small inclusions of opaque matter may occur within the fluorite
crystals and are so small that they are barely resolvable.

From examination of a number of the slides it is apparent

that the fluorite is paragenetically later than the early micro-
crystalline quar-tz (plate 9 fig. 1) but both replace the limestone which
includes earlier diagenetically silicified fossil fragments. The full
paragenetic sequence is illustrated in figure 31

(b) Replacement of the dark facies limestone

Thin sections examined from the dark facies generally show

higher proportions of silica in the form of microcrystalline quartz.
This has the same paragenetic relationship with respect to the fluorite
as the quartz is usually earlier. Sphe rnHt ic chalcedony is only rarely
encountered as there are few silicified brachiopods in this lithofacies.
In some cases a depositiona11amination is preserved in the replacement
ore with microcrystalline quartz replacing shell rich layers in the
limestone. Many of the fluorite grains show a zonal structure and may
contain inclusions of quar-tz, pyr-Ite, or carbonates.

vi) Haz1ebadge Pipes

A number of small pipe veins have been worked by underground

and opencast methods south of Earl Rake (fig. 4). They include Revells
Pipe~ Hazlebadge P'ipe, Pic Tor Pdpe , and Cow Ho~e Pipe (Crabtree 1964)
and collectively form a belt of mineralisation extending southea stwards
 114•.

for approximately 200 metre a All the pipes consist of a series of

\
cavities lined with baryte, fluorite, galena and calcite which have been
later solutionally enlarged and partly infilled with sediment probably
of fluvioglacial origin. A brief examination has been carried out and
has shown that the pipe veins are developed in coarse crinoidal lime-
stone, which lie on the southern flanks of a large Eyam Limestone reef
knoll A cover of Namurian shale lies immediately to the east of the
orebodies but the relationship of this to the distribution of the mineral-
isation is not clear.
 115•.

vii) Conclusions

•
From the survey it appears that all the replacement
orebodies of the Castleton-Bradwell area are developed within
the Asbian and Brigantian stage limestones. No regional scale
stratigraphical controls are pre sent and stratal controls are only
evident in small areas. This is particularly well illustrated in
Bradwell Dale where the Eyam limestones reef facies contains a
series of fluorite replacement pipes at Jeffrey Lane and Hazlebadge.

Lithology has a more marked effect on the distribution of

the replacement deposits; most of them occur within reef or reef
associated limestones, which have formed at a variety of strati-
graphical horizons. A number of lithological feature s within the
reefs localise replacement and cavity formation: these include
prominent bedding planes and stylolite seams. In the off- reef
facies limestones other lithological features more characteristic
of bedded sequences such as chert bands and shale beds control
the distribution of flats and pipe replacements.

An unusuallithogical control is present in the Treak Cliff

deposit where a conglomerate developed beneath a shale cover at the
Dinantian - Namurian boundary is a favourable horizon for the form-
ation of fluorite replacements.

Gross lithological characteristics also have an important

bearing on the grade of mined fluorspar within the area. Replacement
of wall - rocks with high contents of chert and shale resulting in a
lower grade of mined ore than replacement of paler grey crinoidal
limestone or reef limestone, owing to the resistance of silica and
alumina to fluorite metasomatism.

It has been argued (Stevenson and Gaunt 1971) that the Namurian
S hales covered much of the limestone unconformably in the Castleton -
 116.

Bradwell area and that the dfstr-ibutfon of replacement deposits can be

accounted for by the shale aquiclude impounding of mineral fluids
beneath this cover. However, from this survey it is apparent that
only the Treak Cliff deposit can be directly related to ponding beneath
the shale cover. The deposits at Smalldale and Moorfurlong occur at
some little depth within the Monsal Dale Limestones and cannot be
directly related to a shale cap.

The shale cover control hypothesis in the light of this

survey requires modification and it is likely that mineral solutions
selected favourable lithological sites In the limestones beneath the
shale. These favourable limestones may lie at some depth below the
actual shale-limestone contact but the aquiclude properties of the
shale probably still operated.

Studies carried out on the mineralogy and paragenesis of

the replacement deposits has shown that paragenesis varies within
each deposit and only broad trends are recognisable. Fluorite and
quartz in microcrystalline form are nearly always found in association
in the replacements with lesser amounts of baryte and galena

The effects of karst drainage have produced a number of

alluvial or placer deposits within the pipe veins wherein the hydro-
thermal minerals are enclosed in clays or silts, and these have been
in the past mined for their fluorite baryte and galena contents.
 117.

4. The EY<l;m. Stoney-Middleton-Tideswell area

i) Introduction

,
The area forms the centre of the largest fluorspar mining
operations in the United Kingdom and currently produces in the region
of 150. 000 tons of acid grade fluorspar per annum. Deposits worked
at Ladywash Mine. and opencast operations in the area contribute
most of the mined ore. The Huckl.ow Edge Vein system which trends
east-west is mined from Ladywash l\,Tine and forms one of the most
powerful veins of the Southern Pennines. extending for at least 9 km s,
A number of other important veins are associated with it and include
Cross Low Vein. Pastures Vein, and Old Edge Vein. Further south
other major east-west veins are Middlefield Rake, Dirty Rake and
the southwest-northeast White Rake. These deposits all consist of
large fissure systems along faults which have been mineralized.
Typically they show columnar- infilling textures consisting of fluorite,
baryte, sphale rite, galena, and calcite. Repeated transcurrent
movements have produced typical horizontal slickensidiilg and ex-
tensive brecciation. A series of pipe veins is intersected by the rakes
and veins usually on a northwest- southeast trend. These include
Black Hole Pipe, Ashtons Pipe. Bull Hole Pipe, Carlswark Pipe,
Merlin Pipe, Nickergrove Pipe, Watergrove Pipe, Burntheath Pipe,
Paul Pipe, Phillips Pipe, and the pipes associated with Ladywash
Mine. Most of the pipe veins have been studied in varying degrees
of detail in order to establish their stratigraphical position. wal.l rocks,
mineralogy. and mineral textures.

ii) Glebe Mine - Ashtons Pipe - Bull Hole Pipe - Ladywash Mine

Ashton's Pipe was worked from Glebe Mine and Old Ladywash
Mine during the 18th Co, The pipe is a stratiform orebody consisting
of a series of cavities sometimes several metres in diameter. In
 A GEOLOGICAL SECTION ALONG HUCKLOW EDGE VEl N

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.
W]'S E3"NIWS'N ES'S

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METRES METAES

",,, 400
I'Jj
H

]00 s
~
-
200 ~
11I

100 '00

~D DO
------- ------

:":·:+:·:1 BASALT LAVAS

p-:--:-)
~
0lMONSAL DALE IEDS
SHELF FAC' ES
c:::J EYAM GROUP P2
\ol 2 KMS

c HONSAL DALE IEDS ~ SHALES AND GRITSTON£S

~ 0,M'LLERS DALE ~ 2
~ .. OSTLY NA.. UA'AN
SOURCES RI [UwERTS 1964 KIAK...... lin-II STEVENSON AND AHYS,1971
BEDS ~ DARK FACIES
KEY{ DRAWN HE WORLEY '976
MINE LEVELS
 ll8•.

Glebe Mine it was intersected in the east by a rise from Moorwood

Sough (fig. 26) and consists of fluorite-lined cavities, with galena
occuring as large irregular inclusions. When Moorwood Sough backs
up due to heavy rainfall the pipe is frequently below the water table and
a continuous flow of water passes through the cavities. . The action of
the water has washed large amounts of galena from the enclosing
fluorite and redeposited it as rounded fragments which have 'accumu-
lated on the floor of the pipe.

Galena also is commonly found in the mud covering the sole

of Moorwood Sough. The outer part of these fragments has been ox-
idised to cerussite and microscopic observations have shown that
cerussite is also present along grain boundaries. The margins of the
cavities show replacement by fluorite as well as partial infilling with
columnar fluorite. Pseudomorphs of large brachiopod' shells are
common and inspection of the roof of the pipe indicates that is formed
by the base of the Black Bed replacement occurring in the lirre stones
of the Lower Shell Bed. Ashtons Pipe has also been intersected in
the cross-cut on the 280 ft. level to Ladywash Mine (Dunham 1952).
Here it has been intermittantly worked and consists of a number of
cavities, linked by a very thin (less than 20 ems. ) fluorite replace-
ment "fiat" beneat,h the Black Bed. An early white calcite lining in
the cavities is commonly replaced by fluorite which is frequently
stained brownish red due to oxidation of the numerous pyrite inclusions.
On the 240 ft. level along White Rake wallrock replacement has been
most extensive adjacent to the Upper Shell Bed. A number of cav-
ities are associated with this horizon are usually partially lined with
columnar fluorite. In parts, later solutional activity has produced a
series of large caverns which have been filled with brown clays and
silts containing fluorite associated with either Phillips or Paul Pipe.
A third replacement horizon occurs within Glebe Mine beneath a thick
clay wayboard at the base of the Eyam Limestones. The resulting flat
deposit consists of granular replacement texture fluorite which varies
from clear to purple in colour, up to 1 m. thick and extends laterally
 r A GEOLOGICA!." SECTION THROUGH GLEBE MINE EXAM

West GlUE SHAn APPRO. eoo fT AOO

i i i
East

Adapted from surveys by OMMRE

not for pUblication

~
f[ET METRES
o -0

EYAM I I GROUP
.1
25

50
~" ,
20
III
BASE OF

---..U
I 1 EVAM GROUP
<::tV
~r( -
Clcy _ybocrd
» i i !!, i i i
Fluent. Ftat
, L1 Unconformtty
1J75 "rJ
H
s
~

~
1.I100 ' ' .130
MONSAL DALE BEDS . '"""
8 <-

L8"l

l:::-r-
S~L- 1M UPIlH SMlI IlI'Cl

--.7
I I J:L/ ~- I . ~
240 lEVEl.
~ ~ - '--------
- ---
.~

_ , .r---"""'--l
~ -{ 1 ] 1M UR- Shell BI'd
~
240 lEVEL

~.~~
::::;::r::
1-
.i;p;;(f::~/~:~'~'{i:;;:~::.~:;.':J,.".: . . ., J72
u
zeo lEVEl.

-
soc lEVEL co
1
 , 119.

for 50 metres. Detailed examination of the fluorite ha s shown that

galena occurs as Ir-r-egula r inclusion-like anhedral grains over 5 mrn
across with coatings of cerussite. Inclusions O. 06 mrn, across
occur in zones in the fluorite crystals and consist of sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, and pyrite, which are frequently intergrown and exhibit
.
complex paragenetic relationships. Later quartz occurs inter-
stitially filling many of the spaces between the grains of fluorite.
Calcite is common in the deposit and is strongly corroded and replaced
by fluorite. Ashton's Pipe continues northwest and Dunham (1952 p 84)
stated that a level from Glebe Mine connected with Old Ladywash Mine
which also mined Ashton's Pipe. The c ros scut north from Glebe Mine
(Dunham 1952 p. 86) intersected the Old Edge Vein where the shale is
only 80 feet (26 m) above the sole of the level, suggesting that Old Edge
Vein is in the top part of the Monsal Dale Lst.. In the drive to the
east on Old Edge Vein, Bull Hole Pipe was intersected in grey crinoidal
limestones where a fluorite flat also outcrops in association with the
pipe. This consists of a sequence of alternating yellow fluorite, baryte,
and galena layers lining a series of cavities which are arranged in a
vertical sense. Bull Hole Pipe was also worked from Great and Little
Brookhead Mines and Aarons Engine Mine (Kirkham 1966 b) to the
southeast.

In Ladywash Mine, which is one of the major producers of

fluorspar in the district the powerful Hucklow Edge Vein is worked
underground over a distance of 2 kms, Mining has also taken place
along the Ladywash Northeast Vein, Sun Vein, and Pasture Vein, all
worked with an attenuated sequence of Upper Monsal Dale and Eyam
Limestones whose combined thickness is about 50 metres. A large
part of the Eyam Limestones have been removed by pre-Namurian
erosion which suggests that the Hucklow Edge anticline was active at
the end of Dinantian times. The Upper Monsal Dale Limestones con-
sist of shelf facies massive, grey, largely crinoidal limestones and
only attain a thickness of 40 metres proven in the Hucklow Edge Bore-
hole No. 2 (Stevenson and Gaunt 1971) (fig. 25). Comparable thicknesses
 120.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 10.

Fig. 1 Mineralised solution cavity in the cheeks of Hucklow Edge

I

Vein, Ladywash Mine, Boadlow suble vel.

,
Solution cavities similar in character to pipe vein cavities
are commonly developed in the shelf facies Monsal Dale
Limestones, above the Cressbrookdale Lava in Ladywash
Mine. These are partially filled with fluor-ite and baryte,
with either galena, or sphalerite. The bases of the cavities
are replaced by darker grey f~ne-grained fluorite - quartz.
The mineralisati.on tends to form thicker layers on the base
of the cavities whilst thinner layers occur on the sides and
roof due to the effects of gravity settling.

Fig. 2 Fluorite, baryte breccia, Hucklow Edge Vein, Ladywash

Mine. Early generation, fluorite, baryte, has been brecciated
by later fault movement and this breccia has collapsed into
existing solution cavities developed in the cheeks of the vein.
PLATE 10

FIG 1

FIG 2
 121 .

. ·'\w.ere also proven in the Ladywash U1dcrground Borehole (Schnellman

and Willson 1950). .

Both these boreholes intersected the CressbrookdaleLava

which forms the pre sent sole of the workings and has been intersected
>

recently in a small anticline west of the old Broadlow Mine in the main
haulage level (fig. 25).

The Middleton Dale Lower Shell Bed has been found in the
eastern part of the mine by the Hucklow Edge Borehole. A large
. .
pipe vein is present in the vicinity of Broadl.ow Mine and lies on the
horizon of the Lower Shell Bed. It has been described by Mason
(1973) who noted that the cavern or pipe vein lies (50 m) beneath the
shale cover trending north west. It is partly lined with fluorite, baryte,
. -
and scalenohedral calcite crystals which also encrust boulders strewn
on the floor. Small fluorite baryte flats up to 30 ems in thickness are
developed along prominent bedding planes in the walls of the cavern.
A sand infilling on the floor of the cavern consisting of fluorite, and
baryte was attributed by Mason (1973) to supergene effects.

At the base of the Broadlow decline whe re extraction is

cur-rently taking place above the Cressbrookdale Lava in the Hucklow
Edge Vein, a series of cavities several metres in diameter occurs
in the checks of the vein which reaches over- 6 metres in width. (pIlate
10 fig. 1). They are usually lined with fluorite, baryte ana calcite with
extensive replacement of the walls by dark grey fine-grained siliceous
fluorite. Laminated textures of finely crystalline fluorite may dev-
elop towards the bases of these cavities which "in some cases also
contain sphalerite. Other cavities are completely filled with a breccia
of baryta and fluorite and have been cemented by later 'fluorite min-
e raldzatton {"plate 10 fig. 2~ The laminated fluorite and baryte frag-
'. ments f:rom the bases of the cavities have been incorporated into the
main vain breccia (~late 10 fig. 2a). These laminated textures were
described by Ford (1967 ., P 60 and 1969 b p. 81) as ghost sedimentary
 122•.

'structures produced by metasomatic replacement. This seems an

unlikely mode of origin, as no such sedimentary laminations are
present in the unaltered limestones and it is more probable that the
structures were for-med by a series of advancing replacement fronts
(Worley & Nash 1977). The Hucklow Edge Vein has been worked
further to the west, where loose ground consisting of decalcified
limestone is encountered in the vein called "self lump".

The old mines worked in a series of rich lead flats developed

beneath the shale. It has not been possible to elucidate whether sim-
ilar flats occur adjacent to Hucklow Edge Vein in the old higher work-
ings of the Ladywash Mine.

Recent underground mapping of Hucklow Edge Vein beyond the

present Ladywash Mine workings has established that the Hucklow Edge
Vein consists of a strong fluorite filled fissure ve in, A large number
of pre-mineralisation solution cavities are developed within the lime-
stone walls of the vein some of which are partially filled with fluorite
which has replaced earlier limestone fragments, probably introduced
during movement of the vein. These fluoritised limestone fragments
have concentric laminated structures consisting of brown fine - grained
fluorite with a little galena. It appears that this texture developed by
progressive replacement of the limestone fragments by fluorite; the
lamina representing replacement fronts.

iii) Black Hole, Deep Sitch and Dusty Pit Mines

The Black Hole Mine lies on a southwesterly extension of the

Ladywash North EasterlYY~in known as Black Hole Vein. The Deep
Sitch Mine worked the same vein a little to the southeast. Dusty Pit
Mine worked an east-west vein called Cross Low Vein which was also
sought by a cross cut from Black Hole Mine during the 1950's. A
considerable amount has been written about the Black Hole Mine largely
due to early disputes over the title to the Sun Vein and Little Pasture
 SLACK HOLE M' NE EYA M

Natural rllt passa;.

d.y.lop.cl oboy. clay woyboords
tn coars. cnnoldal hm.ston.
shal_ ...n In roof

For .. t 1..1cI
PLAN
"
"
Plp" ... ln V.ln narrows Strong fluorit. Y.'n
It. 'eo"eo. ot cavlt •••
ttn.d with .uh.dra' tluortt.
R.dt.o,,,. Found.,
- - - BLACKHOLE VEIN---__i PIp"

NORTH MAGNETIC

CROSS CUT TO
CROSSLOW VEl N

I'lj
H
s
~
SECTION
~ Cross VO'I" N
WEST
810ck Hal. Shott
305m AOO
!A51
"

!yom Iomuton.

80s .. of [yom limulon..

Monsol Dol .. 8 ..ds Oz

Notural Rift
for~I.lcI
~~' ',

Cross cut to 85m I..nl

Not ace_.s. bl.
Clay way board eros.low V.I"

Sourc.s
o OMMRE F,.ld R.ports
10 zo 30 40
Ope '~75 & Jun 1973

Drawn N E won.y Fp", 1976

 123.

Vein. The first published accounts of the Black Hole Vein appeared in
Green et al, (1887), who state that at the Little Pasture Mine the vein
was worked to a depth of 42 fathoms (258 feet, 78 m.). More detailed
accounts of the mine were given in Stevens (1939), who mentioned that
during the last period of activity circa 1861 the shaft was deepened
,
He also reported that the Deep Sitch Mine worked a 'flatting' on the
Black Hole Vein 11 yards in diameter at a depth of 105 feet (32m. ) at
the base of the 'black beds' (Eyam Limestones) possibly in shelly
reef. The most comprehensive accounts of the mine are in Dunham
(1952) and in Craven (1959) who gave the depth of the shaft as 224 ft.
(68 m, ) with levels driven in the vein at 50 ft. (15m.) and 80 ft. (26m.).
The orebody was said to consist of a vein 5 ft. (15m.) wide which was
presumed to be a continuation of Ladywash Vein. Dunham (1952)
suggested that it was a replaced fault breccia and gave the following
assay; 72. 20/0 CaF 2' 4.1% Si0 11 20/0 CaC0 3, O. 10/0 BaS0 3.85% ZnS.
2, 4,
Some flats are supposed to be associated with the west end of the mine.
Investigations in the Black Hole Mine indicate that Dunham's obser-
vations are largely correct. The stratigraphic sections (fig. 27)
shows that the vein cuts through Upper Monsal Dale and Eyam Lime-
stones but dies out immediately on encountering the overlying shales.
The Black Hole Vein hades south and shows only horizontal movements
with strong slickensides; it reaches its maximum thickness of 2
metres at the intersection 0 f the main shaft at the 224 ft. level The
vein narrcws considerably both vertically and laterally, only reaching
O. 5 metres in the overlying Eyam Limestones. Similarly, when
followed to the west the vein narrows to O. 2 metres eventually loosing
its definition beyond the rift passage fig. 27, where it seems to pass
gradationally into a pipe vein system. The pipe consists of a series
of elongate cavities some 2 metres in diameter and are lined with
translucent columnar fluorite with cubic terminations. The limestone
mar-gins, of the cavities are replaced by dark grey fine-grained siliceous
fluorite. This part of the vein is probably the 'flats' mentioned by
Stevens (1939) in the Deep Sitch Mine which now lies beneath the .ta il.ings
lagoons as soc iated with Fine Gr-inding Ltd. SK 202775.
 124.

Redfearn's Founder Pipe (Kirkham 1963 p. 321) intersects

the base of the shaft tr.ending roughly northwe st- southeast and con-
sists of a rather cavernous area extensively waterworn with small
cavities O. 5 metres in diameter lined with fluorite and baryte•

.
The pipe vein intersected beneath Deep Sitch Mine lies
approximately 40 metres below the base of the Eyam Limestone in
thickly bedded pale grey biomicarenites. None of the characteristic
marker bands of the Upper Monsal Dale Limestones were found in the
Mine and it is difficult to correlate these replacements with those
elsewhere in the area. A cross cut was driven south in search of the
Cross Low Vein (fig. 27) but this was abandoned before it was inter:-
sected Further east Cross Low Vein was also worked from the
Dusty Pit Mine where it was crossed by Redfearns Pipe. According
to Kirkham (1965 b P. 327) the pipe worked from Dusty Pit Mine and
carried excellent fluorspar and was very rich in lead ore. The in-
stallation of a steam engine in 1857 gives some indication of the rich-
ness of the mine when production at its peak was said to be two to three
tons of first class lead ore a day. Green et al, (1887) noted that
fluorite occurred in a flat of uncertain thickne ss on the north wall of
Cross Low Vein and that the mine worked down to the toadstone (the
Cressbrookdale Lava) at 372 ft. (110 metres). They described the
galena as follows "lay in two ribs, and was worked at small expense,
occurred above the toadstone, and from 30 to 40 fathoms (180 to 240
feet below the top of the limestones. The vein was impoverished in
the immediate vicinity of the toadstone and it seems reasonable to
assume that the flats were developed at approximately the same horizon
as the Lower Shell Bed (fig. 6).

iv) Watergrove Mine, Hancock Shaft, Burntheath Pipe

The Watergrove Mine worked the famous Watergrove Pipe which

trends east-west extending over a strike length of 1 5 kms. (fig. 30).
 A GEOLOGICAL SECTION THROUGH THE PARTS OF WATERGROVE PI PE EXAMI NED DURI NG THE 1975 DROUGHT

I WS"S
E S"N
!l

II'I Mt'trt's abovt' Watt'rgrovt' Fort'f.t'ld Road shaft A 623 Engint' shaft projt'ctt'd Emmanut'l shl!H
i 00 shaft prO)t'ctt'd
28 280
1
I
i
1260~
i
rr ! ==-=-==- .'i 260

i 1 SHALE EVAM LIMESTONES

I'l
!
,
,
! IF'O~I ,
1
1
.
i
;
•
•
III
j MONSAL DALE BEDS
l' .",
'"
H
o
C
~
I 220 !
I J 3 Stags Levt'l " l'
'0'\
cress-cct to Fairbairn Shaft

~ ---..........
-.....
:
I
I
It'vt'l intt'rst'cts numt'rous cavltlt's lillt'd with columnar calcltt'

:
:
Sough Lt'vt' I
I

I
220
'"
CD

Oangt'rous collopst'
i ._~
i • .--- - ---- ------------------------ -------- 200
2 ________ 4 • • _._
__ 4

HOrizon of Lawt'r Sht'll Bt'q of Mlddlt'ton Dalt'

,,
~
~

RANGE OF WATERGROVE PI PE >

I
i
rso
48 fm It'vt'l
~~yj t'ctpd hori zon of LItton Tuff
180

,I ~---------------~~=----.:-::.----
160 160

Horozontol Scolt'
a 50

Drawn N E Worlt'y OMMRE 1976

 125.

-The history of the mine has been recorded by Kirkham (1967 a pp 197 -
218) who noted that the mine was one of the richest in terms of lead
production in the area. It was also one of the wettest experiencing
\

great water problems lying on the flanks of the Wardlow Basin (fig. 30~

Kirkham noted that the pipe vein dipped under the shales about 100 feet
•
below the sough - the whole of the area on the north side of the road
was described as great open workings (:plate 21 fig. 2). From Hancock
..
'
Shaft (SK 192761) a great pipe vein was said to range to Watergrove
Mine proper, and it was stated that the Burntheath Mines are connected
,!,ith Watergrove workings. Indeed this is borne out by the merging of
the proprietors of these mines and Watergrove in the mid 19th century.
The old records constantly refers to the pipe and mine workings fol-

.lowing the dip of the beds or Ire asures implying a strong element of
stratigraphical control of the mire ral deposits. During the .1975 drought
pumping from the Fairbairn Engine Shaft drained the Watergrove Mines
. .
permitting a survey of the geology and mineralization to be made. These
explorations were the first in a century to reach this level, being
carried out under the constant threat of flooding. This finally occurred
on December 1st when the level of water rose from the 215 feet level
to above sough level at 100 feet overnight. These figures give some
indication of the water problems that the old miners had to face with
primitive pumps and drainage levels. Geological sections were
established through the Forefield Shaft, the pipe was examined as
far as Emmanual and Hancock Shafts enabling the stratigraphical
position of the pipe to be determined. The pipe working explored
beneath the Forefield Shaft is by far the largest, consisting of a great
series of caverns which are some 10 metres high and 10 metres wide
extending in a roughly east-west direction (plate 21 fig. 2). A boulder
choke in the base of the Forefield Shaft conceals the continuation of
the shaft which
.
extends .to the 48 fathom level ( 88 m.). Ctig. 28). .
Comparison with the Wardlow Mines Borehole No. 2 (Stevenson 'and
Gaunt 1971) indicates that this level was probably driven just above the
Litton Tuff. The walls of the pipe were coated with goethite and mud
which largely concealed the wallrocks and mineralization, however a
 126.", "

.rich shelly limestone suggested that the sole of the workings at the
forefield were on the horizon of the Lower Shell Bed. Above this a
.
sequence of 32 metres of thickly-bedded. grey. fine calcarenite
limestones with cherty bands is exposed. In places lenses of very
coarse crinoidal biosparrudites occur and are well develqped at
sough level Approximately 13 metres of dark facies Eyam Limestone
rests conformably upon the Upper Monsa1 Dale Lime stones.

Careful examinatton of the walls revealed that a number of

cavities are lined with white fibrous calcite. The walls of these cav-
ities show replacement by a thin layer rarely exceeding 4 ems pf
fluorite accompanied by galena and baryte, It doe s not appear that
these cayity linings were the main source of lead ore for the mine,
!is very few of them have been disturbed by drilling or-bla stlng, The
timber work in the pipe ("plate 21 fig. 2) and the account given by
Farey in 1811 that. there were "lead (and) sorts" in Watergrove Pipe;
. I

he defined 'sorts' when writing about quartz pebbles. gravel. alluvial

clay, etc. "combined with de scripttons of Iar-ge lumps of lead ore
reaching 3 to 5 cwts, lying in the pipe demonstrating that this was an
alluvial or placer deposit. It consisted of a complex sediment of clays.
sands, and pebbles that filled the large caverns and contained concen-
trates of galena which had been mined by progressive under-hand stop-
. -ing, In the sole of the pipe an undetermined thickne ss of fine silt
and clay appear-s to be accumulating today. The small mineralised
cavittes on the walls of the pipe are probably the primary ~ource of
the galena and have been eroded by water action which washed out the
gangue and left the heavier galena in sedimentary placer deposits in the
caverns. At sough level a number of interconnecting cavities about
..
two metres in diameter are filled with massive white fibrous calcite.
Throstle-breasted fluorite (Kirkham 1949) with acicular baryte ~'plate
8 fig. 3) has replaced the coarse crinoidallimestone wallrocks and is
often a pale grey to purple colour.

At the base of Emmanual Shaft the pipe has been worked behind

...
 . the collapse at the end of the system examined from the Forefield
..
, Shaft. Water enters from
. the north from a sumped level and rep-
"resents a northward continuation of the pipe vein. Following the line
of this level to the south leads into a series of chambers developed ......
in pale grey stylolitically-bedded calcarenite and calcirudite. Bit-
umen frequently coats many of the stylolite seams and sometimes
they are highlighted by purple fluor-Ite replacement. Cavities are
often developed adjacent to stylolite, seams and are lined with
baryte, fluorite. and clear calcite. Galen~ up to 3 ems across
usually oxidised to cerussite on the surface was abundant in the
cavlt ie s. The stratigraphical position ~of this part of the pipe vein
.is difficult to determine as the presence of the Lower fuell Bed was
not confirmed owing to the extremely arduous conditions under which
these explorations were carried out..

-Further -east the pipe vein has been intersected above sough
level by workings from Hancock Shaft. as the dip of the pipe rise s
eastwards towards the Middleton Dale anticline. The Lower Shell
Bed is exposed in the roof of the workings with mineralization concen-
, ---trated below it in pale grey stylolitically bedded calcarenites. It
consists of large cavities up to 3 metres in diameter which are partly
willed with white fibrous calcite with inclusions of sphalerite often
altered to calamine. A distinctive laminated fine gr-ained "throstle-
breasted" nuorite-baryte':'quartz assemblage partly Inffllsthe rem-
ainder of the cavities. In some cases Indtvtdual Iayer-s of galena. and
haryte are developed in a crustiform texture. and appear to be filling
---the cavities. The wallrocks are also extensively replaced by grey to
purple fluor-ite where the original allochems are often pseudornorphed
. by quartz (pilate 9 fig. 3).

v) Burntheath Pipe

The Burntheath Pipe was mined from the Burntheath Mine

which was formerly connected with the Watergrove and Victory Mines
r A SECTION AND PLAN OF THE BURNTHEATH SHAFT

WEST EAST

SCALE METRES
o

EYAM GROUP
oarkgr~y thinly ~d~
limestone WI th chert

I: I : I Bas~ :' Eyam Lst

UPPER MONSAL DALE BEDS ~ 25

Pal~ grPy thickly b~dd~d

r
chert y urnestone

"lj
H

s
:0
t:r:l
I, I , I anastamos~ ~ddlng
plan. N
\0

50

Low~r Sh.lI B~ of
I"'''i' '-,'- M,ddl.ton Dol.

II I
II I Fluor,t. flal

I' i I I I I " Fluoro t. flat

~
C IO Y wayboard
Fluoro t. flat
__ _LI TToN TUFF
- . Fluorot~ flat

75
 FIGURE 30

I. ....
a
s
z

'"
.
w
z '"
c
..
:l :::
s > :>

..
'"
~
w
Z
~
~
x
'"
0:
....
Z
~
3•
W
~
~I %
V.
::;
..'"
c ::;

.:.:

...
IDLJBJ ++'t.
:~:+
...
~ ~

~
.,. .
0:

I"il a
X
Q. MOnos aooM"oOM-O~ ---------
C{ 3~1~ SNO!HS'(' -..•_ .•.•
0:: .. 3tll. 10'1''' •••••..........••••.••. -
Cl 3~ 0. . .•.. •.. •.. • .. ·-·-....

~
0::
t;;
o
z
..
~
0:
C{

z
o ."•. .•.
a

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C{
N
...J
C{
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au
Z
~
u.
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z
o HOIlOS 3AO~1llI3!YM ~O 31001._.__._.__
~
::l 3'OH3~08 NYAT·--·-••-·-·-.j.-'*I+:--i
_-+~I__+_----++-----
eo
0:: '"
w
t;; ~ I
o HI $.1Y1:1 ClNIONYH
'"
~
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au HYHS uno M3N '-''''--'''-''- 0-
X
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Cl
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..'"
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~
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o l:fYHS 5:11 .... A.MlIHS·---···-----·
X
III
au
...J J ~YHS MO'SN~Y3'-"'---"'----
C{
o
z
o
~
III
...J
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o UYHS 310I 0103 O!~ ---.......--.-.. --
:E
o
~
SJ Y'~ ONY HYHS OY!H !S01:l--:•• -.j.. . . . . [, .. .
~:. ...
~ .~
.1 • ++ • • • \
o...J r+ :
..,..
+• • • • • f
UYHS nONno_'" .... -_ •
o .....: ....
• • . • ~fOI .\~'
':~
0::
C{
~
! :t'fHS )I)()::tNYH-~···-lIJ·---­
L
: ....... ~,1.\ l.;.+\.,:.1
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:E
o
;;:
..
~
. 1·1 1.+\
0:: l!i
U. 0:
.l:l¥HS 13nNYHH3"----- w _.-_..
Z
i
...o
U
!jYHS 01!OH~O~ !AO~O~3!YNI"-""J-''''''''
III
VI
...J
C{
U
Cl
o...J
S
Cl
«

..'",.
w o o
o o
~ N
 FIGURE 31

. PARAGENETIC SEQUENCES IN THE BRADWELL EYAM STONEY MIDDLETON

AREA

[SMAll OALEI IJEFFREY LANEI

EARLY LATE EARLY LATE

•
-
CALCITE CALCI TE

-
BARYTE BARYTE

FlUORITE FLUORITE

-
GALENA GALENA

SILICA

\
CAVITIES
- SILl CA

CAVITIES .
IWATERGROVE! IMOORFURLONG!
EARLY LATE
. EARLY LATE

CALCITE

BARYTE

- - CALCITE

BARYTE
--
- •
---
FLUORITE AIlIM FLUORITE

GALENA

SILICA
- GALENA

SILICA

CAVITIES _
CAVITIES
"
(NICKERGROVEI IGLEBE MINEI
,EARLY LATE EARLY LATE

CALCITE

BARYTE -_ .... CALCI TE

BARYTE
-
FLUOR I TE
'. p •• FLUORITE 5wpsgH

.w, w, u·

-
GALENA GALENA

CAVITIES CHALCOPYR I TE

PYRITE

CAVITIES ~_III_
 128.

(Kirkham 1967a). It was drained by the Victory Sough which is a

southerly branch of Mo.orwood Sough driven during the 18th century.
A thorough investigation has not been carried out on the deposit
as most of the shafts have collapsed; however, it has been possible
\
to determine the stratigraphical relationships and textures developed.
>

The section exposed in the main shaft shows that a flat deposit is
associated with a series of tuff bands beneath the Lower Shell Bed in
Upper Monsal Dale limestones. Most of the limestones exposed in
the shaft are pale grey to grey shelly limestones with numerous
bluish grey chert nodules. The section represents an attenuated
sequence of Upper Monsa1 Dale Limestones (fig. 29). Beneath a
thick tuff band (the Litton rfuff) in the base of the shaft a flat is developed
consisting of compact fine grained brown sometimes granu1a r fluorite.
White fibrous calcite occurs within the flat and may repre sent an
early phase of cavity lining which have been incorporated by later
fluorite wallrock replacement. Other smaller flats. consisting of fine
grained laminated brown fluorite are encountered beneath a series of
clay wayboards below the Lower Shell Bed (fig. 29). This orebody lies
on approximately the same horizon as the Watergrove Pipe; however,
it is remarkable how the textures of the minerals are so greatly dif-
ferent.

vi) Conclusions

The study has established that mineralization is largely con-

fined to the Brigantian Upper Monsa1 Dale Limestones in the Eyam-
Stoney Middleton area as the Asbian limestones have been rarely
penetrated. A number of stratigraphical horizons control the dis-
tribution of fluorite replacement and are considered as favourable
horizons. These inc1ude:-
Prominent shell beds which may be
pseudobrecciated

Stylolitically bedded limestones

 129.

Clay wayboards and tuffs

Lava contacts
Under the shale cover

The position of the shale cover has in the past been commonly des-
,
cribed as the principal stratigraphical control in that replacement
often occurs below it. This has not been proven in the area and
detailed observations have shown that favourable horizons within
the limestones well below the shale cover are the principal stratal
controls. The main control exerted by the shale is largely seen in
the distribution of vein mineralization on the few occasions where the
veins are seen to pass into the overlying shale cover. However, it
can be argued that pipes and replacement deposits may be developed in
the most favourable limestones which may lie well below the shale
cover implying an indirect aquiclude control

Wall rock-lithology by virtue of variations in its porosity and

mechanical strength usually determines the extent of fluorite replace-
ment or strata-bound cavities, i, e. pipes. The workable width of a
vein and its economic value may increase in the vicinity of any of these
horizons and this provide s a useful tool in prediction of future target
areas within existing mines and in exploration. The distribution of
these favourable horizons is determined by the depositional environment
of the limestones. Penecontemporaneous and continued folding created
more fracturing in the crests of anticlines and this often coincides
with the distribution of "prepared" favourable more porous lithofacies.
These lithofacies represent extensively reworked shelf carbonates dep-
osited during a general regressive cycle.
 130.

5. The Bakewell - Lathkill - Monyash - Longstone area

i) Introduction ,

The Bakewell - Lathkill - Monyash - Longstone area is

dominated by a series of east-northeast trending fissure veins which
include Red Rake, High Rake, the Deep Rake complex, Grove Rake -
Wham Rake, Putwell Hill Vein, Lathkilldale Vein and Long Rake.
These rake veins are some of the longest in the Southern Pennines,
the High Rake - Deep Rake complex extending for over 6 km s, and
Long Rake for 7 km s, A second set of smaller fissure veins and
pipe veins cut these trending roughly southeast and include, Fieldgrove
Rake, Dirtlow Rake, Mandale Rake, Mogshaw Rake, Hubbadale Pipe,
Greensward Rake, and Wager's Flat.

In the north the High Rake - Deep Rake system is worked

underground for fluorspar by Laporte Industries Ltd., from the
Sallet Hole Mine situated in Coombes Dale and a second large mine
is being developed (fig. 7). The ore from this mine and from open-
casts on the same veins forms a substantial part of the feed to the
150 000 tons p. a. fluorspar mill at Stoney Middleton. Fluorspar is
currently worked from Fieldgrove, Magpie, and Mandale Rake by
opencast methods and was recently worked from Mogshaw Rake.

Intensive underground exploration has been carried out by

the author in the central part of the area e specially on the Hubbadale
Pipe s, Magpie and Fieldgrove Rake. In particular both the Magpie
and Fieldgrove Rakes have been investigated in order to assess their
fluorite calcite, and base metal contents on a commercial basis.
Studies have also been carried out upon the Long Rake at Raper quarry
and in the Arbor Low mine.
 131

ii) Longstone Edge veins

The Longstone Edge veins form a linear belt trending east-

northeast and include from west to east, Watersaw Rake, High Rake,
Bow Rake, Deep Rake and Red Rake. In the west the vein content is
mainly calcite seen in opencast workings south of Wardlow (SK185730)
and becomes barytic eastwards on Longstone Moor passing into
fluorite - baryte veins in the Arthurton opencut (SK205732) on High
Rake.

The mineralisation has been ~rieny described by Wedd and

Drabb1e (1908 p. 515) who initially noted the zonal arrangement of the
gangue minerals. Dunham (1952 p. 96) described the distribution of
fluorite on Longstone Edge and provided information on the Catlow
Vein which was worked from the Red Rake Mine which "carried good
flats along the bedding planes of the limestone walls. One of these
flats was 22 feet wide and about 2 1/2 feet high". The history of the
lead mining activity has been documented by Kirkham (1966 c & d) and
Willies (1976). Trace element aureoles in the lime stone wall-rocks
adjacent to Deep Rake in Sallet Hole Mine were carried out by Ineson
(1970).

No details of the· nature of the deposits in the area are available

and only limited exploration has been carried out due to problems OVE r
underground access. A survey of the historical documents however, has
provided some clues on the type of deposit worked ~nd their strati-
graphical positions.

Accounts in the reports made to the North Derbyshire United

Mining Company who were working mines in the area in the 19th century
described the occurrence of toadstone in the Sallet Hole Mine. Toadstone
was also encountered in the driving of Wager's Engine Shaft in 1810 and
is -said to be at a depth of 300 feet. This lava horizon is likely to be
either the Litton Tuff or Cressbrookdale Lava and it has been more
 132.

recently encountered in the modern workings in Sallet Hole Mine. The

1840' s report by John Taylor suggests that this toadstone was passed
\
through in Sallet Hole Mine and large quantity of lead ore was raised
with a considerable amount of profit from the Deep Rake. This
implies that mineralisation persists beneath the lava in the area.
,
In places in the Sallet Hole Mine the top of the toadstone is mineralised
by fluorite and fluorspar ore is mined from this horizon.

Most of the mineral deposits however, have been worked above

the toadstone (Litton Tuff) in the pale grey shelf facie s belonging to
the Brigantian Upper Monsal Dale Ldme stone s (fig. 8). Within this
limestone a stratigraphically controlled deposit peculiar to this area
occurs and is known as the 'hading'. Hadings have been described by
Ansted (1853) (Private source) "where the ore is found between
certain bands of limestone or shale, and exists parallel to the bedding.
These are common and yield enough ore to pay for the getting when the
price of lead is high", Hadings were worked from the Brightside. Mine,
Calver, where they are said to yield a good deal of ore and to dip to
the south; one of the se was known as Goodwin's hading.

Wren Park Mine developed on Peakstone Rake, a north- south-

trending vein which also worked hadings, and a pipe vein, probably the
Peak Pipe (figs. 7 & 8). An interesting description of one of the pipe
veins wor-ked from the Gospel Mine was also given in Ansted's report
"••••• at 27 fro. a clay flukan containing stones of galena has beep cut
in the end driven north east. The main workings are on a lode supposed
to be a north fork of the Deep Rake .1. It appears that a pipe vein or
solutionally enlarged fissure then being worked contained alluvial galena.
N orth- south trending pipe s were also known to cut the eastern end of
Red Rake and were mined from Muse Mine.

Pipes and flats occur at Cacklemackle on Longstone Moor

(fig. 8). These were referred to by Kirkham (1966 c & d p, 361) who
 · 133.

noted that working was taking place in the second half of the 18th century.
Recent descents of the jshafts on Cacklemackle '. (Private source)
intersected a pipe vein consisting of a series of small cavities lined ,
with baryte galena and fluorite at a depth of 67 metres. ·A number of
flats were also found but the nature of these could not be ascertained
due to extensive backfilling by the old miner.

Wager's level was driven north according to Kirkham (1966)

in 1792 into the Water-saw Rake (fig. 7). Before the level reached the
vein a series of hadings were cut through. It is clear that these are
not Wager's flats which lie well to the east but flats were also inter-
sected in driving the level as the driving notes state "hade 1:2 in a vein
which is a flat work". Mention of the toadstone (lava) was also made
and it is likely to be the Litton Tuff. From the sections of strata
given it appears as though these hadings and fiats lie some distance
above the Litton Tuff (fig. 8).

iii) Hubbadale Mine s

The Hubbadale Mines (spelt Hubba - not Hubber - according

to Kirkham 1964)are situated between the villages of Taddington and
Monyash (fig. 7). They have often been cited as examples of the
fabulous richness of pipe vein ore-bodies yielding enormous profits.
Early descriptions of the str-atigraphtcal position of the deposit were
provided by Watson (1811) who noted that the pipe lay above a toadstone
bed. A stratigraphical section of the mine was given in Carruthers
and Strahan (1923) which showed that the pipe-Lay in limestone with two
wayboards beneath the 'great white clay'. They stated that the pipe
o 0
ran N. l5W. to 25W. and was intersected by a large number of parallel
cross veins. There was said to be much 'white sand' associated with
the pipe and iron ore was found with the galena which was picked out
in lumps requiring little washing. A lump weighing 10 tons was said
to be encountered in 1768 when the mines worked at a profit of £17, 000.
,~ ~4
u:u~ _
TAOOINGTON
WhOm Rk. N;";t Ie bed Pi pe
\ THE VEl NS AND ·PI PES OF
\ 0,
13
THE HUBBADALE MINES
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 134.

The history of, mining activity has been thoroughly documented

by Kirkham (1964) and historical notes on later mining activity have
been added by Willies (1976). The geology of the Hubbadale Pipes has
never been thoroughly documented and a series of explorations have
,
been carried out in order to rectify this position. Detailed mapping
of a number of measured shaft sections together with data collected
from old mine documents has shown that the pipe lies within pale
grey biomicrites. A total of 104 metres of limestones is exposed
which belong largely to the Monsal Dale Limestones pale grey shelf
facies (fig. 34). Dark facies Iime stone s are seen in the shafts about
45 metres from the surface and are seen at outcrop in the sides of
Deep Dale 1 km, to the east of the pipe. These limestones were also
examined during explorations of the drainage level known as Wheal
Sough which is driven from Deep Dale westwar-ds to the Hubbadale
Mine (fig. 32), where they consist of very dark grey thinly bedded
limestones with numerous cherty horizons.

The pipe itself is developed within the pale grey limestones

which have been studied at the foot of Fidler or Naylor's Shaft (fig. 33).
Here the limestones are pale grey, thickly-bedded biomicrites with
numerous crinoid ossicle s, They are generally chert free. The
distribution of the strata is shown in the section (fig. 34). A lava
horizon was penetrated below the sole of the pipe and this is recorded
in the old documents being referred to as the 'channel first cut'. The
same lava was also intersected in the Devonshire Shaft sunk by Taylor
to dewater the mines to a depth of 45 metres below adit level (Willies
1976). It is likely that the lava is the Millers Dale Upper Lava which
outcrops at Taddington and Sough Top (fig. 34). These observations
comply with a general southerly dip of the lava.

From the old documents it is clear that the Hubbadale Pipe

trends southeast from Sough Top to Hubbadale farm. It is crossed
by a number of southwest-trending veins and rakes whose general
 A MAP OF" THE VEl NS SHAFTS AND ~OUGHS. NETHER HUBBADALE

NORTH GRID

I'!j
H
g
~
• Shafts
w
- R a k n and V.lns
w

-----Soullf's

r.:: Approximat. poSlllon 01 shafts

" .,
.' ,
/~",; ---- .. - - - til. PlIH

NrntfR
WHEAL
FARM

........
.......
Shalt on 1M
Common

o 320_lr..
1M f!!S~ I
o
 I'----------------._-----------------------~
,!
I
FIGURE 34

I
: It~ltll
~ GEOLOGICAL SECTION OF THE HUBBADALE PI PE •I
,~E 'EEr
SOOTHEAST

I~
W "-" ... "" .... ..- SD.»t4'."W9W't
ON .-..ot':NDWL( Y(.IN

-- {

~t Wh,t, WayboClrd
I~

N.EWorley
 135.

distribution is shown in figs. .32 & 33. Besides the Hubbadale Pipe
a number of other pipes are known and these include Barndoor P'ipe,
Claypitt Pipe, Nettlebed Pipe, Sheathes Pipe, and Dungeon Dale Pipe,
all of which trend southeast parallel with the main pipe. In its lower
parts referred to as Nether Hubbadale the pipe is shown at its widest
which also' coincides with the intersection of Kilnhill Rake (fig. 33),
where the general trend of the pipe appears to be offset.

Despite descents of shafts 13 and 12 (Danger Shaft), or Nether

Hubbadale Fbunde r, only shaft 11 (Fidler Shaft) intersected the pipe
workings. This could only be entered during periods of drought, as it

.
is flooded for most of the year. The workings were examined in a
cross-cut driven through limestone from the base of the shaft towards
the southwest. A passage to the east driven along a barytes vein
intersects a series of elliptical cavities up to O. 5 metre in diameter.
These are usually filled by fibrous white calcite, marcasite, and baryte,
Smaller amounts of galena and fluorite were also seen in some of the
cavities. ·Most of the marcasite was fibrous in structure with cuniform
terminations and is pseudomorphed by goethite. The general para-
genetic sequence is summarised in fig. 37. Extensive weathering of
the lime stone walls of the pipe has taken place re sulting in instability
of the wallrocks. This weathering has caused disaggregation of the
limestone walls surrounding the pipe vein cavities and in places the
wall rock is reduced to a fine greyish brown sand similar in texture
to a "rottenstone ", It is likely that this is the 'white sand' referred
to by Carruther-s and Strahan (1923) and considered by Ford (in Kirkham
1964) to be cerussite. The disaggregation was probably caused by
weathering of the marcasite in the cavities to form pseudomorphs in
goethite, which produces an acidic aqueous by-product. This byproduct
probably 'only had a slight lowe r than normal pH but even this was
sufficiently acidic to attack the limestone causing weathering to take
place along the grain boundaries. Solution of the grain boundaries
tended to disaggregatc the limestone and produce a fine-grained calcite
sand. Examination of the disaggregated limestone has shown that it
 136.

consists largely of fine calcite particles with small amounts of

euhedral quartz and a little fluorite. These acidic solutions have
also etched the fibrous calcite which lines many of the cavities.
Solution on a larger scale has also removed substantial quantities

.
of calcite gangue leaving the less soluble ga lena in the form of
detached fragments. Later karst solutional effects evident in the
pipe vein have removed disaggregated calcite and thereby further
concentrated the galena. Collectively these processes have resulted
in the production of lumps of detached galena within disaggregated
Idme stone, mixed with sands and gravels washed in by surface drainage.
Thus the rich deposit worked in the 18th century must have consisted
largely of the alluvial galena referred to as "lumps of lead ore" by-
Carruthers and Strahan (1923~

In Taylor's 1842 report flats were recorded below the base

of the "blackstone" (dark facies Monsal Dale Limestones) on Tunstead
Rake in the vicinity of Ralf White Close (shaft 7 in fig. 32). These
probably lie in the pale grey shelf facies Monsal Dale Limestone s but
are higher stratigraphically than the main Hubbadale Pipe.

The total recorded pro.iuctton of lead ore from the pipe was
calculated by Wm. Wyatt (1829) who found that 13" 201 loads 1 dish
(3300. 25 tons) were produced at a profit of £21, 558 during the period
September 1767 to October 1770.'

It appears from a study of the available evidence that the

Hubbadale Pipe is developed within the shelf facies of the Monsal Dale
Limestones and that the dark limestones are poorly mineralised. A
number of clay wayboards appear to influence the distribution of the
deposits but the effects of these is not clear.

The mineral deposit is typical of many 0 f the pipes of the

Southern Pennines but is unusual as it contains large quantities of
marcasite. Oxidation of this probably led to extensive disaggregation
 137.

of the wall rocks producing "white sand ", and causing corrosion of the
calcite gangue. This process may have released galena from the pipe
vein cavities and it accumulated in placer sediments within a series
of later karst cavities.

iv) Magpie :M~ines, Chatsworth Pipe, and H1ende Vein Pipe

The geology of the Magpie Mine was first discussed in Carruthers

and Strahan (1923) who described some of the workings, including those
ot the B1ende Vein. Varvill (1962) presented a geological cross section
through the mine showing the various Ievels and distribution of clay
wayboards. He postulated that the Magpie Mine may, if developed,
intersect further mineralised ground ora similar nature to that of the
Millc10se Mine. Ford (1967 p. 13) suggested that the lava intersected
in the Magpie Sough was equivalent to the Millers Dale Upper Lava and
that the limestones seen in the lower parts of the mine belonged to the
D Millers Dale Limestones.
1

Worley (1975 and 1976) and Butcher (1975) extensively revised

the stratigraphy of the mine and described in detail the distribution of
mine ralisation.

Most of the mine is developed within the Brigantian Mon sal

Dale Limestones which consist of interbedded pale grey shelf facies
and darker, sha1ey cherty, limestones (fig. 35 & 36). A number of clay
wayboards occur within the Monsa1 Dale Limestones and may be
correlated throughout the mine. The 480 ft. (146 ill. ) wayboard (fig.J 36)
is probably equivalent to the Shacklow Wood Lava which was intersected
in the driving of Magpie Sough and dies out to the south (fig. 35). The
toadstone which was said to occur at the foot of True Blue S'haft was
interpreted by Varvill as the top of the Shacklow Wood lava. However,
this is more likely to be a thick clay wayboard equivalent to the 360 ft.
(109 ill. ) wayboard seen in the Magpie Shaft.
 FIGURE 35

A GEOLOGICAL SECT ION OF MAGPI E SOUGH SHELDON NEAR BAKEWELL DERBYSHI RE

SOUTH NORTH
MAGPIE MINE NETTLER DALE WYE VALLEY
TOWNHEAo VEIN BOIL UP
SHUTTLEBANK VEIN I
BLENOE SHAFT ON SHELDON FIELDGROVE
GREAT RED MAGPIE
';OIL f HARD VEIN
,4BOLE VEINS
VEIN I BUTTS VEIN I SHAFT VEIN
/RAKE
IIfOtfSAl DALE LS"
""," '=0 I
PALE OfEY SHl:llY LST
i - , 000·
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BASED ON SURVEYS BY NEWORLEY NJD BUTCHER AND QM. MINES RESEARCH NEW 1976
D
 138.

The junction between the Asbian and the Brigantian in the

mine cannot be clearly defined as the lower levels are flooded: the
approximate relationships are shown in fig. 36.

, The Magpie Mine and associated shafts worked a series

.
of east-west-trending fissure veins. These included the Bole Ve in,
Magpie Ve in, Shuttlebark Ve in, and Great Red Soil Veins, which
form a swarm of veins where Mogshaw Rake splits up into Hard Rake
and Magpie Vein. Butts Vein trends northeast and crosses the Bol e
Vein.

All the open shafts on the Magpie Mine have been descended
and the underground workings accessible at sough level have' been
mapped in detaU The deposits examined in the upper levels of the
mine on the Bole and Shuttlebark Veins consist of fissure veins which
for the most part have been stoped out by the old miner .and partially
backfilled Examination of uncut sections of the vein have shown that
they consist of calc ite, baryte, fluorite and galena. Many of the veins
show extensive solutional enlargement and the vein material has been
entirely removed being replaced by a reddish brown earthy mate rial
consisting of mixed loess, baryte, fluorite, chert and limestone frag-
ments. The veins examined are vertically persistant and sometimes
show horizontal slickensliding; they rarely exceed 1 metre in width and
are commonly less than O. 3 metres. The generalised paragenetic in
the Bole Vein is shown in fig. 37.

Calcite appears to be the earliest formed mineral occurring

as large scalenohedral crystals up to O. 18 metres in length and as
columnar white infillings. It is partially replaced by white to colour-
less or purplish grey fluorite which usually has a saccharoidal texture.
This may be intergrown with 'acicula r yellowish or earthy baryte in
which case it is known as throstle - breasted on account of its speckled
appearance. Fluorite frequently replaces the Iimte stone walls of some
of the veins but this replacement zone rarely exceeds O. 1 metres in
 MAGPIE MINE GEOLOGICAL SECTION

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 139.

thickness. Galena is often paragenetically late but may occur in

association with either the fluorite or more often the ba ryte, The
percentage of galena in the veins is difficult to assess but from the
survey is unlikely to have exceeded 10/0 of the total vein content.

With increasing depth the vein contents change quite

dramatically and below the 480 ft. (146 m, ) level calcite, sphalerite,
and galena constitute most of the vein material, baryte and fluorite
being almost absent. The proportion of galena within the veins also
increases markedly and this may reflect a passage from the oxidised
zone to a less weathered reduced zone which was formerly permanently
below the wate rtable.

A numbe r of stratigraphical controls are evident upon the

distribution and form of the fissure veins. Many of them upon en-
countering clay wayboa rd s or shale bands in the dark facies of the
Monsal Dale Limestones step aside or become refracted. Often
beneath the clay -wayboards a general zone of intense fracturing occurs
and wallrock replacement and vein width tends to become increased.
The old miner usually drove levels below wayboards and it is likely
that he was utilising the jointed and more easily worked ground that
also contained a higher proportion of mineralisation.

Surveys carried out in the Bole Vein S haft and Red Soil $haft"
(fig. 36), which are driven through the veins show that veins width
increases in the paler shelf facies limestone. In the darker cherty
limestones the veins are greatly impoverished consisting of a broad
belt of tight elliptical fractures often filled with white columnar calcite.

In the lower levels of the Magpie Mine pipe veins have· been
worked. These include the Chatsworth Cavern Pipe that occurred near
to the main shaft (fig. 35) and the Blende Vein Pipe which was inter-
sected during the driving of Magpie Sough, lying about 633 metres north
of the main shaft (fig. 35).
 140.

The Chatsworth Cavern Pipe was said to contain substantial

. quantities of galena but is no longer accessible lying beneath sough
level It's probable location is shown. on the sections (fig. 36). This
information was provided by Miss Kirkham (personal communication
1976).' The, description in this account suggests that the cavern was
100 ft. long (30. 5m. ) and was said to have been lined with lead ore.
During Miss Kirkham's examination the cavern was filled partly with
mining waste, but roof pockets and pick marks are abundant on the
walls suggesting that the deposit was a pipe vein. Late solutional
~eatures such as enlarged bedding planes were noted in the description.
A further pipe deposit known as the Devil ts Hole occurs below the
612 ft. (186m.) level and the floor was said to be covered by lumps of
galena.

The descriptions suggest that the Chatsworth Cavern and

Devil's Hole were pip~ vein deposits, however, their detailed mineral-
ogy and mineral textures are not known. Plotting their positions on the
geological sections indicates that they lie on the approximate boundary
between the Asbian and Brigantian limestones (~ig. 36). The limestones
seen 15. 8 metres above the site of Chatsworth Cavern are grey thickly
bedded biomicrites and it seems probable that these also act as the
wall - rocks to the pipe.

On almost the same st rattgr-apl.Ical horizon as the Chatsworth

. Cavern lies the Blende Vein Pipe (fig. 35). This has been described by
Worley (1975 and 1976) and lies within a mass of porous reef limestone.
The reef passes abruptly into bedded grey stylolitically bedded c r-in-
oidallimestone of a similar character to those exposed in the sough
above the Chatsworth Cavern. It may be possible that the Cha tsworth
Cavern lies within a similar reef-like body.

Mineralisation in the Blende Vein Pipe consists of a series

of interconnected ca vit ie s up to 2 metre s in diameter lined with calcite
sphalerite with lesser amounts of fluorite, galena, and pyrite (plate 21
 FIGURE 37

PARAGENETIC SEQU-ENCES IN THE BAKEWELL MONYASH AREA

IBLENDE VEl NI IBOLE VEINI

EARLY LATE EARLY LATE
___-11.. _
1~
I ..\!.CITE
CALCITE

'.lJORITE

- - ••
BARY TE

FLUORI TE

- -
'lis Zns
GALENA Wi'.
~RITE

)lLICA

~.lVITIES
- -
IKNOTLOW MINEI !HUBBADALE MINEl
EARLY LATE EARLV LATE

CALCI TE

!l.RYTE
-- BARYTE

FLUORITE
_am·N!8IiiII

G4LENA GALENA

C.lVITIES _
MARCASITE Hi*'RiM·

CAVITIES 1---_:.
I IRAPER 101 INE In('son. AI-KofO,Shll IMANDALE 1011 NEI
I, EARLY LATE EARLY LATE

,
I C.lLCITE CALCITE

I e4RYTE BARYTE MMSW

I
I FLUORITE 'tWI"iMtri••.,if4itii't\5M!5#. . .. , . . · FLUORI TE

I
I G.lLENA eMa'" GALENA

k 1i
( 4LERITE ........
I SILlC>A
i
 141

fig. 1), (fig. 37). At the bases of some of the cavitfe s, channel-shaped
accumulations of galena, sphale rite and pyrite occur in as finely inter-
grown mosaics. (plate 18 fig. 1). The paragenetic sequence is sum-
marised in fig. 37. Later phreatic solution has utilised the established

.
north-northeast - south-southwest system of cavities and fractures and
a number of karst solutional cavities have cut across the earlier
mineralised system.

The pipe vein mineralisation developed in the Magpie Mine

~ppears to lie on approximately the same stratigraphical horizon as
the Hubbadale Pipes and also lies wrthin the same shelf facies Monsal
Dale Limestone. Vuggy reef limestones appear to be favourable sites
for the development of pipe veins in the Monsal Dale Limestones.
Other lithological characteristics influence the form of the fissure
veins which are often refraced adjacent to clay wayboards. Dark
facies Monsal Dale Limestones are not favourable horizons with
veins often becoming impoverished therein.

v) Fieldgrove Vein

The Fieldgrove Vein trends east-northeast and has been

intersected underground by the Magpie Sough (fig. 35) and was worked
from F'Ie Idg r-ove Mine and Wyatt's Fieldgrove mine. It is currently
being worked by opencast methods at Sheldon where fluorspar and
calcite are extracted together.

A descent of Wyatt's Fieldgrove Shaft showed that the vein is

developed within the mixed shelf and basin facies Monsal Dale Lime-
stones. It consists largely of calcite with lesser ba ryte, fluorite and
galena, attaining a width of 1 5 metres. Unfortunately the lower parts
of the mine were flooded during the examination and the effects of the
Magpie Sough on drainage of this mine are probably minimal

The history of mining on Fieldgrove Vein has been recorded

 142.

by Robey (1966) who noted that the vein became 'richer' in the grey
limestones below the 360 ft. (118 metre) clay wayboard. 'These are
likely to be the Monsal Dale shelf facies limestones, and were ref-
erred to as the 'bearing measures' (fig. 8) by Wm. Wyatt, the
former mine agent.

The vein appears to lie at the same stratigraphical horizon

as those in the upper parts of the Magpie Mine.

vi) Hard Rake, High Low Pipe.

Little is known of either of these veins which trend east -

northeast (fig. 7). Hard Rake is the westerly continuation of Mogshaw
Rake and contains substantial amounts of baryte on hillocks which
mark the surface course of the vein.

Associated with Hard Rake in an area crossed by numerous

small veins is the High Low Pipe which is mentioned by Farey as being
in the "lst lime" with toadstone and lead. An old section of the Hub-
badale Mine illustrated the likely strata that would be intersected by
a southeast drive out from Hubbadale, This shows that the High Low
Pipe probably lie s within the greystone or shelf facie s Monsal Dale
Limestones. (fig. 8).

vii) Hillocks and Knotlow Mine s

Knotlow and Hillocks or Chapel Dale Mines have been des-

cribed by Robey (1961 - (3). He was able to show that these mines
wor-ked two pipe veins trending northwest, then known as Whalf Pipe
and Crimbo Pipe. (fig. 7). Both pipes lie within pale grey coarsely
crinoidal shelf facies limestones of the Monsal Dale Limestone.
Observations in Whalf Pipe have shown that it consists of a series
of pillow- shaped cavities up to 1 metre in width. They are filled with
white columnar calcite with later yellow .baryte with some galena.
 143.

The margins of these cavities do not show any wall - rock replacement
and many of them are s ituate d adjacent to prominent bedding planes.
Some small flats c. O. 10 m, thick are developed between some of the
prominent bedding planes. Whalf Pipe seems to be developed in the
highest part
,
of the Monsal Dale Limestone almost immediat ely below
a thick clay wayboard (0. 3m. ) which marks the base of the Eyam
Limestone.

Crimbo Pipe is mineralogically similar to Whalf Pipe but

appear-s to lie at lower stratigraphical horizon in the Monsal Dale
Limestones.

Later karst solutional activity is evident in both deposits and

still active cave systems have utilised the primary mineralised cavities
as a drainage route. Water flows along Crimbo Pipe and sinks in the
Crimbo swallet and during its passage it has eroded fragments of
mineral from the walls of the pipe producing alluvial deposits on the
floors of the pipe vein chambe r s,

viii) Lathkilldale Veins~ Mandale Rake~ Greensward Rake.

Research on the history of the Lathkilldale Veins has been

published in Rieuwerts (1973) who also added provided valuable his-
torical information concerning the geology of these deposits. Further
geological data was provided on the Mandale mine by Worley and Ford
(1976).

The mineral deposits consist of a series of strong fissure

veins which trend northwest; these include Ringinglow Greensward
Mycross and Lathkilldale Veins, and Mandale Rake. Most of the
veins contain calcrte, baryte, fluor-ite, with galena, and some sec-
ondary i.ron oxides. These deposits all lie within the Monsal Dale
Limestones which consist hereabouts of mixed shelf facies and basinal
facies (Worley and Ford 1976). Volcanic rocks have been intersected
at depth in the Warm Bath Vein where the vein was said to have produced
lead ore. This lava is likely to be the Conksbury Bridge or Lathkill
Lodge La va..

Interesting stratal controls apparently exist within the

fissure vein deposits which were said to have produced themost ore
from wide bellies in the blackstone, (Rieuwerts p. 11, 1963). This
appears to be one of the few accounts that specifically refers to the
black or dark facies limestone to be favourable horizons, and in the
wider context can only be regarded as anomalous.

The only flats in the area are referred to Farey as the

Robinstye flats and, according to Rieuwerls, they lie south of the
river Lathkill, probably in the Monsal Dale limestones. No other
information concerning these deposits is available.

ix) Long Rake

Long or Ladies Rake is one of the longest fissure veins or

rakes in the area extending for over 7 kms, in length. It contains
mainly fluorite and baryte in its eastern parts which have been worked
, .
by opencast means at Raper Quarry, and Conksbury Quarry (fig. 7).
The deposit at Raper consisted of a fluorite replacement by reaching
45 metres in width, and was worked to a depth of 30 metres, producing
in the region of 1/2 million tons of fluorspar. At Conksbury Quarry the
orebody was of slightly smaller dimensions but has been worked over
a greater stike length. Production records are not available for this
deposit.

To the west of Conksbury Quarry the vein content changes

from fluorite to massive calcite. The calcite is mined by underground
means from Long Rake Calcite Mine, where galena is also extracted
as a by- roduct from the calcite benefi ca tion, Calcite was also worked
from Arbor Low Mine (fig. 7) which lie s to the we st of the Long Rake
 A PLAN OF THE RAPER
FLUORSPAR OPENCAST

I UPTHROW

.- .~
V.rttc'al Seal •

Stooal .. probably UPIW'

V,sIPan and Namurian 25
1'-- I~G"l
C
:l:l
I;Ij

50~ ~15
I~
P2 Eyom Group
Rf't!'f Facl.s IIm.ston.
75'
passIng lotPrOlly
Into Dark FactH
IImnton.
100.... U30
clay wayboa,d

O Upp .... Monsal

2
001.. B..ds of StooO'lf
BACKFILLED FaCIO'S Lat ..,olly
PqUlyol ..nt to ttoo..
Matlock Upp ..,
Llmpston.

•
. ..
+ + + +
+ ....

Conksb",y brldg..
Laya
:::::::
o20
Horo %ontal Seal..
40 60 80 100 fO'O'\ :::::::'
~~~/~
~ po sM. 64-=1
o 15 30",f'lrPS
'pg.;g Mia:. '

L _ Mansol Oal..
:::::::
BPds

"UJ"'''' "...
 145.

mine but is now idle.

The deposit at Raper Quarry has been the subject of many

geological investigations. Green et al, (1887) noted that the Long Rake
haded ·to the north downthrowing to the south for 20 or 30 yards con-
, ,

eluding that it was a reversed fault. A throw of betweeri 80 and 100

feet was given by Shirley (1959) who also deduced that slickensiding
had occurred afte r mineralisation.

Ineson and Al'- Kufaishi (1970) described the geology and

mineralogy of the Raper deposit on the, Long Rake. They recognised
two different types of ore, (i) fissure-filling occurring between
fractures which of often brecciated, (ii) replacement ore characterised
by silicification, dolomitisation and fluoritisation. The replacement
fluorite ore was described as extremely friable, microcrystalline with
silicified crinoids and unreplaced cherts. A parage netic sequence was
described and three generations of baryte and five of fluorite were
depicted (fig. 37). They concluded that replacement was controlled by
a capping of Edale Shale which was down-thrown on the southern side
of the Long Rake fault. The absence of replacement on the northern
side of the fault was attributed to erosion of both shale cover and any
underlying replacement zone.

F~rman and Bagshawe (1974) suggested that the Raper replace-

ment orebody was situated on a structural high. From the mineral
zonation evident on the Long Rake which passes from fluorite in the
east to calcite in the west they deduced a sequence of structural -
mineralisation events. Initially the early calcite was confined to the
down-dip parts of the vein and subsequent tectonic development and
fracture extension allowed mineralising fluids to migrate further up -
dip westwards. The lavas caused the mineralising fluids to flow in
the overlying Iimestone s and the shales acted as a cap - rock. The
presence of reef limestones beneath the shale cover was not considered
by these authors to have any intrinsic effect.
 146.

A detailed structural and stratigraphical analysis has been

presented by Butcher (!976)' who showed how the Conksbury Bridge
Lava intersected in the base of the quarry died out westwards.

The present study has shown that the deposit is developed

,
within a sequence of shelf facies Monsal Dale Limestones which rest
on the Conksbury BridgeLava. These are overlain by reef and inter-
reef dark lime stones of the Eyam Group. A thick clay wayboard
(O~ 3 m, ) marks the boundary between the two lime stone s whose
distribution is shown in fig. 38.

The reef limestones from a knoll structure consisting of

porous bioturbated pseudobrecciated limestone (plate 3 fig. 3) which
passes laterally into dark thinly-bedded, cherty, Iime stone, Faulting
within the deposit is highly complex (Butcher 1976) and consists of a
swarm of east - west block faults with a net downthrow to the south.

Mineralisation is complex but two textures, fissure filling

and replacement, are developed. Fluorite replacement mineralisation
is more intense within the pale grey Monsal Dale Limestones beneath
the thick clay wayboard (fig. 38). These limestones are comparatively
chert-free and contain numerous stylolite seams and it is likely that
due to their increased porosity are more favourable to replacement
Fluorite rnplacement of the dark facies of the Eyam Limestones appears
to be influenced by the highe r silica content of this lithology. The chert
nodules and shale partings remaining unreplaced lowering the quality
of the replacement ore. Mineralisation within the fractured dark facies
limestones tends to adopt the form of a stockwork replacement with
joint and bedding plane- control

Within the Raper deposit is has not been possible fully to

evaluate how well the Eyam reef lime stone s are mineralised due to
the complex faulting. However, they are likely to be favourable
host lithologie s for the development of replacement mineralisation.
 147.

Petrological studies .of exposed parts of reef limestone show that it is

highly porous and probably susceptible to fluorite replacement Some
of the riders of limestone developed between the major fault system
within the deposit consisted largely of reef limestones which were
heavily replaced by fluorite.

Firman and Bagshaw's (1974) assertion that the presence of

reef limestones within the deposit had little intrinsic effect cannot be
-supported by the evidence collected by the author; and it appears that
porour reefs influenced the distribution of the replacement deposits.

Recent opencast operations (1975) led to the development of

a second quarry east of Dark Lane (fig. 38). This intersected a series
of galena - rich fluorite replacement flats developed between the bedding
planes of theEyam Limestone dark facies on the northern side of the
Long Rake fault. Approximately 1000 tons of galena concentrates were
extracted from this deposit in addition to the fluorspar ore. The deposit
was followed eastwards for appr-oxirnate ly 100 metres and appeared to
break up into a number of small joints. Trenching and drilling beyond
this area were attempted but were hampered by a thick shale and
boulder clay cover and failed to locate the vein.

The Raper deposit lies at a higher stratigraphical horizon

than most of
,
the deposits within the Bakewell, Lathkill, Monyash and
Longstone area. However, its geological and stratigraphical situation
appears to be broadly comparable to the deposits on Longstone Edge
(fig. 7). The study has shown that apart from the established effects
of the shale cover a number of lithological features have controlled
the pattern of mineralisation. These include reef limestones, clay way-
boards, and prominent bedding planes. The presence of numerous chert
and shale bands within the Eyam Limestone dark facies lowers the grade of
fluorite replacement ore.
 148.

x) Conclusions

It is clear from the geological map and stratigraphical

correlation (figs. 7 & 8) that most of the known mineral deposits
lie within ~he BrigantianS tage limestones (D and P 2 sub- zones).
2
Within the Brigantian limestones the shelf facies of the Monsal
Dale Limestones contains most of the important deposits accounting
for nearly all the flats, hadings and pipes. The Eyam Limestones
also contain numerous deposits but do not appear to be as favourable
~s the underlying Monaal Dale Limestones. Mineralisation within
the basinal dark facies of the Monsal Dale Limestones is sporadic
consisting of a few fissure veins developed along major faults.

Within the Monsal Dale shelf facies Lirre stones certain

lithological characteristics control the mire ralisation and these
include reef limestones, prominent bedding planes, clay wayboands
and lava horizons.

The influence of a shale cap rock is apparent in the Raper

deposit but, elswhere the shale cover or former shale cover does
not necessarily appear to have played the major role in controlling
the distribution of mineralisation.

It is difficult to assess the relative favourability of the

Asbian limestones as they have been penetrated but rarely in the
most intensely mineralised ground in the east. Where these lime-
stones have been intersected, for example in Magpie Mine, they have
a markedly different mineralogical content, bearing little fluorite
or baryte gangue.
 149.

6. The M~tlock - Wirksworth - Youlgrave Area

f
i) Introduction

The Matlock - Wirksworth - Youlgrave area is dominated

by a series of major east - west major vein structures. These include
Long Rake, Coast Rake, Moletrap Rake, Gang Vein, and Yokecliffe
Rakes. A second set of west-northwest faults which includes the Gulf
fault and BonsaI fault crosses the middle of the area but these have
been little worked for either leadnr fluorspar. North - south-trending
pipe veins cut across the fissure veins and rakes. These are too
numerous to list but the more important ones are, Portway, Plackett,
Orchard, Yate stoop, Millclose, Tearsall, Oxclose, Masson, Hopping,
and Ball Eye.

A general zonation of the gangue minerals distribution is

evident within the area fluorite occurring along the eastern sections
of the veirnsometimes passing westwards into baryte, and finally
into calcite.

Mining in the area is of great antiquity and Roman lead pigs

have been unearthed at Matlock. The first major' recorded sough or
dr-ainage level to be driven in the Southern Pennines was driven at
,
Cromford and was engineered by Vermuden in 1632. The area was
also the site of the longest and most ambitious sough projects which
included the driving of the Hillcarr Gough to dewater the Alport mines
and Meerbrook Sough to drain the Wirksworth area.

It is probable that the majority of the lead ore production

produced in the Southern Pennines came from this area with notable
contributions coming from the Alport area, Winster, and the famous
Millclose Mine which produced almost 500. 000 tons of lead concen-
trates. Today mining activity consits of opencast fluorspar operations
 150.

which are mainly situated on Bonsall Moor and Tearsall Most of the
fissure veins and pipes in the Matlock area have been extensively ex-
ploited for fluorspar. A number 'of attempts at mining fluorspar-lead-
zinc underground have been made in the recent past notably at, Portway
Mine"1948 - 50, Oxclose Mine 1949 - 50, Jugholes, 1939 - 60, Masson
Mines, Riber Mine 1950 - 59, Royal Mine, Hopping Mine and Wapping
Mine. All of these mines have been abandoned or are standing having
rarely sustained production over more than a few years.

Despite the fai lure of post - war mining in the area a programme
. "
of preliminary explorations by R. T. Z., Alcoa, Allied Che.mica1 Corp. ,
Noranda-Kerr, Exsud, J. C. L, has been undertaken over the last five
years or so.

In the southern part of the area at Hopton the former C. E.

Giu1ini Ltd. 's 80,000 t. p. a. mill is situated. Most of the opencast
fluorspar was taken to this mill but a combination of low grade mill
feed and financial difficulties led to the closure of this operation
in 1975. Attempts are being made to re-open the mill by Kaiser
Aluminium Corp. and Dresser Industries Ltd., which will probably
stimulate more opencast and underground mining within the area.

• ii) Notes of the Alport - Harthill area

This small mining field is centred on the villages of Youlgrave,

Alpo rt, and Hartle (fig. 11) lying on the northern side of the Stanton
syncline. The area has been the scene of comparatively great capital
investment and technical innovation with the introduction of til: first
water pressure engines, and the driving of one of the longest soughs
in Derbyshire, the Hillcarr Sough. Kirkham (1962a) and Willies (1976).

The mines worked a series of rakes and pipe veins which

have two trends, northwest, and southeast. Generally the pipes trend
southeast, and these include, Blythe, Oldfield, Brama Close, Hall,
 151

Corton Hill" Laund, Nickator, Br-ackonrield, Hooson, Cr-owshaw,

Bowe rtng, Jones, Old Cross, and Billing's Pipes. The more im-
portant rakes include, Wheels Rake" Sutton Vein, Ditch, Bowers"
Milking Spot, Amos Cross, Pinet Nest, Kfrkmeadow, and Bacon
Close·Veins.

•
Most of these deposits were worked for lead ore in the
Monsal Dale and Eyam Limestones which lie above the Conksbury
Br-idge Lava. The Monsal Dale Limestones are grey and cherty
becoming darker towards the base above the Conksbury Bridge Lava.
Reefs are known in the Eyam Limestone which pass laterally into
dark inter-reef limestones. Most of the veins were worked beneath
the Namurian Shale cover. From reading the historical records it
appears that the most productive horizons were the Monsal Dale shelf
facies limestones and Eyam reef facies limestones. The dark lime-
stone sand lavas we re generally unproductive as we re the MonsaI
Dale Limestones beneath the lava.

iii) The Winster - Elton area

The Winster - Elton area lies on the northward dipping

southern limb of the Stanton syncline (fig. 11). Most of the mineral
deposits in the area consist of north and north-northwest-trending
pipe vetns which include Wasp" Cowclose, Alderman's" Po rtway,
Plackett, Orchard, and Yatestoop Pipes. All these pipes are sit-
uated to the south of the main fissure vein, Coast Rake, which trends
west - southwest. Although many of the mines are still accessible
in the area only a comparatively small pilot study has been undertaken.
There still remains considerable scope for underground mapping and
exploration within this area. Fortunately" descent of a key shaft at
Will's Founder Mine has established the stratigraphy and the nature of
the pipe veins has also been studied in this locality. Records of
explorations in search of lead orebodies at Portway Mine and boreholes
drilled in conjunction with this project have also been made and together
 152.

with unpublished surveys of the Plackett Mine allow a reasonable

account to be pre sente d,

Most of the have worked deposits developed in the Brig-

antiart Monsal Dale Limestones and the overlying Eyam Limestones•
.
The Monsa! Dale Limestones are pale grey chert free crinoidal
limestones which have extensively dolomitised especially in
their upper parts; however, the dolomitisation may often become
's~lective affecting only certain parts of the lime stones. Two major
lava horizons are known, the Matlock Lower Lava and the Winster
Moor Farm Lava. Both lie within the .Brigantian (fig. 12). The
Matlock Lower Lava is the most extensive attaining a thickness in
excess of 30 metres but dies out to the west beyond Gratton Dale.
The Winster Moor Farm lava is known at outcrop and has been inter-
sected at Portway Mine 20 metres below the base of the Matlock
Lower Lava. Dolomitisation does not appear to have penetrated
into the limestones beneath the Matlock Lower Lava. A number of
clay wayboards are present within the limestones above the lower
lava and some of them may be equated with lava horizons kn own
elsewhere (Worley 1977).

iv) Porh;ray Pipe

-The Portway or Portaway Pipe has been de scribed briefly

by Dunham and Dines (1945 p. 89) and Dunham (1952 p. 105) where the
deposit is described as a replacement lying in the limestones above the
Matlock Lower Lava; and beneath a. roof of dolomite. Replacement
was said to be controlled by a series of north-northwest-trending scrins
and extends for a width of 40 metres. Other accounts give the dim-
ensions of the pipe which attained 13 metres in width by 183 metres
length and 14 metre s high. Farey notes that the pipe yielded much
lead and some 'wad' (pyrolusite), and Green ore (pyromorphite) was
said by Green et al, (1887) to occur in Portway Pipe.
 153.

Dunham (1952) noted that the pipe possessed an outer zone

of fluorite replacement with an inner filling of baryte.

Production of lead from the Portway Pipe is substantial by

Derbyshire terms and although records are incomplete the Barmaster's
.
measuring books indicate that 6, 336 tons of lead ore were produced
between 1746 and 1859.

Investigations carried out in the 1950's (Schnellman and

Richardson private report) on the Portway pipe attempted to trace
the mineralisation beneath the shale cover north of Coast Rake. They
employed the methods established in Millclose mine where the down-
stepping of replacement orebodies beneath lava horizons was dis-
covered. This approach failed in Portway Mine, and neither the pipe
or other payable deposits were found in the limestone below the
Matlock Lower Lava.

v) Wills Founder Mine

The geology of Will's Founder Mine has been described in

Worley (1977). This mine worked the Kebble or Spar Vein which is
a pipe vein trending northeast situated at the base of the dolomitised
Monsal Dale Limestones, and 12 metres above the top of the Matlock
Lower Lava, The pipe consists of a large vertically elongate cavity
7. 5 metres high. Parts of the base of the cavity are filled with a
breccia of mamillated baryte cemented by later white calcite. The
dolomite walls of the pipe are partly replaced by an intergrowth of
fluorite and acicular baryte. Later karst solutional activity has
affected the pipe deposits and removed substantial amounts of attached
mineral from the walls of the pipe. These have been deposited on the
floors of the cavities and mixed with red ochreous sands silts and muds.
Pyrolusite or 'wad 1 also occurs with the sediments.

Comparison with the Portway Pipe descriptions shows that

 154.

this deposit is strikingly similar and seems to lie at a comparable

stratigraphical hor-izon,

vi) Plackett M.ine

The Plackett Mine is developed in a series of pipe veins

trending north-northwest. Farey described the mine as being II wide
with caverns" one of them reaching 360 ft. (110 metres) high with
much lead ore. Apart from Farey's description no other information
has been published on the Plackett Pipes. The following notes on the
workings have been kindly provided by the Metalliferous Mines Res-
earch Group who have explored and surveyed the mine.

The deposit consists of a series of parallel fissure veins

trending north-northwest forming a broad belt of fractures. A complex
system of interconnecting flats and pipes is associated with these
fissure veins which contain calcite, fluorite, baryte, and some galena.
Fluorite has replaced -the walls of many of the pipe vein cavities. A
number of black shale bands and clay wayboards interbedded within
the pale grey limestone appears to have controlled the distribution
of the mineralisation and numerous flats are developed in the lime-
stones sandwiched between the shale beds and clay wayboards. Sim-
ilar shale beds occur in Will's Founder Mine between 41 and 50 metres
below the shaft collar and it seems probable that the mineralisation
in the Plackett Mine lies broadly on the same stratigraphical horizon
as that of Will's Founder Mine. The influence of the dolomite - lime-
stone contact in Plackett Mine has not been evaluated.

Later karst solutional activity is common in the pipe and

numerous phreatic pockets cut across the veins and pipes. These
are commonly filled with red brown clays and silts mixed with det-
ached mineral fragments.
 155.

vii) Millclose Mine

Millclose Mine was the last successfully worked lead mine

in the area and literature concerning most aspects of the mine is
abundant. The most notable contributions were provided by Parsons
(1897), Stuckey (1917), Varvill (1937), Traill (1939 and 1940) and Shirley
(1948). It is often cited as the prime example of stratigraphical control
of mineralisation and therefore no account of stratigraphical controls
Inthe Southern Pennine Orefield can avoid a critical analysis of this
deposit.

Parsons (1897) showed that the lead deposits at Millclose

Jv1ine consisted of transgressive veins, with caverns partly filled
with jumbled masses of clay, spar, and lead ore. He considered
that much of the ore was mined from these caverns or pipes which
at the 19th century stage of mine development wouldbe situated in
the upper levels of the mine at about the 40 fathom level (fig•. 39).

A geological section through the Millclose Mine was pub-

lished by Stuckey (1917) which showed that the mine had worked down
to the 73 fathom level and was approaching the "boil up" or Number
One winze. He also described the influence of the coaly wayboard
situated at the base of the Black Beds (= Cawdor Group) which
capped many flat deposits. Where the coal was faulted and brecciated
it often occurred unaltered adjacent to galena, affording evidence of
the low temperature of formation of the lead to Stuckey.

Varvill (1937) summarised the geology of Millclose Mine

basing his account upon his experience as the mine's engineer. A
number of important features controlling the formation of orebodies
in the Carboniferous Lime stone were listed by him based upon the
Millclose theme, and these include:-
 156.

'A, bed of limestone sufficiently soluble

to render it readily susceptible to attack
by circulating waters of either meteoric
or deep- seated origin.

The existance of cracks large enough to

allow water movement at the outset.

The existance of beds of relatively soluble

cherty and non-porous rock such as shale
limestone lavas etc., located not too far
apart in any vertical direction, ~ith the effect
of localising and controlling the flow of
cavernising waters within certain limited
horizons.

Time enough to allow adequate enlargement of the

fissures.

The advent of mineral-bearing solutions into

the cavernous zone"

Varvill suggested that the formation of the pipe vein cavities may
either be aasociated with karst processes at unconformities or result
from dissolution of the limestone wall - rocks during mineralisation.

The mineral deposits were classified into (a) those charact-

erised by dissolution of the wall-rocks and (b) transgressive fissure
veins. Most of the former type described from the Millclose Mine
included wing deposits, flats and pipes. The wing deposits consist
of replacement orebodies developed beneath clay wayboards, or shale
beds adjacent to fissure veins. They may extend for some hundreds
of metres and may be separated from the main \€in by a detached
limestone " rither". It appears that these deposits were cavernous,
 157.

being produced by processed of cavity formation and later mineral

infilling, and are analogous in terms of texture to the flat and pipe
veins. Silicification of the limestone wall-rocks was commonplace
in these deposits and was often used as a guide in locating new ore-
bodies in ~XPloratory cross-cut drives.

Those deposits called flats are often 'L' shaped in profile

and are developed adjacent to fissure veins. They occur beneath
impermeable horizons such as clay wayboards or shales generally
,in pale grey host rocks. Dissolution processes ha ve enlarged prom-
inent bedding planes beneath these horizons which have been sub-
sequently filled by galena. The flats attain a thickness of 8 feet
(2. 4 metres) and were worked in a similar fashion to coal seams.

The pipe orebody in the Millclose M.ine consists of a cavity

situated adjacent to a prominent bedding plane or impermeable horizon,
produced by solutional enlargement of a j oint. They are as a general
rule incl.ined paralled to the bedding. Galena and calcite occur as
concentric bands in-filling the cavities which may extend for over 50
yards (45 metres) being sufficiently large to allow a man to walk along.'
In some cases the cavity linings have collapsed from the walls and
lie on the floors of the cavities and may be cemented by later mineral-
isation. In some situations pipes may become superimposed above
one anothe r,

A section through the Millclose mine given by Varvill showed

how the orebodies were arranged in a step-like fashion; which l~d him
to the conclusion that the mire ral solutions came from depth and
travelled in a southward ascending pattern. A connection with Long
Rake was advocated suggesting this as the source of the mineral fluids.

After the mine closed in 1939 Traill summarised its geology

and development. The geological sections were updated to include the
later development on the 144 fathom level and the stratigraphy was
 158.

also revised.. The stratigraphical description forms the basis of the

section (figure 39) which shows that the mine is developed in lime-
stones largely of Brigantian age. Asbian age limestones occur
beneath the Iowe r 129 ftm. Toadstone in the northern parts of the
mine•. Most of the workings were in the pale grey limestones known
as the 1st Limestone in the south and the Second Main Limestone in
the north. In the north a dark facies of limestone occurs towards the
base of the Second Main Limestone and rests on top of the Upper 129
ftm. Toadstone. The limestones below the Upper 129 Toad stone, the
129 ftm. Limestone and 10 foot Limestone are pale grey and coarsely
crinoidal Correlations with successions in the Matlock - Winster
area are shown in fig. 12. Traill established that the lava horizons
died out laterally and could be correlated with clay wayboards or tuffs
in other parts of the mine.

A study. of joint patterns was also presented by Traill

(1939 p. 803) in which he recognised three trends. northwest. north
and east-northeast. the latter coinciding with the major rake veins

.
such as Long Rake and Coast Rake. Displacement along many of the
larger joints is rare and faults. where present. have throws which
do not exceed 5 metre s, Horizontal movements are characteristically
developed and many fault planes contain horizontal slickensides.

The stratigraphical distribution of the mineral deposits was

detailed and the following paragraphs are a precis of this account

In the southern part of the mine the. ores were situated in the
pale bluIsh grey First Limestone known also as the Galena Beds
(= Matlock Upper Limestones) above the Matlock Upper Lava.
Little ore was found in the overlying Black Beds (= Cawdor Group
,
dark facies). The galena occurs mainly within a north - south striking
fissure vein and it is not until Warrencarr Shaft that pipes and flats are
known occurring adjacent to cross joints. in an area known as
Warrencarr wide•.
 159.

(Mr. L. Vickers personal communication. )

North of Lees Shaft (fig. 39) the ore occurs within the
Millclose fault (fig. 39) a powe rful fissure vein with flats and pipes
becoming increasingly important 1, 500 to 2000 (457 to 609 metres)
further no'rth,

This is the section of the mine that was described by

Parsons (1897). Traill contested Parsons' assertion that most of
the ore was taken from masses of calcite and galena etc. which lay
on the floor of caverns, suggesting that galena in caverns wa sdif-
ficult to work on account of the clay, rock and spar which would tend
to dilute the ore. However, discussions with some of the Old Mill-
close miners have tended to support Parsons' origin statements.

The parage netic sequence in this section of the mine (fig. 43)
shows that fluorite, baryte and pyrite are commonly associated with
galena and sphalerite. The nickel sulphide bravoite was also reported
by Bannister (1940). As in the other parts of the mine most of the ore
was mined from the First Limestone 50 feet (15 metres) below the base
of the Black Beds.

North of the New or Ventilation Shaft the Upper Lava dies

out being represented by the Intermediate Tuff. It was discovered
that during the sinking of Number One winze down through the 'Boil
Up' that the ore lay in a joint 15 ft. wide (4. 6 m) known as the Main
Joint which was capped by the Intermediate Tuff (fig. 39). Further
north the 103 ftrn, Toadstone acts as the cap to the Main Joint and
as it lies below the Intermediate Tuff reduced the vein height from
130 ft, (39 m. ) to 85 ft. (25. 9m). In this section Wing deposits
were encountered on the west side of the Main Joint following south-
west-trending scrins. These occur only in the pale grey Second
Main Limestone (Matlock Lower Limestone) and are capped by the
Intermediate Tuff or 103 ftm. Toad stone, Flats also occurred
 160.

adjacent to the Main Joint again on the western side. These flats
were situated beneath <:t thin clay wayboard in pale grey coarse
crinoidallimestone. Unfortunately Traill's description is not clear
concerning the nature of the Main Joint where it crossed the dark
facies of the Main Limestone. It is likely that the Main Joint per-
sisted into the dark limestones but replacement deposits have not
developed at this horizon.

Number 2 winze (fig. 39) was sunk as the ore appeared to

be dying out in the Second Main Limestone to the north. Good ore
was intersected in a continuation of the Main Joint in the 129 ftm.
Lfrne stone ( Matlock Group). The Main Joint led northwards into
a large pipe vein which trended west-northwest. This pipe attained
a width of 6 metres a height of 12 metres, and a length of 609 metres.
It consisted of a series of large caverns up to 243 metres long which
were lined with sphalerite and coated by later calcite mineralisation.
In some places collapsed blocks of limestone and lava occurred in
the floors of the caverns and these were replaced and cemented by
later fine grained dark sphale r-ite, This sphalerite mineralisation
appears to be similar to that seen in the Blende Vein, Magpie Mine.
o

Pipes were also encountered in the 10 Foot Limestones

below the Lower 129 Toadstone in coarse crinoidal limestones belonging
to the Asbian Hoptonwood Group.

The striking stratigraphical controls over the distribution of

the mineralisation within the Millclose Mine led Traill to investigate
the limestones susceptible to replacement. These he considered were
pale grey, thickly-bedded and coarse grained. The dark thinly-bedded,
cherty limestones were not considered to be favourable horizons.
Chemical analysis of favourable and unfavourable limest'ones showed
that there was little difference between the two, which, suggested
that colour and texture were a better guide than chemical composition.
 16l

Studies of the variations of mineralogy were also recorded

The main observations concerned the vertical zonation seen within
the mine : in the upper levels this consisted of fluorite - baryte
changing to sphaler-ite- galena- calcite in the lowe r levels. Fine grained
'Black Jack' sphalerite occurred within the 129 fathom level pipe
.
replacing limestone. Chalcopyrite O. 1 mm, in diameter was
associated with this type of sphalerite. Chemical analyses have shown
that the sphalerite contained up to 1% Cd, Fluoritisation was common.
~ the upper levels producing a dark, fine- grained margin to many of
the veins. Some of the larger fluorite crystals contained inclusions
of marcasite and this mineral was also noted within calcite crystals.
Pyrite w.as recorded in the upper parts of the mine in discrete bands
but was absent in the lower sections of the mine.

Traill concluded that the Millclose deposits were analogous

to the Mantas seen in northern Mexico. He was uncertain about the
source of "the ores but was one of the few early authors to recognise
that the deposits seen in Derbyshire in many ways resembled those
of the Mississippi Valley.

Varvill (1962) summarised his ideas on the nature of Mil1close

Mine and the genesis of the galena deposits which he based upon ex-
perience in the mine and knowledge gaIned whilst engaged as a con-
sultant within the area. He proposed th a radical idea that substantial
parts of the galena deposits were secondary in origin derived by mech-
anical erosion of galena in scrins and veins. This finely divided galena
was transported by meteoric waters in the form of a froth flotation.
As the meteoric water penetrated to greater depths the increasing
hydraulic pressure caused collapse of the air bubbles in the froth and
the precipitation of galena ensued. An analysis of the hydrology of the
Stanton syncline was presented which suggested that water sank in the
Alport - Youlgrave area into the core of the Stanton syncline and
re surged to the south at Matlock Bath. Millclose Mine, lying in the
core of the syncline, coincides with the point at which the galena in
 162.

floatation was precipitated. Varvill stated that the abundance of

solutional features such as caves, pipe veins and solutionally enlarged
fissures supported the idea of the flow of substantial quantities of water,
though it is not easy to see where the catchment is for quantities of
wate rto c~scade down fissures making froth.

From the contemporary geological descriptions it is possible

to compare Millclose deposit with others in the Southern Pennines. It
is. clear that the deposit consisted of a series of interconnecting pipe
veins, fiats, and fissure veins. The replacement deposits, flats, pipes
and wing deposits are situated in favourable lithostratigraphical sites.
These are. usually pale grey crinoidallimestone s of Brigantian age
(Matlock Limestones and Monsal Dale Limestones). Underground
mapping by Shirley (1948) has shown that between Lees and Ventilation
Shafts (fig. 39) a reef knoll is developed above the 50 fathom level
This was not recognised by Varvill or TraiH but by vir-tue of the favour-
ability of this type of lithology elsewhere in the Southern Pennines it is
likely that replacement deposits occurred in the reef at Millclose mine.
The aquiclude effect of lavas, shale bands and clay wayboards upon
mineralisation is mpst pronounced within the deposit and the distribution
of replacements is determined by the distribution of these lithologies.
The arrangement of this impermeable horizons has caused the orebody
to adopt an ascending stratabound form stepping upwards progressively
from north to south.

A critical examination of the descriptions has also revealed

that it is not the shale cover sunsu stricto that caps the Millclose
deposits but the dark inter-reef facies limestones of the Cawdor Group.
Thi.s facies generally referred to as the "Black Beds" caps the replace-
ments and only in two circumstances did the more powerful fissures
enter it.

Similarly the dark limestones exposed on the 103 fathom level

were unfavourable and no replacements were recorded, at this horizon.
 163.

The published descriptions of the ore - textures at Miflclose

are a little patchy. The pipe deposits appear to be similar to those
encountered elsewhere in Derbyshire but are generally larger in size.
Many of the margins of the pipe veins cavities have been replaced by
fine grained fluorite which was probably intergrown with quartz.
Sphalerite was also said to have replaced collapsed limestone blocks
on the floor of the large pipe encountered in the 129 fathom Limestone
at the north end of the mine. This is the only case known to the author
of sphalerite replacing limestone in the Southern Pennines.

The flats in Millclose appear t o be very similar to those seen

elsewhere consisting of infilling of solutionally enlarged bedding planes.
The degree to which replacement has affected the walls of the flats in
Millclose Mine is unknown but it is likely that both considerable wall-
rock replacement by both fluorite and galena occurs.

Whi.g deposits which were so common in Millclose have not

been recognised elsewhere. From the descriptions it is not clear
whether they were a true metasomatic replacement or a combination
of cavity linings and wall- rock replacement.
•

Zonation within the deposits from fluorite, galena, sphale rite,

baryte, to calcite - sphalerite at depth is a feature seen in other local-
ities notal:ly at the Magpie Mine, and at Low Mine on Great Rake at
Matlock

Karst features so commonly encountered in the descriptions

of Millclose clearly indicate that extensive post - mineralisation
solution has greatly modified the orebodies. It is likely that prior
to mining and draining of the deposit it acted as a natural water -
course complex, water flowing in the Stanton syncline under the in-
fluence of arte sian circulation. This, according to Varvill, deposited
secondary galena on the walls of. solution cavities which was transported
in an aqueous notation solution. It is difficult to accept the large scale
 164.

movement of galena particle s in this fambn and it is more likely

that oxygenated vadose. waters would 0 xidise the lead sulphide to
cerussite and transport it in low concentration aqueous solution.
F'urther-mo re, the precipitation of galena by incr-e a aing hydrostatic
pressure ';1pon the walls of caves in the form of accretionary growths
of-galena is even more unrealistic. The texture of galena observed
in the mine are from Varvill' s own descriptions coarsely crystalline
and the transformation from fine- grained flotation size galena to
coar se ly crystalline galena could only have taken place over greater
periods of time than could be envisaged.

It can be argued that by analogy with other pipe vein in the

area that the karst waters mechanically removed galena from the
walls of the numerous cross joints and scrins in MflIcl.o se and dep-
osited them in the Main J oint and solutionally enlarged pipe ve in
cavities. Many of the gangue miner-al s, being more soluble and less
•
resistant me chanical ly, would be preferentially removed and the walls

"- of the cross veins and pipes would become solutionally enlarged.
Galena would therefore occur within the pipe veins mixed with fragments
of gangue minerals~. limestone blocks stoped from the cave roofs and
clays carried in from the surface. The distribution of this type of
pipe deposit within the mine is important and it appears that it only
occurred in the upper parts of the mine notably on the 93 and 103 fathom
levels and in the 'Boil up Cavern'. The lower sections of veins and
pipe s, lying deepe r , were probably affected to a lesser, degree and
Traill's descriptions generally support this theory.

The extend to which this type of placer galena deposit occurs

appears to be limited occurring largely in the upper levels of the
mine. The majority of the ore mined from the deposit clearly came
from the primary galena situated within pipe s, flats and fissure veins.
 165.

viii) Tearsall Pipe

Tearsall Pipe trend s north- south and is situated to the we st of

the head of Northern Dale (fig. 11). Accounts of the history of the mines
in this area may be found in Kirkham (1962) and Flindall (1974) who
also added notes on the geology and surveyed the underground workings.
This account is based on mapping undertaken by the author in 1975.
but lately mining activity has rendered both underground and surface
exposures at this locality inaccessible.

The pipe vein is developed within the lower part of the Matlock
Lower Limestone which rests on the Matlock Lower Lava. The top of
the lava is locally tuffaceous and it is exposed at the head of Northern
Dale and in the access road to the opencast workings. Dark limestones
(5 to 6 metres thick) rest on the tuffaceous top of the lava and these
pass upwards into a sequence of pale thickly bedded pseudobrecciated
biomicrudites. A group of clay wayboards occurs towards the middle
of the Matlock Lower Limestones. lying about 12 metres above the top
of the lava. One of these clay wayboards attains 1 metre in thickness
and contains grey green clay with Lithostrotion junceum and small
brachiopods (Worley and Dorning 1977). This clay wayboard is exposed
•
in the new fluorspar opencast and can be mapped underground.
Dolomitisation has affected the limestones especially in the vicinity
of the strongly jointed and mineralised ground. Its distribution appears
to be controlled by the occurrence of major joints and faults. Clay
wayboards also control its distribution and most dolomitisation occurs.
above the thickest clay wayboard The lowest dark limestones and
pseudobrecciated limestones below this thick wayboard are only locally
dolomitised adjacent to major joints. Within the pale grey limestones
dolomitisation sometimes develops an unusual form occurring in the
form of a series of oblate spheroids up to I metres in length with a
concentric laminated structure. These do not appear to be influenced
by the distribution of joints and their formation seems to be a puzzle.
Similar structures occur in the dol.om itf sed limestones at Masson Hill.
Matlock (Ixer 1974).
 166.

Mineralisation consists of a series of ovoid cavities (c. O. 5 m)

which are infilled with. calcite, baryte.. galena, and fluor-Ito, and a
number of replacement flats composed largely of fluorite and galena.
Several north- south trending fissure veins also occur and contain ex-
tensive replacements
,
adjacent to their walls, especially in the dolomite.
The mineralised cavities and replacement flats occur either in limestones
beneath the clay wayboards or immediately above them.

Exploration of old mine passages which have intersected the

~owest dark limestones just above the lava have shown that they are

largely barren consisting of a few joints filled with white calcite and
a little galena.

Mineralised cavities up to I metre in diameter are well

exposed in the opencast workings. These are infilled with fibrous
calcite and yellow powdery baryte. Later fluorite in some cases
completely tills the cavities and may replace both the calcite and
limestone/dolomite walls. Examination of the calcite in thin section
has shown that turbid subhedral fluorite has partly replaced-the calcite
crystals. The fluorite is O. 12 mrn, in size and has selectively replaced
•
the areas adjacent to grain boundarie s in the calcite (plate 20 fig. 1)
which appear to have been permeable to fluorite-bearing solutions.

A number of inte rconnect ing cavit ie s have developed by

solutional enlargement of bedding planes at the base of clay wayboards
and these are particularly well exposed in the old workings underground.
These cavities are channel-shaped in cross section and may be up to
2 metres in thickness but are more usually O. 5 metres thick. They
are filled with brown.. laminated, fine grained, fluorite which contains
clasts of green- grey clay stoped from the overlying wayboar d, Few
other minerals are associated with the fluorite and in thin section it
consists of interlocking equigranular crystals which are O. 1 mm, in
size. The brown colouration is caused by a coating of iron oxide
on the fluorite grains. (plate 20 fig. 2). Small stylolite seams have
 167.

also been detected in thin sections with amplitudes of about 1 mm, It

can be argued that from the presence of laminations, monomineralogy
(only fluorite occurs in the cavities) equigranularity, and presence of
clay clasts that this deposit has a sedimentary origin. However,
in thin section many of the grains interlock-a texture commonly seen
in-fluorite clearly of a replacement origin and it is not clear in this
case whether this type of texture results from replacement or in-
filling of cavities by sedimentary fluorite,

A number of replacement fluorite - galena flats are developed

beneath clay wayboards or beneath prominent bedding planes. These
consist of fine grained purple to grey fluorite which is usually compact
but in places becomes vuggy : small amounts of quartz, and baryte
are associated with this type of deposit. Thin flats only 2 cm s, across
of galena also occur along some of the prominent bedding planes.

From this survey it is apparent that the Tearsall Pipe lies

within a sequence of pale grey pseudobrecciated biomicrites belonging
to the Matlock Lower Limestone and lies at a similar horizon to many
of the other replacements in the Matlock area (fig. 12). Stratigraph-
•
ically the main horizon of replacement and cavity fill mineralisation
lies within a series of thick clay wayboards about 15 to 20 metres above
the top of the Matlock Lower Lava. The dark limestones resting on top
of the lava are not favourable to the development of replacements or
cavity fill mineralisation. Clay wayboards within the pale limestones
control the distribution of cavities and r-eplacement flats within the
deposit, and also control the distribution of dolomite. As the replace-
ment deposits lie roughly at the limestone - dolomite contact it can
be argued that this had an important effect upon the location of the
deposit (Ford 1967); however, the aquiclude effect of wayboards
(Worley 1976) seems to have controlled both the mineralisation and
dolomitisation and it is difficult to prove that the dolomite - limestone
contact had any intrinsic effect upon the distribution of mineralisation.
 16B.

ix) Old Ash Pipe

Old Ash Pipe lies on the western side of the northern section
of Northern Dale, (fig. Il), At surface the pipe is marked by a series
of parallel north-north-east-trending veins some ofwhich have been
.
mined by shallow opencasts. A number of deep shafts also lead into
the deposit but a short adit from Northern Dale provides the easiest
access.

Underground mapping has established that the pipe which trends

north-northeast is developed within a complex of Cawdor reef facies
limestones. The reef consists of a central core or mass of unbedded
dolomitised rather porous limestone, flanked by thinly bedded crinoidal
biosparrudites which abut the reef (fig. 9). The reef exposed under-
ground is probably part of the one which outcrops in the side of the
dale. A clay wayboard also occurs interbedded within the crinoidal
facies limel:1tone on the flank of the reef but dies out on approaching
the reef itself.

The mineralisation consists of a series of cavities up to

•
1 5 metres in diameter which are linked by small mineralised joints
which trend northeast and north-north-west; in places these scrins
. .
reach O. 04 m, in width. Fluorite has replaced the margins of the
cavities and generally produces a channalv shaped zone of replacement,
at the base of the cavities. The fluorite is granular, fine grained, and
brown in colour, and is frequently intergrown with acicular baryte or
calcite. Towards the north eastern part of the pipe the laminated
fluorite .attatns a thickness of between 1 and 2 metres and is cut by
later baryte - fluorite cemented fissures (plate 15 fig. 1). In some
cases the fluorite mineralisation develops a fine-grained texture, which
in thin section consists of a mosaic of equigranular fluorite grains.
The core s of the fluorite grains are dense and turbid with nume rous
opaque inclusions. Relic calcite grains showed embayed outlines
typical of metasomatic replacement (plate 20 fig. 3).
 169.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 11

Fig. 1 Calcite lined pipe vein cavity, Old Nestus Pipe, Masson,
Matlock. A typical elliptical cavity Co 2 metres in diameter
, .
developed in dolomitised Matlock Lower Limestone. Brown
fine-grained fluorite has selectively replaced the limestone
floor of the cavity and later calcite mineralisation has partly
Willed the cavity. This type of cavity is typical of many
Derbyshire Pipes.

Fig. 2. Pipe vein cavity with laminated fluorite baryte replacemm t

300 ft. level Oxclose Mine, Snitterton.
The photograph shows a typical pipe vein cavity with lam-
inated fluorite-baryte replacement of pseudobrecciated
•
biomicrite Matlock Lower Limestone host rock. Above
the replacement zone is a breccia of weathered marcasite
(dark) with baryte and fluorite formed by solutional stoping.
PLATE 11

FIG 1

FIG 2
 170.

Most of the cavities. are infilled by calcite, fluorite, baryte,

and galena, all with columnar textures. Occasionally the calcite
adopts a scalenohedral form showing a zonal structure with dark zones
containing pyrite inclusions. The general paragenetic sequence is shown
in figure 44

The pipe vein has been jnod ified by the later development of
a number of phreatic tubes about 1 metre in diameter with which cut
across the pipe. Inplace s these utilise the existing network of min-
eralised cavities but often develop within the limestone itself avoiding
the mineralised ground The lower pa.rts of the pipe vein have been
partly filled in with brown clays mixed with large fragments of brown
fine-grained laminated fluorite. These have been extensively disturbed
by the old miner who may have examined them in sear-ch of alluvial
galena.

Pipe veins have also been worked on the eastern side of

•
Northern Dale (Ford, Flindall & Worley 1977) and are developed
along the margins of reefs in the Cawdor Group. One of these known
as Lords and Ladies Mine is probably an extension of Old Ash Pipe
•
andthe Pleistocene incision of Northern Dale has separated the two.

x) Oxclose Pipe

The Oxclose Pipe trends north-northeast lying 1 km south

of Snitterton village. Three soughs are known to have drained the
mine workings and are known as C'rowholt, Oxclose, and Orchard
The Crowholt level, a coffin- shaped level driven southwards from
Snftte rton, is probably the oldest dating from the 18th century. Oxc1ose
and Orchard Soughs are of 19th century construction driven from river
level The only descriptions of the mine appear in Smith et al, (1967)
who noted that fluor-Ite flats were worked at 200 ft. and 300 ft. in Ox-
close Mine.
 - - -- ---:-..,.-"::-=,.......,,.--..- - - - - - - -
A GEOLOGICAL SECTION THROUGH OXCLOSE MINE
North
south
OXCLOSE MAIN SHAFT

PHOSPHORESCENT POOL SHAFT

Matlock Upper Limestone

o

"'---...
------..........
...,
Mat lock Upper Lava
--. --...--... 20
1-4
C)
C
~
----- "'- ~
o

CW_ _ _ _ _ _ 0" At.. r

-.....::! -..Loc" IJpp
-.;;,; -....:::!.1f , .......
~
40
Matlock Lower
Li mestone

W
OOO'-CEVEL! I ,
60 metres
\"J CW
DARK L~T~ _
CW flATS DEVELOPED BENEATH
CLAY WAYBOARDS
CW
W
Matlock Lower Lava
-ESTIMATED lOP OF MATLOCK LOWER LAVA

CW. CLAYWAYBOARD
SURVEYED BY DA NASH,S.H'RSTWOOD, JS.BECK,& NEWORLEY DRAWN NEWORLEY 1977
 171

There is no historical account of the mine but documentary

evidence has been foun~ concerning the existence of a steam engine on
Oxclose during the lflth century (Kirkham 1965 - 66). The mine has
been the scene of post World War II fluorspar mining and was opened
by Messrs Derbyshire Stone in 1950 on the 300 ft. level as a trial
.
for. fluorspar. and a cross- cut was also driven on the 200 ft. level
The venture proved unsuccessful and the mine stood idle for a number
of years. In the later 1950's further mining activity was carried out
by Messrs Fisher for a short period. The mine is still listed as a
registered mine (List of Mines 1974).

A survey of the mine has been undertaken. some of the results

of which are shown in figure 40. This has established the stratigraphy
and paragenesis of the orebody. Petrographic studies have also been
carried out on the fluorite replacements.

The deposit is developed in the Matlock Lower Limestone

which is about 35 metres thick. The Matlock Upper Lava acts as a
/
cap rock and mineralisation is not known to penetrate it. The basal
part of the Matlock Lower Limestone hereabouts is very dark grey
•
and shelly and of a similar character to that seen at Tearsall Mine at
the same stratigraphical horizon. This passes gradationally upwards
into pseudobrecciated pale grey, thickly-bedded biomicrites. In places
these Hmr stone s are shelly being crowded with small pr-oductid s,
colonies of Lithostrotion junceum and Syringopora sp.. Seven clay
wayboards occur (fig. 40) in the sequence and have been used as marker
bands in underground mapping. The middle one of these clay wayboards
is compound consisting of a group of three clay beds interlayered with
thin pale grey limestones. On the 200 ft. level the upper most clay
wayboards attains a thickness of O. 3 m,

Mineralisation consists of fluorite. baryte, marcasite. galena,

and sphalerite. Secondary minerals include cerussite, smdthsonrte,
r

.::J
-
d L c::cr:: ~
PIPE VEIN CAVITY AND FLAT OXCLOSE MINE

fluoritE' barytE' intE'rgrowth

FLAT baryte rE'plaCm9

fluorite barytp intergrowth

0-5

PIPE VEIN
CAVITY

o
MarcasitE'

Alterpd blocks of
vesicutcr basalt

1 M.
11 £ tJ~. 1117

..
 172.

"and a little malachite. These occur within a series of cavities which

are generally O. 7 metx:-es in diameter and are linked by a series of
solutionally enlarged joints which trend north-northeast. Solutional
enlargement of the larger joints has produced a series of vertical pipe
like deposits. Flats are extremely common and attain thiclmesses of
•
up to I metre but O. 3 metres is more common. They persist laterally
for several hundred metres, and always occur beneath clay wayboards
but in some cases may be situated immediately above them. Flats are
known to occur beneath five of the seven "clay wayboards within the
Oxclose Mine. Mineralisation is absent in the dark limestones
beneath the clay wayboard which marks the top of these dark beds.
Mineralisation however, is common beneath the two main clay way-
boards seen on the 300 It. level and below the three wayboards that
outcrop on the 200 it.. level No fiats are seen in the vicinity of the
uppermost clay wayboard or in the limestones immediately beneath the
Matlock Upper Lava. The Matlock Limestones above the Upper Lava
have been extensively dolomitised and mineralisation consists only of
a few scrins and small pipes with baryte and calcite.

Mineral textures developed in the pipes and fiats within the

Oxclose Mine are broadly similar throughout the deposit. The para-
genetic sequence is also remarkably consistent within the deposit
(fig. 41) a feature rarely seen in other pipe veins. (Worley & Beck
1975). Often within the pipe vein cavities pre-mineralisation solutior al
activity has led to stoping of the Matlock Upper Lava down the vertical
pipes into the cavities. Weathered blocks of vesicular lava frequently
occur on the bases of the pipes especially in those limestones, just
below the Matlock Upper Lava. The lava fragments vary in size from
O. 3 m, to less than 1 em, in size. Later mineralisation has subsequently
completely filled in many of these cavities cementing the lava blocks
together. This fill may take the form of brown fibrous baryte, ('plate
15 fig. 3) fluor-ite or more commonly marcasite (fig. 41). Fragments
of lava may also be included within a laminated Inter-growth texture of
. '

baryte and purple fluorite as in :piate 15 fig. 3, indicating that solutional

, "

...
 1'13.

. activity and stoping was still. taking place during mineralisation.

The presence of a laminated texture and inclusion of lava fragments
. ' ,
suggests that some of the pipe cavities were infilled by sedimentary
fiuor~te which may have been derived from erosion of the other
existing mineralised cavities.

Many of the flats have a laminated brown fluorite margin

which is developed on both the roof and sole of the flat (p"late 11 fig. 2).
The colouration is mor-e variable in the less weathered parts of the
deposit consisting of white to orange coloured fluorite .(plate 15 fig. 2)~
and it is likely that the colour is produced by weathering of the associated
marcasite layers. Often the lighter coloured layering reflects varying
proportions of intergrown baryta, the lighter coloured layers con-
taining greater quantities of baryte, The marcasite layer is up to
O. 03 m, thick' and occurs as an even band aroun-d the margins of the
flat. Arrow head or cuniform te rrninat lons are usually developed
on the cavity-facing side of the marcastte crystals. which are frequently
intergrown with baryte crystals.
,
In the upper sections of the mine this
.usually weathers to goethite. The final infilling of the cavities in both
the flats and pipes consist of a coarse saccharoidal intergrowth of
purple to colourless fluorite with acicular baryte. In some cases
crystals of earlier scalenohedral calcite are developed and where
these are present are invariably partially replaced by the fluorite
possesstng etched and corroded margins. Sometimes the cavities have
a layer of clear fluorite which rests on top of the marcasite and con-
tains anhedral grains of galena and more rarely sphalerite.

A sub stantfal amount of post-mineralisation solutional

activity has taken place within the Oxclose Pipe. This has led to the
erosion of the mineralised pipe cavities and flats and df.ssolutton of
the limestone walls. Sediments have accumulated on the floors of
some of the solutionally enlarged pipe vein cavities. These contain
mainly fluorite, baryte and calcite mixed with reddish brown sandy
.clays. The sediments have not in all cases completely filled
 174.

the solution cavities and the upper surfaces open spaces have allowed
speleothems to accumulate. These take the form of a thick 3 to 4 em.
layer of calcite flowstone (plate 18 fig. 3). Early mining activity has
excavated much of the sediment cutting through the hard calcited covers.
In many parts of the mine today the remnants of these floors may be
seen high up in the roof of large chambers where the miner has com-
pletely excavated the ~edimE'nt in search of galena.

The geological evolution of the Oxclose Pipe may be sum-

marised:-
(1) Formation of a system of interconnecting solution cavities
adjacent to clay wayboards; some stoping of Matlock Upper
lava.

(2) Mineralisation of the cavities by calcite, fluorite, baryte,

mar-casite, galena, and sphale rite.

(3) Some penecontemporaneous local re-distribution of the primary

fluorite mineralisation. Laminated fluorite baryte sediments
accumulate and this is accompanied by further small scale stoping
of the lava.

(4) Karst phreatic dissolution of the pipe vein walls leading to erosion
of mineralised cavities. Sediments of mineral material and' sandy
clays accumulate in large solution cavities.

(5) Speleothem deposits are formed under vadose conditions and cover
the sedirne nt s,

(6) Ear-ly mining activity cuts through the speleothem floors in search
of lead pre s re - excavating the karst cavity systems.

xi) Leawoocl Pipe

The Leawood Pipe lies 200 metres to the east of Oxclose Mine
at SK 276599. The pipe trends north - south extending for a strike
length of 200 metres, attaining a maximum width of 10 metres and a
height of 12 me-t r-e s, Mapping underground has shown that the pipe is
 175.

developed in the Matlock Lower Limestones lying beneath a thick clay

wayboard O. 3 IT... thick, This wayboard lies approximately 16 metres"
below the top of the Lower Limestone and is probably equivalent to
the three clays in Oxcl ose Mine. The limestones consist of pale
grey bformcr-ite s, with Lithostroti6n colonie a Below the clay way-
.
board a band sea ttered with Productid brachiopods occurs and may
be correlated with a similar horizon in the Oxclose mine. In places
the shelf facies limestones may be pseudobrecciated but the dis-
tribution of this type of limestone is not fully known in the mine.

Mineralisation consists of a series of interconnecting

cavities up to 2 metres in diameter which are partly infilled with
columnar white calcite. Intergrown within the calcite crystals are
grains of sphalerite up to O. I m, across. These often have a zonal
: arrangement within the calcite ~ayers. Smaller amounts of galena
may be associated with the sphalerite. In places the sphalerite is
weathered to white calamine. The updip part of the pipe contains a
deposit of laminated brown fluorite which occurs in the base of a
large cave some 10 metres high and over 30 metres long. This
deposit attains a thickness of 2 metres and the laminations contained
in the deposit lie parallel to the cave floor.

Extensive karst dissolution of the wall-rocks has occurred and

the pipe has been in places completely filled with brown - red sedime nts,
Many of these consist of fluorite and it is clear from examination of the
workings that the passages presently accessible have been excavated by
mining activity. There has been little attempt to remove attached
mineral from the walls of the pipe and it appears that most of the lead
ore was won by washing this sediment fill

xii) Juzhol es Pipe

.Q_----

The Jugholes Pipes trend north - south (fig. 11) and extend for
a strike length of about 400 metres. They have been described by Worley
 176.

and Nash (1977) who also surveyed the pipe vein system. The pipe
consists of a series of cavities and joint- controlled fluorite replace-
ments situated in pale grey crinoidal biosparrites and pseudobreccias
in the Matlock Lower Limestone.

,
A downdip extension of the Jugho1e Pipe system has recently
been surveyed. Here a pipe vein known as Calf Tail Pipe (Worley and
Nash 1977) occurs beneath a thick clay wayboard with a basal coal
parting, equivalent to Cw 4 in the Masson Quarry (Worley and Dorning
1977) (fig. 12). The original mineralised cavities have been greatly
modified by karst solution but the remnants of one cavity contained
. .
clasts of volcanic clay cemented by bluish granular fluorite. This
texture closely resembles that seen in the Oxclose deposit. Large
fragments of rounded galena frequently occur in the sediment that
fills many of the solution caves in the pipe vein.
•

xiii) Hungerhills Pipe

Recent surface trenching in search of opencast deposits on

the Snitterton Estate revealed that a fluorite replacement outcropped
along the line of the old Hungerhills Pipe (SK 281599). A small openpit
was dug along the line of the pipe which trends north. This revealed
a replacement consisting of very fine grained fluorite; in places inter-
grown with baryte, The wall- rocks are rather thinly- bedded, cherty,
pale grey limestone s dolomitised in places belonging to the Matlock
Upper Limestone.

xiv) Masson pipe s

The pipe veins at Masson Hill have received rather more

attention than most other deposits in the Southern Pennines. Dunham
(1952) gave a detailed account of this deposit, finding that it was
situated in partly dolomitised limestone above the Matlock Lower
Lava. A thick clay wayboard known as the 'Little Toadstone I was said
 177.

to form the roof to the flat deposit, Dunham recognised that the
flat occurred along a se r-ie s of northwest-trending scrins with a
second conjugate set at right angles (northeast). The mineralogy
of the deposit was de sc rtbed and in addition to Iluorite, dol.omite,
silica, baryte, and galena were described. Petrographical notes
,
were added on the nature of the metasomatic replacement or-e s,
and replacement of the limestones was recognised by dolomite,
fluorite, quartz, and baryte. Cubic metacrysts with xenomorphic
aggregates of quartz (0. 01 to O. 2 mm, ) were also described and the
occurrence of quartz as inclusions within fluorite crystals was dis-
covered.

Ford (1967) stressed that the Masson replacement lay at the

contact between dolomitised limestone and unaltered limestone sug-
gesting that this contact had an important effect on localising the
mineral solutions. He also noted that a number of post - mineralisation
solution cavities, were associated with the deposit.

Ixer (1974) described the geology of the more recent opencast

workings reaching similar conclusions to those of Dunham. He
established that the par-agenetic sequence was complex and many phase s
of fluorite mineralisation were present.

A survey of the mine workings was presented by Butcher (1976,

fig. 42) accompanied by an analysis of the joint patterns. Flindall and
Hayes (1976) presented a more complete survey of the mine and added
a detailed historical account giving records for the lead ore extracted.

The deposit extends over a strike length of 850 metres attaining

a maximum width of 240 metres trending northwest, and a height of 18
metres is reached adjacent to major fissures. Detailed underground
surveying has shown that the deposit consists of a series of inter-
connecting mineralised cavities collectively forming a pipe. A number
of flat deposits are also associated with the pipes. The se are developed
 178.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 12.

Fig. 1 Fluorite-calcite flat, Old Nestus Pipe, Masson Matlock

Flat deposits are less common than pipes: this one is
.
developed in dolomitised Matlock Lower Limestone. The
flat, a str-atfforrn, deposrt, is developed by infilling of a
cavity developed by solutional enlargement of a bedding
plane. Fluor-Ite, calcite, and baryte with columnar in-
filling textures occur in the flat.

Fig. 2 Fluorite flat, High Loft Pipe, Masson, Matlock.

This flat deposit which occurs within pseudobrecciated
Matlock Lower Limestone consists of columnar fluor-ite;
baryte, galena, and calcite, forming a series of layers
infilling a cavity developed by enlargement of a bedding
plane.
FIG 1

FIG 2
 179.

within a sequence of shelf facies Matlock Lower Limestone. The

limestones are pseudob re cc iated, pale grey biomicrites and rest
on the Matlock Lower Lava (plate 5'). The top of this lava flow is
seen at the base of Beck Shaft and in places in the bottom of the
opencast mine. Four clay wayboards occur within the lower lime-
stone and these also outcrop underground. The lowest one lies
about 4 metres above the top of the lava and forms the roof to most
"-
of the replacement mineralisation which is seen in the northern
part of the deposit beyond Beck Shaft. Much of the remainder of the
deposit is situated in pseudobrecciated limestones between wayboards
1 and 2 and consists largely of pipes and small flats with fluorite-quartz
replacement adjacent to major joints.

Dolomitisation has affected most of the upper parts of the

limestones and is most strongly developed in the opencast. Howeve r,
underground mapping has shown that dolomitisation is far less common
there and mainly occurs above the thick 'clay wayboard 4. Dolomit-
isation doe s penetrate more deeply than this in some places usually
adjacent to major joints and may migrate laterally along prominent '
bedding planes. On the whole the contact between the limestone and
dolomite is highly irregular.

For convenience description of the geology and mineralisation

follows thr. terminology established by Flindall and Hayes (1976, fig. 42)

The main sections of the mine are divided into:

The Nestus pipe and Old Nestus pipe, which lies south of
the Masson Cavern entrance.

High Loft or Black Ox pipe

Crichman - Beck replacements

Gentlewoman's pipe or Queen mine

The opencast or Knowles mine

 FIGURE 42

~~=~2::::::::::;;::::::=:::::;;" KNOWLES
AOIT

SHAFT

9 '20 2£0 320 4.00 5f RET

o '50 100 METRES

CAVERN
EXIT

BLACK OX
SHAFT

MASSON CAVERNS
Matlock
 180.

The Nestus Pipe has been explored by Hurt (1968) who

published a sketch suryey of the workings. From these surveys and
re-interpretation of his geological information it is possible to deduce
that the Nestus Pipe lies within the Matlock Lower Limestone about
20 metres above the top of the Lower Lava. The pipe vein system
follows th~ dip of the strata which dip quite steeply to the south (30 0 )
and trends north-northwest, In the north this pipe intersects the
eastwest trending Great Rake where it is known as the Rutland Cavern.

Beyond the Rutland Cavern section the Great Rake has been
worked from a prominent series of stope s where it is a double vein,
some 3 or 4 metres wide. The pipe vein is displaced by the Great
Rake in both a vertical and lateral sense with a net downthrow to the
south. On the upthrow side of the Great Rake the pipe continues
displaced to the west as the Old Nestus Pipe (fig. 42). This section
of the pipe consists of a series of large mineralised cavities and was
until recently referred to as the 'Black Ox mine '. These mineralised
cavities reach over 5 metres in diameter and are developed in partly
dolomittsed pseudobrecciated limestones between clay wayboard 1 and
4 (fig. 12). The general dip of the strata is towards the north at about
10 to 18 degrees. Cavities tend to be developed along a series of
prominent bedding planes or clay wayboards and have been infil1ed
by fluorite, calcite, baryte, and galena. The earliest formed mineral
appears to have been white calcite which forms large zoned scaleno-
hedral crystals sometimes O. 3 m, long (plate 11 fig. 1 and plate 14 fig. 1).
Large polished sections of zoned cal cite crystals have been prepared
in order to determine the mineralogical content of the zones.

The zones are up to O. 01 m wide and occur towards the outer

margins of large scalenohedra1 crystals (plate 16 fig. 1). In detail
this broad zone is composed of a number of smaller inclusion layers
which have a dark brown colour. A number of small grains of lustrous
pyrite inclusions may be detected within these zones under a strong
light in hand specimen. The polished surface of one of these zones

",
 181.

E4PLANATION TO PLATE 13.

Fig. 1 Pseudobedded fluor-ite, High Loft Pipe, Masson Matlock.

Pseudobedded fluorite developed in the base of a large
.
cavity in pseudobrecciated lime stone above the Matlock
Lower Lava consists of alternating bands of fine-grained
fluorite with coarse vuggy euhedral fluorite. This rests
with a we llrlefined and sharp contact on a lime stone floor.
The origin of this type of texture is a puzzle.

Fig. 2 Fluorite - baryte r-ossette s, Old Nestus Pipe, Masson Matlock.

An unusual fluorite-baryte texture formed by crystal growth
of baryte rossettes upon which later fluorite crystals have
grown. The cross - section effect which forms the rounded
shape s has been produced by crystal grown within the confine s
of a small joint cavity.
PLAT 13

FIG 1

FIG 2
PLAT 14

FIG 1

FIG 2
 183.

clearly shows the parallel banded structure and the distribution

of the pyritic inclusions can be seen.

Under the microscope the inclusions are more varied

mineralogically than appears from hand specimen examination.
,
The sections examined contain 'pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
and secondary goethite. They vary in size from 1 mm to less
than O. 01 mm showing highly complex intergrowth textures. Pyrite
and chalcopyrite are the most abundant grains forming anhedral
angular shapes in cross section. Sphalerite and galena are less
common but often occur in close association. They may show complex
exsolution textures (plate 17 fig. 1) where pyrite occurs along the
grain boundaries of sphalerite. Both galena and pyrite occur in a
similar type of exsolution texture (plate 17 figs 2 and 3). Later
fluorite replacement mineralisation has even affected the se inclusion
zones, for small grains of fluorite have penetrated them indicating
that they are rather porous areas within the calcite crystal. A
fluorite crystal is shown in the inclusion zone in plate 17 fig 3.

Apart from calcite other minerals have filled the cavities.

The general arrangement of these is highly variable and even adjacent
cavities bear different sequences of infilling. Flats are less common
than pipes but a few are developed along the more prominent bedding
planes. They have similar columnar textures to the pipes and reach
O. 3 metres in thickness, extending for 3 to 4 metres in length.

Pervasive fluorite replacement mineralisation has affected all

parts of the deposit and appears to have occurred at a paragenetically
late stage. It is difficult to determine whether only one stage of
fluorite replacement has occurred but it is likely that nume rous pulse s
of replacement have occurred. The replacement mineralisation adopts
the form of irregular diffuse zones of porous fine grained granular
fluorite. This varies in colour from almost black to pale grey, and is
particularly well developed in the southern part of the Old Nestus Pipe
 i 84.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 15.

Fig. I Pseudobedded fluorite, Old Ash Mine, Wensley.

Grey- brown fine- grained fluorite from the base
of a large cavity (over 6 metres). The laminated
fluorite may attain thicknesses of over 2 metres
and is cut by a se rie s of small baryte - fluorite lined
fissures. This type of deposit may have originated by
disaggregation of existing fluorite replacement deposits.

Fig. 2 Laminated fluorite-baryte replacement. 300 it. level

flats Oxclose Mine, Snitterton.
This type of texture is widespread in the Oxclose Mine
and consists of discretely banded fluorite with intergrown
baryte which cause s the colour variations. This type of
mineral texture occurs on the bases of fiats as a replacement
of pseudobrecciated Matlock Lowe r Lime stone s,

Fig. 3 Bedded fluorite - baryte with clasts of igneous clay. Oxclose

Mine, Snitterton.
Bedded granular fluorite-baryte deposits cementing angular
clasts of igneous clay are commonly developed within pipe
vein cavities which lie below the Matlock Upper Lava. It
seems likely that solutional stoping of the overlying lava
took place and that concurrent disaggregation of existing
fluorite replacements led to the formation of sedimentary
fills in these pipe cavities.
 P LATE 1 5

oI C n time tr e s
I I
5
I

FIG 1

oI C e nt im etr e s
, I
5
I

FIG 2

oI Centimetres
I I
5
I

FIG 3
 185.

EXPLANATION
, TO PLATE 16.

Fig. 1 Pyritic calcite, Old Ne stus Pipe, Masson, Matlock.

A dark 1 - 2 em zone of sulphide inclusions consisting
,
largely of pyrite is developed towards the outer margins of
the polished calcite crystal; mimicing the scalenohedral
form. The outer margins of the crystal are corroded by
fluorite replacement.

Fig. 2 Pyritic calcite, Old Ne stus Pipe, Masson Matlock.

This enlargement of the polished section showing the
arrangement of the inclusions of pyrite and chalcopyrite.
PLATE 16

r.'I G 1

F I r. 2
 186.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 17.

Fig. I Mixed sulphide inclusion in calcite. Old Nestus Pipe,

Masson, Matlock. Photomicrograph Xl.20.
,
Examination of the sulphide inclusions in the calcite
reveals that they consist of both chalcopyrite, pyrite,
and galena and sphalerite. An inclusion containing all
these sulphide phase s is shown. consisting largely of
galena, which is partially replaced by veinlets of
sphalerite with anhedral pyrit,e grains.

Fig. 2 Mixed sulphide inclusion in calcite. Old Nestus Pipe,

Masson, Matlock. Photomicrograph Xl20.
A similar type of inclusion to that described above,
howeve r the replacement of galena by sphalerite has
reached a more advanced stage galena remaining as
relic grains within sphale rite.

Fig. 3 Mixed sulphide inclusion in calcite, Old Nestus Pipe,

Masson, Matlock. Photomicrograph X120. _
This type of inclusion is more commonly developed than
those shown in figs 1 and 2, consisting of subhedral pyrite
g~~ains within a galena groundmass. The inclusion is
developed along the contact of calcite (light grey) and small
grains of fluorite (dark grey) which have selectively replaced
the calcite along the porous sulphide- rich zone.
PLATE 17

FIG 1

FIG 2

FIG
 18'7.

where earlier relict mineralised cavities can be seen in masses of

granular fluorite (plate
, - 14 fig. I). Sometimes fluorite replacement
affects the contact between the columnar cavity fill mineralisation
and limestone wall rock. This is illustrated in plate 11 fig. 1 where
fine grained fluorite replaces the margins of an elliptical calcite
filled cavity. This type of fluorite mineralisation adopts a laminated
textur-e, the laminations being parallel to the walls of the cavity, and
these may represent a series of advancing replacement fronts.

Examination of this type of fluorite replacement under the

microscope has shown that in general it is highly siliceous. Large
euhedral to subhedral porphyroblastic grains of turbid fluorite O. 01
to O. 1 mm in size are scatte red through a matrix of microcrystalline
quartz and calcite (plate 19 fig. 3).

In some cases the fluorite replacement of the limestone

wallrocks is not volume for volume and concurrent dissolution of the
wall rocks appears to have occurred A typical example is shown in
plate 18 fig. 2 which shows an early system of closely spaced inter-
secting joints. Later mineralisation has partly removed the inter-
vening limestone and in most cases subsequently crystallised in the
form of cubic fluorite crystals into the open spaces. This type of
texture has been described elsewhere by Dunsmore (1973) from the
Pine Point deposit in a dolomite replacement where it is called a
"zebra texture" (plate 18 fig. 2).

Other mineral textures peculiar to the Old Nestus pipe occur

exclusively in the dolomitised limestones. They consist of a series of
small rather round cavities up to 0.01 metres long filled with either
galena fluorite, or more rarely calcite. These cavities may be aligned
along bedding planes as shown in plate 14 fig. 2 or are located adjacent
to small joints.

Fluorite may also occur in the form of a series of rosette like

structures (plate 13 fig. 2) which appear to replace earlier calcite
mineralisation This type of texture appearsto be unique and the
author cannot find any record of a similar nature elsewhere in the
Southern Pennines.

The High Loft or Black Ox Pipe (covering the area formerly

known as High Loft to King Shaft section of the mine) lies north of the
Old Nestus Pipe and is only separated from it by ownership of the lead
title. The pipe is developed in pale gr-ey, thickly-bedded pseudobrec-
ciated limestones lying between clay wayboards I and 2. However
towards Beck Shaft the orebody has been worked lower in the suc-
cession, in limestones above the Lower Lava which outcrops in the
floor of the workings. In the vicinity of Dale Shaft (formerly referred
to as High Loft Shaft) a large cavern about 20 metres high is developed.
This cavern shows solutional features which indicate that karst dis-
solution has taken place cutting across the earlier mineralised pipe
vein. After erosion of this large cave it was filled with sediment. The
old floor level is clearly visible now some 15 metres above the present
floor level It is apparent that the old mine r cut through this sediment
in search of lead ore within the sediment in the form of a placer deposit.
Excavation in this way would also reveal pipe vein cavities concealed in
the walls of the cavern. This type of sediment infill is pre sent in all
parts of the Masson pipes and it is clear from the old records reproduced
by Flindall & Hayes (1976) that the miner drove in the sedimentary fill
Accounts refer to the 'hard forefield' and the 'hard skirts of the pipe I
which suggests that these were limestone which was difficult to work in
and relatively barren

Excavation by the miner has revealed a spectacular example of

a flat deposit near Dale Shaft. It is about 1 metre thick (plate 12 fig 2)
attaining a length of over 30 metres. The roof and floor of the flat are
pseudobrecciated limestone with the floor partly replaced by granular
fluorite. The in-fill of the flat consists of columnar fluorite with
(lesser amounts of baryte and calcite in the form of thin ribs running
 189.

parallel to the bedding. Sm~ll amounts of galena are also present

forming small inclusio?s within the fluorite layers.

An unusual type of fluorite deposits outcrops in the section

of the pipe between Dale and Crichman Shafts (fig. 42) in limestone
,
a few metres above the lower lava. It consists of fine- gr-ained, brown
fluor-ite, which has a horizontal lamination. The laminae are generally
•
6 cms apart and may be separated by elliptical vughs 20 to 30 cms long
and 5 to 10 cms higli (plate 13 fig. 2). This deposit occurs within a
series of small limestone caverns up to 3m. in diameter and forms
a sharp contact with unaltered limesto~e. Clays and sands rest on top
of the laminated fluorite and formerly completely filled the caverns.
Nearby the limestones have been extensively replaced by fine grained
siliceous fluorite with some baryte but this replacement appears to
be quite distinct and separate.

Beyond Beck Shaft (fig. 42) the deposits assume a rather

different character consisting of a large fluorite replacement known as
the Crichman - Beck replacements. These are developed within the
limestone beneath clay wayboard 1 (fig. 12) and the Lower Lava. The
replacement is situated within two sets of clo?ely spaced mineralised
joints trending northeast and northwest. Mining has taken place through-
out this area using square set pillar and stall methods. The mineral
textures in this area closely resemble the zebra texture described
from the southern end of the deposit (plate 18 fig. 2). A number of caves
have been intersected above the flats and contain a fill of laminated red
brown silt which contains contorted bedding structures possibly attribut-
able to the cryogenic effects of freezing during the Pleistocene by Ford
(1967)~ and Ford~ Flindall and Worley (1977).

A powe rful northeast- trending pipe known as Gentlewoman's

Pipe breaks out from the flats consisting of a series of cavities partly
filled with white calcite. Some galena and late fluorite are pre sent in
this deposit which is distinct from the other parts of the Masson Pipes
 EXPLANATION TO PLATE 18.

Fig. 1 Mixed sulphide ore, Blende Vein, Magpie Mine.

Photomicrograph X 40.
,
Mixed sulphide ore consisting of an intergrowth of
sp?alerite, galena, and pyrite occurs in channel-like
accumulations developed in the base of pipe vein
cavities. The paragenetic relationships of these three
minerals is not entirely clear.

Fig. 2 Zebra - texture fluorite replacement, south end of

Old Nestus Pipe, Masson, Matlock.
This type of fluorite replacement consists of a series of
closely spaced mineralised joints. The intervening
limestone has been partially removed and the resultant
space s are partly infilled by euhedral fluorite crystals.
Similar textures have been described by Dunsmore (1973)
from the Pine Point Deposit, Canada.

Fig. 3 Calcite speleothem cementing an al.luvial deposit, Oxclose

Mine 200 ft. level
Karst solutional enlargement of pipe veins is widespread in
the Oxclose Pipe, and this has produced alluvial deposits of
baryte and fluorite in caves. In many cases a thick layer of
fibro- radiate calcite speleothem has accumulated on top of
these. Mining activity has cut through the speleothem layers
and excavated the baryte and fluorite.
 PLATE 18

PIC; 1

FIG 2

oI Centimetres
I I
5
I

FIG 3
 191.

containing substantial quantities of calcite. A number of caves are

associated with the pipe and are partially filled with bedded red- brown
silts and clays. Recent investigations have revealed that an old sough
was driven from Artists Corner, Matlock (SK2965H4) and explorations
have shown that the pipe continues towards Seven Rakes (fig 11). A
,
strike length of O. 6 Kms. is .attained by this pipe. Mapping in the old
sough level and in the pipe itself has shown that it is situated in pale
grey pseudobrecciated limestones and lies between clay wayboards I
and 2.

To the south and east of the replacement flats, in the vicinity

of King Shaft, a series of small pipe veins have been worked. These
again occur within dolomitised limestones between clay wayboards I
and 2~ They are aligned along northeast-trending joints and the work-
ings form a series of low passages. These workings have not been
mapped in as great detail as the remainder of the mine and further
work remains in this area.

A second replacement flat is developed in the extreme

northern end of the deposit. This was first worked by an adit (Knowles
Mine fig 42) and later by opencast methods. Little remains of the
deposit today and it is difficult to make any reliable assessment of
the deposit. However it is clear that the mineralisation lay in partly
dolomitised limestones between the Lower Lava and clay wayboard 1
Replacement was joint controlled and penetrates as large vertical
vein-like .replacements up to 20 metres high. The geology of the
opencast section of the deposit has been described by Ixer (1974 and
1975).

A summary of the geological evolution of the Masson pipes

has been published in Ford and Worley (1977) and Ford, Flindall, and
Worley (1977).
 192.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 19.

Fig. 1 '. Laminated fluorite - quartz replacement, Devonshire Cavern,

Matlock, Photomicrograph, plane polarised light X40.
,
The laminated texture adopted by many fluorite replacements
is rarely observable in thin section. However, the com-
positional variations which cause this lamination can be
clearly seen. Bands of high relief euhedral fluorite
crystals are developed, separated by broader zones of
quartz and calcite with sUbor~inate fluorite.

Fig. 2 Baryte-fluorite replacement Oxclose Mine 300 ft. level,

flats Snitterton. Photomicrograph plane polarised light
X40.
Typical ba ryte - fluorite replacement intergrowth texture
form the laminated replacement developed at the Oxclose flats.
Lath - like crystals of baryte are intergrown with anhedral
fluorite.

Fig. 3 Fluorite - quartz replacement Old Ne stus Pipe, Masson,

Matlock. Photomicrograph, half crossed polars X40.
Most of the fluorite replacement deposits consist of fine-
grained subhedral fluorite crystals which appear to have
replaced the earlier silicified limestone. The dark gran-
ular fluorite is clearly seen replacing a lower relief quartz
calcite mosiac.
PLATE 19

FIG 1

FIG ::>

FIG 1
 193.

EXPLANATION
, TO PLATE 20.

Fig. 1 Fluorite replacing columnar calcite. Tearsall Pipe.

Matlock. Photomicrograph. plane polarised light X40.
,
The earliest phase of mineralisation in the pipe vein
cavities at Tearsall Pipe is an infilling of columnar
calcite. . This is usually partially replaced by granular
fluorite seen here to have initially penetrated the columnar
calcite along grain boundaries. Later replacement takes
place by inward migration towards the centre of the crystals.

Fig. 2 Granular fluorite replacement ore Tearsall Pipe.

Photomicrograph. plane polarised light X40.
More advanced stages of fluorite replacement leads to
the development of porous equigranular interlocking
fluorite textures. In this case later hypogene proce sses
have lead to the formation of a coating of iron minerals
within the intergranular spaces.

Fig. 3 Fluorite replacement with relict calcite. Old Ash Mine.

Wensley. Photomicrograph. plane polarised light X40.
Euhedral fluorite crystals with dense turbid ce re s have
re placed a coarse crinoidal spar-ite, The relict embayed
crinoid ossicles remain unreplaced in a mosaic of granular
fluorite.
PLATE 20

FIG 1

FIG 2

FIG 1
 1914.

xv) Coalpithole Rake and Devonshire Cavern

Coalpithole Hake trends east-west and consists of three

major parallel veins separated by dolomite "horses". These veins
have been worked by opencast means at surface and are developed
in do1omitlsed shelf facies Matlock Lower Limestone. On approaching
the Matlock Lower Lava the veins die out and re- appear in the Hopton-
wood Limestone as the Superfine Vein (Butcher 1976 p. 85).

Working underground has taken place and it possible to

enter these workings and examine the mineralisation. The mineral-
isation is confined to dolomitised limestones. A number of clay
wayboards are seen within the mine which are probably equivalent to
the Cw 4 (fig. 12) in the Masson Mines. Irregular zones of fluorite -
silica replacement consisting of joint- controlled zebra textures are
usually developed. In places the replacement takes the form of fine-
grained laminated fluorite. Thin sections of this type of fluorite have
shown that the lamination results from compositional layering with
fluorite- rich layers alternating with dolomite and quartz- rich layers
(plate 19 fig 1).

xvi) Speedwell Vein, Hopping Pipe, Tear Breeches Pipe, Royal

replacements and Temple Pipe.

This complex of old mine workings was surveyed by Flindall

& Hayes (1973) who also summarised their historical development. A
fracture study by Butcher (1976) showed that these replacement deposits
are situated on the upthrow side of the northwest-trending Speedwell
fault. The pipes lie in partly dolomitised limestones and are sandwiched
between a group of clay wayboards seen in the opencast of the Royal
replacements and the Matlock Lower Lava. Both Hopping Pipe and Tear
Breeches Pipe trend northwest intersecting the Speedwell Vein at right
angle s. Little detailed inve stigation has been carried out at this locality
due to the instability and dangerous nature of many parts of the workings.
 195.

Inte.reS:ing [oint-contr-ofled fluorite - calcite intergrowth replace-

ments occur in the Royal replacements consisting of small
scalenohedral calcite crystals intergrown with clear cubic
fluorite. A number of solutional pipe vein cavities infilled by
large scalenohedral calcite crystals have been partially replaced
by later fluorite forming epim orph structures.

xvii) Wapping Mine, Moletrap Rake

Wapping Mine was worked during the 1950's for fluorspar.

'The structure of the deposit has been described by (Butcher 1976)
who established that it consisted of a flat developed between a series
of closely spaced east-west veins and fractures. Dolomite forms
the wall - rock to all of the deposit which lies within the Matlock
Lower Limestone between a set of closely spaced clay wayboards
and the top of the ~atlock Lower Lava. Apart from fluorite - cal-
cite replacement of the wallrocks, a number of pipe vein cavities
are also developed adjace~t to the fissure vein. These are generally
infilled .with large +0. 3 m, scalenohedral calcite crystals. Often the
calcite crystals are developed only on the bases of the cavities which
may be three or more metres in diameter. Later fluorite mineral-
isation has attacked and replaced the outer margins of these calcite
crystals.

xviii) Ball Eye Pipe

The geology of the Ball Eye Pipe and fluorite replacements

has been described in detail by Butcher (1976). This deposit consists
of a pipe vein with flats situated in dolomitised Matlock Lower Lime-
stone above the Lower Lava. (fig 12).

xix) Wirksworth - Middleton Moor - Brassington area

The area is dominated by a series of veins with two major

 COLUMNAR CALCITE

LIMESTONE

"'J
H
G)
C
CLAY WAYBOARD ~
~
lJJ

o
«
1, M.
BARYTE WITH GALENA

VEl N REFRACTrON MIDDLETON MOOR MINES

 196.

trends.. east-west and north-west. The east-west trending veins in-

clude the major Gang.. SamueL.Dr-agoneye and Yokecliffe Rakes.

Northwest-trending veins appear to be more numerous and

include the Gulf fault.. Rantor vein.. and the Middleton Moor veins.
,
Studies wfthin the area have been restricted particularly underground
as few of the mines remain open for study. Studies have.. however..
been carried out on the Middleton Moor veins.

The mines on Middleton Moor worked a series of east-west

trending veins which form the western extension of the Gang vein
which has broken up into a series of small veins. Most of the veins
are developed within the Hoptonwood Group Limestones beneath the
Matlock Lower Lava.. and more rarely within the Griffe Grange Beds.
All of the deposits worked are fissure veins which carry calcite barytes
and galena. A parage netic sequence shown in figure 43 is common to
most of the veins. Where baryte rests on early calcite mineralisation
the calcite is often corroded and the oute r margins are darkened to
a deep brown colour. Galena is often associated with the baryte ribs
and rarely found with the calcite.

The veins which attain widths of up to 1 metres are sometimes

refracted adjacent to clay wayboards (fig 43). This feature is partic-
ularly well developed in the Bradhouse Mine (fig 43). Occasionally
the limestones beneath clay wayboards are replaced by an intergrowth
of calcite, baryte and galena, but this type of occurrence is infrequent.

Flats are said to occur in the Blobber mine (SK 281 533) which
lies on a northwest-trending vein. Little is known of the stratigraphical
relationships in this mine and it is unlikely that inve stigations could be
carried out as the mine is flooded.

xx) Golconda Pipe

 197.

The geology of the Golconda Pipe has been described in Ford

and King (1966). They noted that the pipe consisted of a series of
mineralised cavities which lay at the dolomite - Hoptonwood lime-
stone contact. These cavities contained infillings of bedded baryta,
with galena and calcite considered by Ford and King to have originated
by re-mobilisation of existing primary baryte deposits. Other types
of deposit include cavities filled with fragments of baryte cemented
by later calcite. This texture is similar to that seen in the pipe
veins at Wills F'ounde r Mine.

xxi) Conclusions

The study of the stratigraphical distribution of mineralisation

in the Matlock. Youlgr-ave, Wirksworth area has shown that the mineral
deposits lie at two horizons within the Brigantian Monsal Dale and
Matlock Limestones. In the northern part of the Stanton syncline
(fig. 12) the ore deposits lie mainly within the pale facies limestones
in the upper part of the Monsal Dale Limestones. Replacement deposits
are also developed within the Eyam Limestone reef facies. The dark
limestones in the Monsal Dale Limestones in this area are not favour-
able horizons. This stratigraphical control. however. may be more
apparent than real. as few mines have penetrated the Conksbury Bridge
Lava within the area to test the strata below thoroughly. Ore deposits
may well exist there.

Elsewhere in the Stanton syncline. notably at Millclose Mine.

substantial deposits have been worked at these lower horizons. The
interplay of lavas. clay wayboards, tuffs. pale limestones, and reef
limestones. has yielded stratal controls within this deposit.

To the south. on the Matlock anticline. mineralisation is

generally situated at a lower horizon (fig 12) occurring within the
Matlock Lower Limestone. The majority of the replacement type
deposits in the Matlock area are situated in porous pseudobrecciated
 PARAGENETI C SEQUENC ES I N THE MATLOCK WI RKSWORTH AREA
EARLY LATE LATE

----
-
CALCI TE

----
CALCI TE

---------
-
BARYTE BARYTE

- - -
FLUORI TE FLUORITE

GALE!'lA ZnS PbS

CAVITIES MARCASITE

CAVITIES

[MTlLCLDSE MI!'lE UPPER LEVELS T'OIIiI \MIITLIO~INELOwrr LEvELS T'QIIiI jI:ITOULErO!'l MOOR ~

-
EARLY LATE EARLY LATE EARLY LATE

CALCITE

BARYTE

- - CALCITE

BARYTE
- - CALCI TE

BARYTE
'"
H

- - - - -
FLUORITE
~
FLUOR I TE FLUORITE

ZnS PbS ZnS PbS

- GALENA
~
~

-
SILICA Sill CA

PYRITE CAVITIES

CAVI TIES

~~T5] ITEARSAITM-nm;j
~ARLY LATE EARLY LATE

CALCI TE

BARYTE
------- -
- - -
CALCITE

BARYTE
-
-- -
-- -
- - -
FLUORI TE FLUORITE

GALE!'lA
• GALENA

SILICA

PYRITE
-- -
CAVITIES

/} UJP-{fj 1"17
 198.

biomicrites that lie between the top of the Matlock Lower lava and a
thick clay wayboard (fig 12). The dark limestones that rest on top
of the Matlock Lower Lava between Tearsall and Oxclose are not
favourable horizons and replacement mineralisation occurs only in
the pale limestones. However, this simple pattern in the Matlock
area is compl.icated by the occurrence of a number of major deposits
at other horizons. Both Old Ash Pipe, is developed in Cawdor Reef .
facies limestone, and Hungerhills replacement are situated in the Mat-
lock Upper Limestone which is unmineralised elsewhere. This suggests
that other comparable deposits are likely to occur within the area at
these stratigraphical horizons. Deposits are also known below the
Matlock Lower Lava in the shelf facies limestones herein considered to
belong to the Matlock Group. The se include the Great Rake deposit at
Low mine which lie s in both the Brigantian Matlock Group and in the
upper sections of the Asbian limestones (fig 12). Others lie between
the Winster Moor Farm lava and the Matlock Lower Lava notably
the Moor Farm replacement (Butcher 1976) in shelf facies limestones.

The pipe veins within the Winster - Elton area lie at a

similar stratigraphical position to those in the Matlock area. Mineral-
isation is known to occur here beneath the Lower Lava in shelf facies
Monsal Dale Limestones, and this little-prospected horizon may prove
of intere st.

Mineralisation is known to develop within the Asbian lime-

stones, at a number of other important localities notably at Golconda
pipe, Middleton Moor veins, and within the lower parts of Mfl.lcl.ose
Mine (figs 12). However, the mineralisation appears to assume a
rather different character in all these cases and fluorite mineralisation
is almost absent. Generally speaking the Asbian lime stone although of
similar lithofacie s to the Brigantian Matlock Group is barren containing
few ore - shoots.

The dolomite limestone contact has been cited in the Matlock

 =
199. -

area to have controlled the distribution of the pipe veins which are
often situated at this contact. This survey ha-s also established that
many of the deposits lie at the contact, notably the Winster pipes,
Tearsall, Old Ash, Jughole, Masson, Hopping and Wapping. It has
been postulated by Ford (1967) and Firman and Bagshaw (1974) that
the contrasting porosities between limestone and dolomitised lime-
stone cause impounding of mineral solutions at this contact. But
when many of these deposits are examined in detail in the field the
mineralisation is equally well developed in both the dolomite and
limestone seeming to prove that there is no intrinsic property of
'this contact that controls the distribution of these deposits on a
regional scale.

The contrasting porosities of dolomite and limestone is more

noticable on a smaller scale and disseminated deposits are more
common within dolomite host rocks.

The capping effect of the Namurian shale cover is seen

within the area, especially at the Raper replacement on Long Rake.
At other deposits its influence is less obvious and no large scale
replacements or pipes are known to occur directly under the shale.

The distribution of the shelf facies limestones can be related

to the development of penecontempor-aneous anticlinal structures.
From this survey of the mineral deposits it is clear that most of the
replacements and fissure veins are situated within the shelf facies
limestones on anticlinal areas. The main anticlinal structures
within the area include the Long Rake and Matlock anticlines. On
the Matlock anticline a number of disconformities are developed
within a sequence of burrowed pseudobrecciated limestones: this
type of limestone has become more porous as a result and is favour-
able to the development of replacement deposits. The erosional
surfaces or non-sequences within the shelf facies successions,
which are often accompanied by a tuff horizon, also form important
controls: pipes and flats usually occur beneath them.
 200.

7. Summary and discussion of part three

The general stratigraphical distribution of the economically

important deposits of the Southern Pennines is illustrated in Table 1.
This shows that of the 39 deposits cited, 31 (79%) occur within the
shelf or pale facies of the Brigantian Monsal Dale Limestones and
Matlock Limestones. Thus it is clear that the pale or shelf facies
Brigantian Limestones are the most favourable horizons for the
development of both replacement and transgressive deposits. Within
these horizons a number of lithological fractures control the dis-
tribution and more particularly the form of the deposits. These
include lavas and tuffs, shale partings, prominent bedding planes,
abundance of stylolite seams, potholed erosion surface s shell beds,
chert bands, reef and pseudobrecciated limestones.

It has been shown in part 2 that the distribution of the pale

or shelf facies limestones is determined by the development of a
complex series of penecontemporaneous anticlines. Thinner pale
limestones occurring upon anticlinal areas pass transitionally into
darker basinal type limestone sequences which now lie within synclinal
areas. Also on the anticlinal areas lithological features characteristic
of thinner successions - pseudobreccias, shell beds, erosion surface s,
etc - are more abundant. Therefore it can be argued that the shelf
facies limestones are more porous and permeable than the basinal type
of 'limestone, and hence more favourable for mineralisation.

Not only are the favourable lithologies sited on anticlinal

areas but their distribution coincides with the major open tensional
fracture systems allowing solutions to flow to produce both pipe vein
cavities, and to flow through the fissure veins. The coincidence of
favourable lithology and fracture system has led to the location of
most of the deposits on anticlinal areas.
 =
a>1.

Some major deposits do occur within the dark limestones

notably on Longstone Edge, and on Mandale and Long Rake. In these
areas the strength of the structure has produced broad belts of
fractures overiding the stratigraphical influences. However, even
in these cases wallrocks have influenced the form of the deposits and
stockwork' fracture - bedding type mineralisation tends to develop.

It has been long accepted that basalt lava horizons are not
favourable horizons and many veins are impoverished within basalts.
. Pipes and replacement deposits are never found within basalts by
virtue of their insolubility, but fissure veins may be productive.
Seven Rakes Mine at Matlock is said to have worked a productive
vein in the lava and recently Hucklow Edge Vein has been found to
continue through the ere ssbrookdale Lava as has the Deep Rake -
High Rake system at Sallet Hole Mine. Replacement deposits may
be developed by replacement of calcareous tuffs which lie on top of
many of the lavas. However it is only the stronger structures which
penetrate.into the basalts and even when this does occur the veins
have reduced widths as no replacement of the walls occurs.

The properties of clay beds and impervious horizons have

been considered in relation to mineral deposition by Mackay (1946)
and Berry (1969). Both authors suggested that clays acted as osmotic
hyperfilters producing concentrated solutions beneath them, In
particular the halogen elements in solution would tend to be retained
by clay beds. There is no direct evidence to suggest that this process
operated in the Southern Pennines and it is more likely that the clay
wayboards formed aquicludes preventing solutions rising through them.

The differences between the pale grey limestones and dark

limestones does not appear to be a chemical one, analyses have shown
that both contain a few percent of alumina, silica and iron oxides.
Some of the analyses of the dark limestones have shown that they are
chemically purer than the pale limestones in terms of calcium carbonate
 20.2.
I

Brigantian
Mont~\.Dale Eyam Lst,
Location Type of Shale/ Asbian Shelf Basin Reef Inter-reef
deposit. Lst,
Treak Pipe X X
Cliff
Odin Vein X X
Old Tor Pipe X
Dirtlow Vein X
Rake
Moss Bake Vein X X X
Smalldale Pipe X
Jeffrey Replcrrt. X X
Lane .
Hazlebadge Pipe X X
Hucklow Vein X X
Edge
Ashtons Pipe X
Pipe
Watergrove Pipe X
Burntheath Pipe X
Blackhole Pipe X X
Vein
Bullhole Pipe X
-
Carlwalk Pipe X
Long stone Vein X X
Edge
Wagers F~.at Pipes X
Cacklemackle
Hubbadale Pipe X
Magpie/ Pipe X X
Mogshawe Veins
Fieldgrove Vein X X
Mandale Vein X X
Long Rake Vein X X X X
Flat
Alport Pipes X X X
Veins
 203.

Brigantian
Monsal Dale Eyam Lst.
LBt
Location Type of Shale} Asbian Shelf Basin Reef Inter-reef
deposit Lst.

Millclose Pipes X X X
Veins
Portway Pipe X
,
Plackett Pipe X
Old Ash Pipe X
Tearsall Pipe X
1---.-
Oxclose Pipe X
Jughole Pipe X.
Leawood Pipe . X
Masson Pipe X
Great Vein X X
Rake Flat X
-

Coalpit Vein X
Rake Flat
Hopping Pipe X
Speedwell Vein
Wapping Pipe X ?
Moletrap Vein
Ball Eye Pipe X X
Bonsall F. Vein
Wirksworlh Veins X· X X X
..
Golconda Pipe X

Table 1. The stratigraphical distribution of the economically

important mineral deposits in the Southern Pennines.
 204.

EXPLANATION TO PLATE 21

Fig. 1 Calcite-lined pipe-vein cavity, Blende Vein, Magpie Mine.

A typical pipe-vein cavity in the Blende Vein Pipe developed
in porous reef limestone. Calcite has partially infilled the
cavity. The dark layers separating some of the calcite
layers are sphalerite.

Fig., 2 A solutionally enlarged pipe-vein in the Forefield Shaft,

Watergrove Mine, Wardlow.
Later cold water karst processes have greatly enlarged
earlier mineralised pipe veins. These processes have
lead to the formation of alluvial placer deposits within
the pipes, which have been excavated by the old miners.
In the photograph one such pipe vein has been completely
extracted leaving the original outline of the pipe. The large
size of the Watergrove Pipe gives an idea of the scale of
some of the larger pipe veins

<,
PLATE 21

FIG 1

FIG 2
 205.

content (Trailll939. and Smith et al, 1967), the differences

resulting from an increase in organic pigment in the dark limestones
and abundance of shale bands and cherts in the dark limestones.
Therefore the favourability of certain limestone beds cannot readily
be accounted for by differing chemical compositions. It is the
variation of texture, porosity, mechanical properties, and gross
lithological characteristics of the paler limestones that determines
their favourability.

In most lithological respects the Asbian limestones closely

resemble the pale facies of the Brigantian Limestones. Many of the
Asbian sequence s are chemically more pure containing little chert.
However, the Asbian is seen to be mineralised only in the northern
part of the orefield in the Castleton District where they cont ain
significant deposits.. This probably reflects 1) lack of exploration
for deposits within the Asbian Limestones at depth: 2) the outcrop
structure, the Asbian outcr-opsIar-ely ,lying to the west of the main
belt of mineralisation. If the ore- shoots being persued today are
mined to still further depths it is likely on lithological grounds that
in the eastern parts of the orefield the Asbian strata will be as product-
ive as the Brigantian.

Finally the survey summarised in table 2 shows clearly that

the numbe r of cases where the shale cover has capped a deposit is
small Close examination of those deposits where shales were said
to form cap-j-ocks such as Millclose Mine have turned out to be
dark limestones of the Cawdor Group. A shale cap may have been
important, however, where Namurian shale rests unconformably
upon an erosional limestone surface. For example, the 'Boulder
Bed' at Treak Cliff where a series of cavities exists at the limestone
and shale contact. In other places the shale cover rests on top of
dark facies Eyam or Cawdor Limestones which themselves form the cap
rock to the deposits.
 ,i,

PART IV

1 The origins and formation of pipe and flat veins

2. The origins of the lead- zinc-fluorite-baryte dep-

osits of the Southern Pennine Orefield.

 208.

1.. The origins and formation of pipe and flat veins

Summary

,
The formation of pipe veins and flats took place by dissolution
of the limestone host by hydrothermal solutions of low pH. These
solutions migrated very slowly through host rocks under conditions
similar to those of modern cold water phreatic karst systems. These
solutions probably flowed through the major fracture systems - rakes
and veins which also became soluttonalty enlarged, acting as feeders
to the pipes and flats.

The presence of laminated fluorite replacements on the

walls and floors of pipes vein cavities indicates that replacement took
place in a pulsatory fashion. Corrosion of limestone and other
carbonates demonstrates that the fluorine solutions were acidic.
Further evidence concerning the nature of the fluorine-bearing
solutions is afforded by the presence of solution collapse breccias
in many of the pipe vein cavities.
"'

Petrographical studie s of the fluorite replacements have

shown that they are finely intergrown with quartz. By analogy with
similar textures in Russia it is suggested that the fluorine travelled
in association with silicon in hydrothermal solutions.

Channel- shaped deposits of fine-grained, granular bedded

fluorite on the bases of some cavities indicates that solutional sanding
of existing fluorite replacements occurred during the main mineral-
isation phase s,

Most of the pipe vein cavities are partially infilled with

fluorite, calcite, baryte, galena, sphalerite, and marcasite. Many
of the heavier sulphide minerals tend to form channel-shaped
 207.

accumulations on the bases Qf the cavities which probably formed by

. '

gravity settling processes that operated during mineral deposition.

The paragenetic sequence contained within the pipe veins are

complex and highly variable. Some general trends are developed and
include a widespread early calcite phase.

Most pipe veins have been affected by post-mineralisation

solution as many of them acted as water courses during the late
,Tertiary and Pleistocene. This has led to the formation of alluvial
placer deposits of galena. fluorite. and sometime s baryte in sol-
utionally enlarged pipe vein systems. The lowering of the water
table in the area has meant that many pipe veins now lie in the
vadose zone. Speleothem deposits of calcite. pyrolusite. and
goethite ("wad ") have been deposited within these pipes.

Pipe veins continue to act today as water courses and

sedimentary accumulations of mine rals are still forming.

.~ .
 208.

i) Introduction

The stratigraphical distribution of most of the pipe and flat

veins has been described in Part 3 and the mineralogy and textures
contained therein have also been discussed. This section summarises
,
the forms and varieties, origins, and geological evolution of this
important type of deposit.

The preceeding descriptive survey has shown that the pipe

veins consist of a series of cavities which vary in size from O. 3 m, to
over 3 m, in diameter. They are stratabound, being developed with-
in limestones or more rarely dolomitic limestones. The cavities vary
in shape but are most commonly elliptical or pillow- shaped in cross
section (plate 18), whilst some of the larger cavities (plate 21 fig. 1)
adopt more complex ramifying shapes. Cavities of this type occur
together and are arranged in a linear fashion usually following a joint
or fracture trend and collectively form a pipe vein.

Generally speaking the flat vein is similar to the pipe but

consists of a stratabound cavity filled with minerals developed along
a bedding plane. Flats do not usually attain more than 1 metre in
thickness but may extend for over 30 metres in length. In this
discussion the two type s are considered together.

ii) Formation of pipe vein cavities

It is difficult to conceive of any mode of formation of the pipe

vein cavities other than by dissolution of the limestones by acidic
solutions. A number of hypotheses concerning the origins of the
solutions are possible. These include: either dissolution by hot
acid solutions "hydrothermal karst", or, formation by normal cold
meteo:r:ic water karst processes below the water table.
 209•

. iii) Meteoric karst processes

Lindgren (1935) first suggested that formation of these

cavities in the Mississippi Valley occurred by cold water karst
processes in his telethermal concept, which were subsequently
mineralised by ascending cooling hydrothermal solutions. A cold
water karst origin for the mineralised solution cavities in the
Tri - State Mississippi Valley deposits were also favoured by
Bernard (1973) which he stated were karstic because they were ex-
clusively developed in carbonate rocks beneath unconformity -
disconformity surface s.

In the Southern Pennines there is considerable evidence

of periods uplift during deposition of the Dinantian limestones
resulting in weathering and the formation of unconformity-dis-
conformity surface s (Walkden 1972 and 1975, and Worley and
Dorning 1977). Walkden was able to show that there is little
evidence of extensive development of karst drainage systems that
can be related to these surface s, and concluded from the absence
of penecontemporaneous caves that the water table was high preventing
the development of integrated underground drainage systems.

Further evidence concerning the origins of pipe cavities

is afforded by the rake veins and their temporal relationship to pipes.
It is clear from a study of many of the rakes that they have undergone
solution and contain cavities of an identical character to those found
within pipes (plate 10 fig 1). In many cases it is apparent that the
pipe cavities were formed before the final movements of the rakes
occurred: for example, the Masson Pipes are displaced by later
movements of the Great Rake, and cavities in the Hucklow Edge Rake
are partly filled with a breccia conststlng of limestone blocks clearly
derived from later post-cavity fault movements. The close relation-
ship of pipe cavities and rake formation suggests that cavity formation
took place before and during the formation of the rakes; the initial
 sro,

fracturing providing early pathways along which cavity-forming solutions

migrated

It has been shown in the previous chapters that the formation

of the rakes was initiated during the Dinantian but the final rake
movements and mineralization probably occurred during the Permian
and early Mesozoic (Ine son and Mitchell 1973). The presence of
solution cavities in the rakes which were not well developed during
the Dinantian tends to militate against formation of cavities in the
vein walls by Dinantian meteoric waters. However it is still possible
that the cavities were produced by Pe rrnian or Mesozoic meteoric
waters, when the Southern Pennines was uplifted and stripping of the
Upper Carboniferous cover began: although it is unlikely that sufficient
relief was produced for the establishment of a hydraulic head for flow
to exist within such a system.

Morphological studies of the pipe veins themselves has

shown that there is no recognisable sink or resurgence and do not
resemble present day karst systems and it seems improbable that
meteoric waters were responsible for the formation of the pipe vein
cavities.

iv) Hydrothermal karst processes

The term hydrothermal karst was first introduced by Bogacz

et al, (1972) for mineralised cavities in Triassic Limestones of the
Cracow Silesia region of Poland. Beales and Lozej (1975) recognised
that the Mexican lead - zinc - silver mantos a deposit similar to
pipe veins were produced by a lowering of pH during mineral precip-
itation.

From the paragenetic and textural studies carried out in the

Part. 3 it is clear that many of the early flushes of mineral solution
had a low pH and have dissolved and etched calcite crystals and lime-
 211.

stones. Thus it seems probable that for substantial periods the

mineralising soluttonswe re acidic. The studies carried out on
fluid inclusions contained within fluorite crystals by Rogers (1977)
have shown that the se solutions were also hydrothermal, temp-
0 0
eratures ranging from 103 C to 165 C. Acidic, hydrothermal
,
solutions of this kind were probably responsible for the formation
of the pipe vein cavities and the cavities found in the cheeks of some
of the rakes (Worley 1976).

These processes have resulted in the formation of a series

of cavities indicative of a very slow flow which utilised the secondary
permeability of the host - rocks I, e. joints bedding planes etc. producing
cavities by enlargement of these structures. These processes also
exploited smaller scale porosity in the rocks such as stylolites, reef
cavities, and the more coarse grained limestones. From the rounded
and elliptical shape of many of them it can be argued that they originated
by corrosion of the limestone by relatively stagnant or slow moving
solutions; conditions analagous to cavity formation in modern karst
regimes under phreatic conditions.

Studies of the oxygen isotopic composition d 18 0 of vein

calcite, and calcite in the host limestone by Robinson and Ineson (1976)
lends support to the hypothesis of low pH hydrothermal solutions.
They have shown that the isotopic cornp aaition of both vein calcite and
limestone host rocks are similar suggesting that the vein calcite was
derived from dissolution of limestone wall rocks by acidic solutions.

v) Mineral Textures

The limestone walls of many cavities show replacement selvages

or margins. These take the form of fine-grained fluorite, accompanied
by intergrown silica in various forms, baryte, and other carbonates,
usually calcite or dolomite. The width of these replaced margins is
often thickest on the floors of the cavities where the replacement adopts
 212.

a channel-like shape (fig 17). Replacement on the roof and sides

of the cavities is more. restricted usually only a few centimetres in
thickness. Microscopically these laminated textures consist of
closely intergrown fluorite and quartz crystals showing little evidence

.
of transport and a detrital sedimentary origin. The presence of
pseudomorphed and partially replaced fossil fragments provides
irrefutable evidence concerning the replacement nature of these textures
in some localities but not others. Finely laminated fluorite replace-
ment deposits may also develop by replacement of the limestone walls
,of rakes (fig 17); and laminated fluorite replacements occur in rake -
breccias on Hucklow Edge Vein where ,the laminations of the fluorite
mimic the 'original outlines of the brecciated limestone. This data
indicates that the replacement occurred in a pulsatory manner the
laminations representing a series of advancing fronts (Kor-zdnaki 1968).

In some situations e specially in the Matlock area it is not

possible to clearly make the distinction between replacement and
sediment and it may be the case that the two grade into each other.
The presence of altered clasts of basalt and clay pellets in association
with bedded granular fluorite and baryte in the Oxclose, Tearsall,
Calf Tail and Mill Qose Pipes provides clear evidence concerning the
detrital origin of at least some of the se deposits.

Simfl.ar- laminated cavity - fill deposits have been described

from the Cracow - Silesia region (Bogacz et al, 1973). They consist
of cavities filled with solutionally disaggregated dolomite which occurs
as a laminated p1ano- convex channel shaped deposit in the bases of
the cavities. Bogacz et al, argue that solutional and mechanical
erosion of metasomatic dolomitic limestones by karst waters caused
shrinkage of the dolomite which by a process of solutional loss and
thinning formed a cavity by resultant volume reduction. These cavities
are situated above laminated detrital "channel" structures which have
formed by the solution thinning process. In some cases they have
reported columnar galena which has grown on the contact between
 213.

bedded disaggregated dolomite and competent dolomite cavity walls.

Galena also occurs within gash or fissure veins which have developed
due to tensional cracks which develop during shrinkage.

'It is possible that some of the pipe-vein cavit ie s associated

with bedded fluorite deposits may have arisen in this way in the
Matlock area~ and that cavity formation proceeded by disaggregation
of existing fluorite replacements yielding a fluorite rich "sand". This
process probably operated during the formation of laminated fluorite
deposits seen in Old Ash Pipe, Tearsall Pipe, and Masson Pipe s,
'(plates 13 fig 1 and 15). Disaggregated dolomite sediments resting in
the bases of cavities also occur notably in the cheeks of Great Rake
in the entrance to Masson Cavern show cave.

The association with intergrown baryte in many of these

deposits may reflect a later phase of mineralisation in which baryte
cemented the porous fluorite sediments.

The pipe vein cavities also have, characteristic columnar

infills of fluor-ite, or calcite, often interlayered with galena, baryte ,
or sphale r ite, Often these columnar layers h~ve grown together
completely filling the cavities but sometimes there are free-grown
inward-facing euhedral crystal terminations. The base metal sulphides
sphalerite, galena and marcasite rarely occur as euhedral crystals
within cavities but are found as large inclusion-like masses within
the gangue mine rals.

In Moorfurlong and Millclose Pipes limestone and lava blocks

have collapsed into cavities by solution-stoping and have been cemented
by later periods of mineralisation. These cemented breccia fills
(fig 12), howeve r-, have been commonly found in other pipes during
the survey carried out by the author. The solution collapse of formerly
attached columnar mineral layers is more common and have been
reported in Golconda Mine (Ford and King 1966) in the Will's Founder
 214.

Mine (Worley 1977), Oxclose. Pipe, and Millclose Pipe (Parsons

1898). This data suggests that concomitant dissolution of the lime-
stone walls and existing mineral phases took place during mineral
deposition.

On the bases of some pipe. vein cavities the heavier base

metal sulphides may form channel-like deposits. These have been
described by Worley (1976) from the BlendeVein, Magpie Mine who
attributed the formation of these deposits to the effects of gravity
settling during crystallisation. In many other pipes it is common to
find thicker layers particularly of gale.na and sometimes baryte on
the floors of both pipe and flat veins. Similar occurrence s of galena
being concentrated on the floors of mineralised cavities have been
reported by Bogacz et al, (1973).

The survey of the paragenetic sequences contained within the

pipe veins, summarised in ~ figs31, 37 and 44 has shown that the
sequences are varied and complex. It is difficult to recognise an
ordered sequence of mineralisation events even within the same
deposits, and little is seen in common throughout the orefield. However,
within this apparently disordered state a number of meaningful
mineralogical relationships have been observed. Although calcite
mineralisation may occur many times it is largely an early stage
feature within the pipe veins. A corresponding relationship has been
described by Butcher (1976) and Firman and Bagshaw (1974) in the
rakes, suggesting that the two phases were coeval Wherever fluorite
is associated with this early phase of calcite mineralisation, the calcite
is partially replaced and heavily corroded indicating that the fluorite
mineralisation occurred in solutions of low pH.

Frequently baryte - galena mineralisation shows a corresponding

relationship often resting upon an earlier corroded calcite phase (see
especially fig 43 Middleton Moor Veins).
 215.

Other persistant mineralogical relationships include the

association of various forms of quartz, usually microcrystalline
quartz, coarse recrystallisation mosaics, and more rarely
spherulitic chalcedony. These frequently adopt the laminated
r-eplacement textures described earlier.

Similar replacement textures have been described by Russian

workers (Grushkiril965)from fluorite-base metal deposits in Carbon-
iferous Limestones from Russia. They suggest from studies of
,fluid inclusions that fluorite travelled in weakly acidic solutions
complexed with silicon. The crystallisation of fluorite by replacement
of lime stone by fluorite take s place s with the liberation of carbon
dioxide a rise in pH and a continuous fall in concentration of dissolved
salts. A study of fluid inclusions within replacements may be a
valuable area worthy of future study.

vi) Post-mineralisation geological history

The post-mineralisation geological history of the Southern

Pennine s is reflected in a number of modifications to the pipe veins
summarised in fig 45. It is likely that during parts of the Mesozoic
and Tertiary eras the Southern Pennines acted as a positive uplifted
area and was subjected to more or less continuous erosion though
at other times significant sedimentary sequences of Jurassic,
Cretaceous - Eocene age.

Although there is no clear evidence contained in the pipes it

can be argued that they consisted of an integrated system of cavities and
acted as underground water courses fo rnor-mat cold water karst
drainage during the Mesozoic and Tertiary. The presence of large
solutional collapse structures containing Mio- Pliocene sediments
provide s indirect evidence of the karst evolution of the area during
this period. Ford and Worley (1977) have argued that much of the
solution of the limestone during this period must have occurred mainly
 FIGURE 45

A DIAGRAM SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OFA PIPE VEIN

.. U r i " of caviti" are produced I n limestone by corros , ve 50luti ons

In favourable structural and stratigraphical posl\tons. This occurs deep In
the phreatl c zone '

Minerai solutions are Introduced prodUCing a series of caVities lined

With minerals characterised by columnar and fibrous Inflilino textures.
The wallrocks may show replacement espectall~ along favourable
bfddlng planes

The pipe vein still contInues to act os a natural water course result; no
In eresron of the friable mineraI linings The hf'Gvl er phases such as
galena become preferentially concentrated In Sediment fills In the floors
Of the caVities Many Of the sulphide minerals become oxydlzed.

,
t

,
I
 216..

under phreatic conditions. There are many gaps in the understanding

of the earliest evolution of the pipes and this is an area worthy of
further investigations.

Dur-ing the Pleistocene period the geological history of the

Souther-n Pennines is a little better understood and it is possible to
relate this to the evolution of some of the pipes. It has been shown
that during this period that the last phase of the physiographic deve l-
opment of the area was initiated, and the incision of the dry valleys
took place under periglacial conditions.

Worley and Beck (1976, Worley and Nash (1977) and Ford and
Worley (1977) have demonstrated that many of the pipe veins acted as
drainage routes through which glacial melt water must have flowed
under both phreatic and vadose conditions. The passage of this water
eroded the walls of the pipe veins and the friable minerals contained
in the pipe vein cavities. This has resulted in the formation of
sediments which consisted of mineral fragments, clays, and material
derived from the surface.

The less soluble and heavier mineral phases stripped from

the mineralised pipe vein cavities such as galena, accumulated within
the pipes as sediments forming subterranean placer mineral deposits
(fig 45). This form of galena occurs as small rounded cerussite
coated grey pebble-like fragments showing signs of transport and
constitutes a form of alluvial concentrate. Similar alluvial galena
deposits have been described from Sardinia by Moon:(1972) in
limonitic clays filling vadose caves.

In some cases the sediments consist almost entirely of

fluorite baryte, and calcite, mixed with brown clays. These have
been mined in recent times for their fluorite content, notably in the
Jughole Caves (Worley and Nash 1977).
 217.

Incision of the valleys has locally lowered the water table

creating vadose conditions in many of the pipe s, Removal of
phreatic conditions in the pipes leads to collapse and stoping of
the lime stone roofs of many pipe veins has occurred.

Those pipe veins which are now situated in vadose conditions

at high altitudes were also subjected to oxidising condi~ions. The
weathering of many of the sulphides under these conditions, particularly
marcasite, has led to the production of acidic solutions resulting in
intense corrosion of the limestone walls. Secondary speleothems also
accumulated within the pipes. These ~hemical deposits normally take
the form of calcite flowstone which cove eed many of the sediments on
the floors of the caves (fig 45). The rate of accumulation of these
deposits was locally enhanced by contributions from the weathering
of pyrite - rich tuffs and clay wayboards. Other types of speleothems
include 'wad', a mixed pyrolusite-goethite deposit, and ochre, a mixed
hematite-goethite deposit. These deposits may have been formed by
leaching of iron and manganese from the Namurian Shale or basalt
lavas by percolation of water under phreatic conditions. These waters
would discharge the iron and manganese in the forms of precipitates
much in the way that chalybeate deposits accumulate wle n iron charged
waters emerge at the surface as springs. Deposition of these minerals
occurring as the pH and eH conditions changed at the vadose phreatic
interface.

Those pipes which occur at greater depths below the water-

table currently act as major phreatic drainage routes whe re placer
deposits are still forming today. This type of pipe vein is often only
modified by phreatic solutional enlargement and rarely contains
substantial sedimentary accumulations, collapse features, or
speleothems. Most of the primary sulphide minerals remain intact
in these pipes and sphalerite i.s often more abundant in these little-
weathered situations. Pipes of this kind were worked in the heavily
watered lower levels of Magpie, Millclose, Hubbadale, and Watergrove
Mines all below sough level and worked in the reduced zone.
 2. The origins and evolution of the lead- zinc-fluorite- baryte
deposits of the· Southern Pennines

i) Introduction

The early parts of this thesis have dealt with the paragenetic
sequences of the mineral deposits of the Southern Pennines" the
processes that operated in them during deposition" and their geological
history. Using this information together with a critical review by the
author of existing data on the area it Is possible to advance a genetic
model for the Southe rn Pennine Orefield.

This model is then compared with the numerous genetic models

for other Mississippi Valley type deposits in order to distinguish
those factors found in common and ascertain the local controls and
.
differences. This concluding chapter also attempts to summarise a
series of research projects by Rogers (1977) and Butcher (1976)"
carried out at the University of Leicester.

ii) Early hypotheses concerning the origins of the mineral deposits

Farey (1811) was the first to advance ideas surrounding the

origin of the mineral deposits of the Southern Pennine s, He stated
on p, 246 ".. it seems difficult to conceive" any other origin to the
spar and metallic ores which line these large cracks or veins" than
infiltration of some sort" from the adjoining Rock: a supposition,
which receives confirmation from the fact" so well known to miners,
of certain thick beds of limestone in some of the rocks, producing
more Ore, in the vein between them, than is found between other beds
in the same Rock; whence such are called bearing - measures" or
feeding-ground by the miners. II This account seems to imply that
Farey thought that the wall- rocks them selves were the sources of the
minerals, and it perhaps is the earliest suggestion of a host-rock
 219.

origin for the ore s. :

Almost a century later Wedd and Drabble (1908)" in a

discussion of the fluorspar deposits" recognised the zonal distribution
of the mineral deposits with fluorite occurring in the eastern parts
passing into baryte and calcite westwards. Their discussion con-
cerning the origin of the deposits has a sagaceous approach and many
of the hypotheses still being advocated today were explored. They
reasoned that three sources for the origin of the Southern Pennine
deposits were possible and these included derivation from above" from
below" or from the country rocks contamlng the mineral deposits. A
lateral secretion theory concerning the leaching of calcium fluoride
contained in shells" corals" and the bones and teeth of vertebrates
by laterally migrating ground waters with subsequent deposition of
fluorite in veins proposed by Wallace (1861) was examined. This would
fit the distribution of fluorite mineralisation which they found was
stratigraphically confined to the highest limestone strata. This
occurrence was attributed to its low specific gravity" compared with
ba ryte, galena" and sphalerite. An epigenetic source was considered
to be the most likely with the fluorine carried in hydrothermal
solutions.

Attention was drawn to the fact that the ore-deposits

of De rbyshrre were comparable with those of the Mississippi Valley
and the Mantos of Mexico by Traill (1939). He also noted that as the
coal seams in Mil1close were unaltered by mineralisation the ores
crystallised at low temperatures.

Dunham (1952) concluded that fluorine was most abundant in

acid igneous rocks which tended to concentrate the element. Therefore
he suggested that the fluorite had an acid igneous rock source and the
deposits rose from cooling magmas intruded at an unknown depth
beneath the Southern Pennine s,
 .220.

Varvill (1962 p•. 70) also favoured an igneous - hydrothermal

origin for the lead ores of the Southern Pennines.

Moorbath (1962) studied the lead isotopic composition of the

galena in the Southern Pennines and established two ages for min-
eralisation at 280 ~ 20 my. and 180 ~ 40 my.. The Holmes -
Houtermans model used by Moorbath has subsequently shown to be
incorrect in not making allowances for isotopic fractionation.

Hydrothermal alteration of the clay miilerals in the lava

'and tuff horizons enabled F'itch, Miller and Williams (1967) and
Ineson and Mitchell (1972) to use the K-Ar method of isotopic age
dating. These results are in broad agreement showing that a number
of hydrothermal events occurred at 280 - 180 my, with peaks at
270 my (early Permian) 235 my. (late Permian) and 180 my. (late
Trias). Ineson and Mitchell considered that these hydrothermal events
coincided with the mine ralisation which occurred in an episodic manne r,

Ford and King (1965) and King (1966) from a study of some of
the pipe veins in the Southern Pennines and in the Brassington area
began to question the igneous-hydrothermal concept finding that down-
ward movement of Triassic ground waters was responsible for the
deposition of some of the minerals. Ford (1966) in a discussion of
the origins of the Pb - Zn - F - Ba deposits concluded that there was
no evidence available for the existance of a granite body capable of
producing the mineral deposits of the Southern Pennines ( but see
Evans and Maroof (1976) below.

Dunham (1966), in a review paper, showed that both the

Northern and Southern Pennine Orefield belonged to the Mississippi
Valley type of mineral deposits which were more or less exclusively
confined to the Lower Carboniferous Limestones in Britain.

Roedder (1967) analysed fluid inclusions in samples of fluorite

 221.

from Castleton" Bradwell" and Masson Hill showing that the

0 0
homogenisation ternpe rature s varied from 154 C to 80 C. Freezing
studies demonstrated that the inclusions were saline" salinities
varying from 1% to 30% by weight with 18 to 240/0 being the most common.
The presence of K enrichment in the inclusions when compared with
,
formation waters is comparable with other Mississippi Valley deposits.
This high concentration of salts contrasts with the relatively low values
(C • 5%) obtained in similar inclusions from mineral deposits of
undoubted hydrothermal origin.

These data led Davidson (196~) to suggest that an igneous-

hydrothermal concept was no longer tenable and the inclusion brines
were consistent with three possible source s, connate waters which
derived their salt concentration by leaching evaporites or by diagenesis"
and deep oilfield brines. Dunham (1966) in reply to Davidson" argued
that the Na:K ratio of inclusions was inconsistent with those found in
evaporitic situations.

Deep borings to the east of the limestone outcrop encounter-ed

sabkha evaporite sequences in the Lower Carboniferous Limestones
(Llewellyn and Stabbins 1968). These authors suggested that a possible
relationship between the presence of evaporites and mineralisation in
the Southern Pennines might exist but no details concerning the mechanism
were advanced.

The location of the both Pennine Orefields on basement highs

was stressed by Dunham (1970). He also suggested the North Sea Basin
as a possible source of mineral fluids (deep formation waters) which
migrated up - dip onto the shelf area. The role of Lower Carboniferous
evaporites in this context was considered to have been minor.

Mason (1973) reviewed the geology of the Derbyshire Fluorspar

Deposits favouring a magmatic source for the lead, zinc" fluorite" and
baryte deposits related to an area of crustal instability. He suggested
 222.

that the fluid inclusion data implies that mixing with connate brines
of similar composition to those described by Downing (1967) in deeply
buried Carboniferous Limestone under the East Midlands took place.
The fluid inclusions within fluorite crystals from Hucklow Edge Vein,
and Odin Vein Castleton were analysed by Smith (1973), whose results
showed that a mean uncorrected homogenisation temperature of
0
73.8 C occurred on Hucklow Edge Vein, whilst 127. 50 C was attained
in the Odin Vein. Analyses of Na;K ratios of leachates of fluorite
inclusions gave a range of 15. 0 to 28. 3 with a statistical mean of 22. 1.

A recconaissance of sulphur isotopes in galena samples was

published by Coomer and Ford (1975) who also recalculated the existing
isotope data for lead (Moorbath 1962). Plotting the lead isotopes on
The Russell, Stanton, Farquhar model shows that they fall to the
right of the curve giving future ages. This suggests that the lead had
undergone a period of crustal evolution before deposition. Analyses of
sulphur isotopes showed that a large range of values existed which it is
argued is consistant with a low temperature fractionation. "

Further geophysical investigation of the East Midlands by

Evans and Maroof (1976) showed that a series of granitic bodies similar
to those of Caledonian age known from Leicestershire might lie to the
east of the Southern Pannine Orefield. These authors postulated that
these granite bodies acted as channelways allowing lead-zinc bearing
solutions to rise from the mantle into the Carboniferous lime stone
exposed in the present site of the orefield. It appears unlikely that an
integrated open fracture system could exist at the depths anticipated
for the hypothetical granite bodies; furthermore the isotopic data for
the lead in galena obtained by Coomer and Ford (1975) suggest that the
galena has a crustal source rather than a mantle origin.

Robinson and Ineson (1976) published a summary of the results

of measurement of the isotopic composition of oxygen and sulphur in
baryte, oxygen and carbon in calcite and limestone, and sulphur in the
 223.

sulphide minerals. Their results suggest that connate Mississippian

(Carboniferous) sea w8:ter was the sulphate source in the baryte and
deep- seated reduced sulphur sources reacted with light sulphur',
characteristic of biogenic source s, interacted forming the base
metal sulphides. The oxygen isotope results suggested that two
,
ore fluids were pre sent, one of which had an ultimately meteoric
source. These isotope compositions are different from those of
other Mississippi Valley type deposits in the Northern Pennine
Or-efield, Ireland, u. S. A. and Canada and reflect a high degree of
interaction between fluids and components from different sources.

The results of a study of Inclusions within fluorite crystals

were presented by Rogers (1977). This data although not extensive
(29 localities in the Southern Pennine were examined) showed that the
gangue mineral zonation was not reflected in homogenisation temp-
erature changes across the orefield. Homogenisation temperatures
0 0
cdrrected for pressure ranged from 103 C to 165 C and freezing
studies showed that mean equivalent weight percent sodium chloride
varied from 18 to 240/0. Comparison of Na:K ratios with the Askrigg and
Alston Blocks has shown that the Southern Pennine inclusions are
defficient in K but when compared with modern formation waters are
K enriched.

P. model for the genesis of the mineral deposit s of the Southern

Pennines was proposed by Ford (1977). These hypotheses suggested
that formation waters contained in Carboniferous Limestone buried
beneath the East Midlands and in the North Sea basin migrated updip
onto the Southern Pennine massif. Compaction during continued
subsidence of the North Sea Basin would provide the drive causing
updip movement of these mineral bearing solutions. However this
model does not specify in what chemical state the solutions tr-avel,
neither doe s it attempt to sugge st what the source s of the Iead, z inc,
fluor-ite, or baryte were. Speculations regarding the source of a
reduced sulphur source was advanced and a number of potential
 224.

sources were listed. The se include, sulphur in hydrocarbons,

bacterial reduction of anhydrite in the lower parts of the limestone
succession, or oxidation of pyrite in the host limestones. Worley
and Ford (1977) modified Ford's earlier hypothesis suggesting that
the elements lead, zinc, barium, and fluorine, were produced during
diagenesis of the host Carboniferous limestone during the change from
aragonite to calcite in the marine carbonate skeletons, which con-
stitute most of the limestone. A connate sulphate rich water derived
from near evaporation phases in the Dinantian was favoured for the
source of sulphur in both the sulphide and sulphate species. Reduction
from of sulphate probably took place by the oxidation of organic
material (hydrocarbons) which are widespread in the limestone. This
oxidation process is strongly exothermic and may account for the
elevated temperatures found in studies of fluid inclusions.

iii) Summary of the Geological history of the Southern Pennines

It is evident that the Lower Carboniferous limestones of the

Southern Pennines were deposited in an area of crustal instability
on the margins of a series of sedimentary basins. This is reflected
in the development of penecontemporaneous folds, the numerous
non-sequenresdeveloped during deposition of the limestones, the
abundance of Tholeiitic basaltic intrusions sometimes with olivine
nodules, extensive basic volcanic activity all of which according to
Harison (1971) were derived from a sub - crustal source. It is likely
that the same Variscan influences that produced the volcanic and
structural activity were part of regional basement movements which
produced the shelf and gulf palaeogeography of the Dinantian George
(1976), Kent (1966). Rapid burial of the carbonate platform by Upper
Carboniferous sediments took place but a similar pattern of deep
sedimentary basins, and shelf massifs was maintained (Ramsbottom
1966). After its brief period of burial the Southern Pennines was
generally exhumed as it assumed its more usual role of a positive
massif. This uplift continued intermittently throughout the Permian,
 ----.
·225.

Mesozoic, and Tertiary times when gradual erosion of the sedimentary

cover took place. Sedimentation in areas adjacent to the Southern
Pennines occurred in large deep graben structures, notably in the
North Sea and Cheshire basins. These appear to have developed along
existing structural lines in response to crustal rifting. It has been
argued byWhite man et al, (1975) that crustal rifting in the Southern
North Sea basin and adjacent areas (including the Southern Pennines)
formed part of the initial stages in the formation of a triple junction
generated during the initial stages of crustal splitting and formation
of the North Atlantic.

Sawkins (1976) recognised the significance of widespread

mafic and alkaline magmatism during the Carboniferous - Permian
and its relation to crustal rifting which he thought were early man-
ifestations of Atlantic rifting. It is suggested that intracratonic
hotspot activity could provide a heat source for mineralisation events '
in the Mississippi Valley type Pennine Orefields, and furthermore
peralkaline rocks generated by such activity enriched in lead, zinc,
fluorine, and barium may have provided some of the components
found in these deposits.

iv) Discussion

.. A number of possible mechanisms for the origins of the

Pb - Zn - F - Ba deposits of the Southern Pennines may now be
examined Hypotheses concerning the origins of Mississippi Valley
type deposits are numerous but broadly fall into the following four
categories
(a) Lateral secretion from evaporite deposits
(b) Lateral secretion of saline connate water from deep
sedimentary basins.
(c) Diagenetic origins from limestones or dolomites.
(d) Deep circulation of saline brines through basement rocks.
 226.

Many of the hypotheses outlined above have been directly linked

with the Southern Pennine Orefield or have cited it as an example.
This has formed the basis for selection of the possible mechanisms
considered in the discussion below.
(a) Lateral secretion from evaporite deposits.

Hypotheses concerning the lateral secretion of evaporite

deposits leaching metals from sedimentary rocks and the subsequent
deposition of these leached metals in the form of mineral deposits
have been advanced by Davidson (1966). Llewellyn and Stabbins (1968),
Bush (1970)and Renfro (1970). Renfro (197fJ) and Bush (1970) suggested
that many Mississippi Valley type deposits including those of the
Southern Pennines lay in carbonate rocks situated on structural
highs and suggested that the Na, K, Ca, Cl, brines found in fluid
inclusions were consistent with deposition from a chloride brine. \
Bush advocated lateral migration of brines derived from a sabkha
sediment source in areas adjacent to carbonate shelfs. He Vias able
to show from a study of modern sabkha formations that brines expelled
on early compaction were chloride rich and relatively sulphate free;
and were capable of leaching base metals from the lime stones. With
an increase of time and compaction sabkha sediments rich in sulphate
would progressively release the sulphate into solution which would be
free to migrate. The presence of organic material within shelf
limestones areas which already contained Na, K, Cl brine with leached
base metals would reduce the incoming sulphate- rich brine producing
reduced sulphur for precipitation of base metal sulphides. The circum-
stances proposed by Bush are known to occur within the Southern Pennines,
however a detailed examination shows that there are a number of
serious objections. It cannot be demonstrated that in any of the sabkha
sequences which lie adjacent to the Southern Pennines that dissolution
or lateral migration hf~-s taken place, furthermore the evaporite deposits
are of a too restricted occurrence to have produced large scale min-
eralisation. The temporal aspect of the processes in Bush's hypothesis
requires the rather rapid diagenetic expulsion of the calcite brines and
 227.

later introduction of sabkha sulphate" and it is not readily con-

ceivable that chloride brines with base metals would be retained
within the lime stone s from the Dinantian until the Pe rmian a total
of'pe rhaps 50 million years.

(b) Lateral secretion of saline connate water from deep sedimentary

basins.

A somewhat different model was proposed by Beales and

Jackson (1966)" Beales and Osnasik (1970). and Dozy (1970) for the
"general origin of Mississippi Valley type deposits. They suggested
that compaction induced dewatering of shale sequences in sedimentary
basins adjacent to shelf carbonates sequences produces a flow of
connate water migrating from the basin to the shelf along a hydraulic
gradient. These connate waters are likely to be hypersaline containing
high concentration~ of chloride. Metals are also likely to be more
common in small concentrations within the basin sediments and the se
may be expelled from the shales etc. during diagenesis. They may
thus be carried in combination with the chloride ions in aqueous
solution. Dozy postulated that some of these metals may have been
absorbed on to the clay minerals and were released into aqueous
solution during diagenetic compaction.

Updip migration of these chloride-rich brines containing

metals in solution would occur into the shelf limestone areas. which
is likely to be more porous than the basin sediments. Within the
shelf limestone areas the connate waters. being representatives of
deposition in an environment of near evaporation, were probably
enriched with respect to sulphate ions. Bacterial activity under
anaerobic conditions is likely to reduce the sulphate in solution in the
connate water to hydrogen sulphide in the limestones. Precipitation
of base metal sulphides will occur when the chloride base metal brines
mix with connate H rich connate waters in the limestone shelf.
2S
 228.

Beales and Jackson maintained that studies of the isotopes of sulphur

showed that they had near surface biogenic sources and were con-
sistent with a bacterial reduction of sulphite connate water within
a iimestone host. They further sugge sted that precipitation of the
base metal sulphides occurred without concurrent dissolution of the
carbonatehost limestones and that pH had little effect upon deposition.

It can be argued that Beales and Jacksons mechanism of

sulphate reduction by bacteria is unlikely within the temperatures
envisaged during mineralisation indicated by inclusion studies within
'the Southern Permine s, Also the constraints imposed by the mechanism
cannot easily account for the high temperatures found from the in-
clusion homogenisation studies, apart from by deep basin migration
of the chloride-rich brines as indicated by Dunham (1970).

Within the context of the Southern Pennine Orefield the

:isotope studies carried out by Robinson and Ineson (1976) are not
compatible with derivation of sulphur and the base metals from a
shallow crustal source alone, as some deep seated sources have
been detected. The abundance of fluorite within the deposits of the
Southern Pennines and its source is also difficult to explain in terms
of leaching from adjacent sedimentary basins.

(c) Diagenetic origins from limestones and dolomites

A modi! ication of the Beales and Jackson hypothesis was

introduced by Roberts (1973) and Dunsmore (1975) based on studies of
the Woodcutters and Pine Point deposits. The presence of large
quantities of hydrocarbons within the Pine Point deposit indicated to
Dunsmore that at elevated temperatures reduction of sulphate may
have occurred in the presence of hydrocarbons as first suggested by
Skinner (1967) and later by Bush (1970).

A geochemical survey of limestone diagensis by both authors

 -------------_._---_.
229.

showed that the limestones themselves were capable of producing the

elements found within Mississippi Valley type deposits. These
e lements, he implie d, were typical of those which are commonly as-
sociated with carbonates notably Pb~ zn, ca, s«, Sr, Mg~ Fe~ Co,
and MIl. He also quoted evidence provided by Carpenter (1969) who
showed that the aragonitic skeletal parts of marine organisms may
contain up to 1000 ppm of fluorine. The diagenetic process of con-
version of high Mg calcite to low Mg calcite also released these
elements into the connate pore-waters. Thus the metals are available
within the general area of mineral deposition

Dolomitisation would tend to release more of these elements

from the carbonate lattice into the connate waters. The reduction of
sulphate to sulphide by oxidation of organic material in the pre sence
of connate waters enriched in Ie ad, z inc, barium and other metals
may lead to the precipitation of base metal sulphides within the
limestone host rocks.

Although this single brine theory overcomes many of the

problems imposed by the two brine theory, when examined in detail
a number of objections appear.

.
The Dinantian lime stone of the Southe rn Pennine s were
lithified befor-e they were concealed by at least 1000 m, of later
Upper Carboniferous sediments. Erosion surfaces and disconformities
with the development of soils indicate that the limestone had lithified
and most of the diagenetic processes of high Mg to low Mg calcite
had taken place. The trace metal contents of these limestones ex-
pelled during diagenesis would tend to escape back into the carbonate
seas and only within a rapidly buried situation could these processes
form a metal enriched connate brine. However if burial of the lime-
stones occurred when the diagenetic processes were only partially
complete some of these elements may have been expelled and retained
with connate Dinantian pore waters.
 23()~

Reduction of sulphate in connate brines to provide sulphides

for precipitation of base metals may have taken place within the
Southern Pennines. The presence of hydrocarbons within some
deposits has been described by Mueller (1954) and Pering and the
author has found them as inclusions within galena and in fluorite
veins (Worley 1976). However, Rogers (1977) in his survey of
inclusions did not find that hydrocarbons were common. Therefore,
there is no direct evidence of widespread reduction by hydrocarbons
and those found in the veins may reflect a background concentration
within the limestones themselves.

(d) Deep circulation of saline brines through basement rocks

From a survey of the sulphur and oxygen isotope s from

mineral deposits in the Northern Pennines Orefield Solomon et al,
34S
(1971) obtained a wide range of d values which showed a heavy
to light zonal arrangement. This was explained in terms of deep
circulation of chloride-rich connate Carboniferous brines migrating
through Caledonian granites; the brines became heated and migrated
upwards into the Lower Carboniferous country rocks. These rising
solutions were hypersaline brines and contained lead, z inc, barium
and fluorine with copper and sulphur which travelled in the form of
bisulphide complexes. The zonal occurrence of the gangue minerals
was attributed to hot hypersaline brines rising up through the granites
depositing fluorite first as it is the least soluble and most reactive
mineral present.

The isotopic data published by Coomer and Ford (1975) and

Robinson and Ine son (1976) for sulphur, oxygen, and lead show that
the patterns in the Southern Pennines are broadly comparable with
34
that described in the Northern Pennines. Analyses of sulphur d S
o
within baryte shows a wider range of between 4 to 23 /00 1 but is
somewhat similar with value s obtained by Solomon et a l, from baryte s
 23-1.

(17. 1 to 20. 9 0/00) in the Northern Pennines. It was suggested

by Robinson and Ine son that these values are consistant with those
postulated for Mississippian (Carboniferous) sea water. Thus the
sulphate in baryte may have been derived from sulphate in connate
Dinantian sea water. However the wide range of values obtained
for the Southern Pennines may be too great to suggest a precise
coincidence with connate Mississippian sea water.

%
The values obtained for sulphur in lead (-23.2 to +6.6 0)
give an even greater range, but are consistently heavier than those
obtained from baryte. Following the arguments established by
34S
Heyl et al, (1975) the wide range in d values militates against
solely a deep- seated (magmatic) sulphur as a major sour-ce, but
34S
when compared with other Mississippi Valley type deposits the d
distributions are reversed as sulphide sulphur is generally heavier
than sulphate sulphur. This lead Robinson and Ineson to imply a
separate deep magmatic seated source for some of the sulphide
sulphur, following Solomons' Northern Pennine model Lighter
34S
biogenic d in some of the galena samples suggests that at least
some of the reduced sulphur may have been derived from connate
Dinantian sea water. The wide range of values reflects migration
of saline brines through basement rocks at high temperatures. But,
as Solomon state s, the only likely source is deep migration of connate
water through a granite cupola; however, he notes that these connate
waters are chloride-rich and 'Sulphate-free in the Northern Pennines.
However examination of the sedimentary history of the Dinantian rocks
of the Southern Pennines indicates that connate waters rich in sulphate
34
(with light biogenic d S values) occurred during near evaporation
phases on the carbonat e shelf (Worley and Ford 1977). These probably
provided the sulphate in baryte. Deep circulation of some of the se
brines may have taken place to provide reduced sulphur for the galena.
The mechanism of reduction of sulphate to sulphide cannot be satis-
factorily explained in terms of this model and its genesis remains a
puzzle.
 232.

The 206/204 Lead isotope ratios obtained from the galena

samples in the Southern Pennine Orefield gives a small range the
+-
average being 19. 45 - O. 02~ and are similar to values obtained from
galena in the Triassic and Permian rocks. These values are comparable
with Northern Pennine lead isotopic values obtained from galena which
give simil'ar anomalous homogeneous values from 18. 1 to 18. 3.

Other Mississippi Valley type deposits give typically

heterogeneous value s which are regarded as indicating derivation of
lead from heterogeneous and varied sources. This data therefore
indicates that the lead in the Southern Pennines was derived from a
source which has evolved for a considerable period of time in a
crustal environment allowing thorough mixing to occur. The homo-
geniety of the re sult s also indicate s that the lead- be aring fluid s
had time to thoroughly mix before deposition occurred

A number of potential source rocks may be considered

within these constraints and these include the Lower Palaeozoic
basement rocks and possible related intr-uaions, (Evans and Maroof
1976) basin facies Lower Carboniferous sed.lme nt s, or the shelf facies
Carboniferous Limestones themselves. At this stage without further
evidence it is not possible to prove which is the more likely source
r-ock, and contributions from any of those cannot be ruled out.

It is likely that as the timing of the mineralisation coincided

with a major period of crustal instability during the Permo-Triassic
area that deep movement of solutions took place beneath or adjacent
to the site of mineralisation. This crustal instability was probably
related to the rifting movements that occurred during formation of
the North Atlantic during the early Mesozoic. Associated with the
Tectonic acttvity, a higher than normal geothermal gradient was
probably established. Together with deep circulation of the chloride-
0
rich brines a higher temperature in the 100 - 200 C range would be
attained.
 233.

The work carried out by Rogers (1977) suggests that these

solutions migrated to depths of at least 6 kms; but without more data
on the geothermal gradient in the area this figure must be regarded as
speculative.

The circulation of hydrothermal brine s through a variet y

of rocks probably occurred for some time as the homogeneity of
the lead isotopes indicates that thorough mixing had occurred.

These brines probably leached lead, zinc, barium, fluorine

and silica and other small amounts of base metals from the source
rocks., Movements of these fluids probably occurred through the
major fracture systems which express themselves as the major rakes,
and the pipe s which probably developed penecontemporaneously.

Many of the major rakes a re likely to be linked to the east

to the concealed shelf Dinantian limestones and may have provided
a number of primary emmanative routes for the fluids. With time
as the major structural fractures moved some remained open and
others closed, that the pattern of flow would be complex. This
data is supported by the lack of thermal zonation shown by fluid
inclusion homogenisation temperatures, but further fluid inclusion
work is needed to understand the thermal history of the orefield.

The mineral solution in addition to being at an elevated

temperature was acidic. It is clear from a morphological of the
deposits (Worley 1976) that pipes and flats and some transgressive
veins were produced by deep phreatic hydrothermal solution of the
limestone wall-rocks. The earliest flushes of heated brine contained
little in the way of base metals and produced the highly complex system
of fracture linked solution cavities seen in the Southern Pennines. The
flow of acidic solutions long distances through carbonate rocks seems
to present problems as these would rapidly neutralised by
 234.

dissolution of the host r-ocks, However if this took place it would

protect the lime stone from further replacement allowing acidic
solutions to continue to migrate through the plumbing system.

rr:he widespread corrosion of early calcite mineralisation

and production of zebra-type (replacement textures within the deposits
by fluorite) base metal mineralisation, suggests that deposition of
the mineral deposits often occurred with concomittant dissolution
of the carbonates. This evidence implies that precipitation occurred
by a progressive and intermittant lowering of the pH of the solutions.
Precipitation occurred by cooling and decreasing pressure. This data
negates statements made by Anderson (1975) and Beales (1975) that
precipitation in Mississippi Valley type deposits is not accompanied
by concurrent dissolution of carbonates; it also overcomes the
problems of precipitating adequate amounts of galena in the presence
of calcite (Anderson 1975).

The presence of unoxidised hydrocarbons within some of the

veins indicates that the mineral deposits formed under conditions of
low oxygen fugacity.

These heated hydrothermal solutions probably also encountered

and mixed with cooler sulphate-bearing connate brine s within the deeper
parts of the limestone sequence. This sulphate and possibly some
diagenetically expelled base metals may have contributed to the for-
mation of the mineral deposits.

v) Summary

From the discusaion it is apparent that the mineral deposits

of the Southern Pennines formed during a period of crustal instability
associated with crustal rifting and opening, of the North Atlantic.
This activity may have been related to the development of mantle hot
spots within the general area. This feature probably operated during
 235&

the formation of all Mississippi Valley type deposits in the U. K.

including the Northern Pennines and North Wales. Other Mississippi
Valley type deposits elsewhere in the World may be related to mantle
hot spot activity and crustal rifting.

These processes promoted deep circulation of some of the

connate Dinantian brines deep into the crust which leached base metals.
fluorine. and barium. from a variety of rocks. including the Lower
Palaeozoic sediments and possible related intrusions. basin facies
Lower Carboniferous sediments. or the shelf facies Lower Carbon-
iferous Limestones themselves. The connate pore waters during the
Dinantian were probably enriched in sulphate developed during near
, evaporation periods that existed in regressive phases and provided
some of the sulphur in the sulphide mine rals and sulphate in the ba ryte,
This model is in broad agreement with that e stso lished forvthe Northern
Pennine Orefield. however the migration through a buried granite
cupola cannot be demonstrated in the Southern Pennines where migration
through a variety of rocks appears to have been more likely.

A separate deep seated source of sulphur in some of the sul-

phide minerals indicated by isotope data suggests sulphur from deep
seated possibly magmatic sources and sulphur in connate Dinantian
pore waters mixed. These separate source s of sulphur in Mississippi
Valley type deposits in other areas of the World have not been previously
considered.

The enhanced geothermal gradient likely to have existed com-

bined with deep circulation to depths in the region of 6 kms probably
provided the elevated temperatures indicated by the homogenisation
temperatures.

Studies of the mineral deposits themselves have shown that

the mineral solutions in the Southern Pennines were acidic and upon
encountering the carbonat e rocks the resultant lowering in pH was
 236.

responsible for precipitation of the minerals. Elsewhere notably in

North America it cannot
. be easily demonstrated
.
that lowering of
pH was an important mechanism causing precipitation and the Southern
Pennines appears to have more in common with the Mexican Mississippi
Valley type deposits. Cooling and lowering of pressure of the heated
,
circulating connate brines upon encountering cooler sulphate rich
connate brines may have also caused precipitation.
 23'7:

OVERALL THESIS SUMMARY

During the Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian) limestones

were deposited on a basement of Lowet Palaeozoic rocks in the
Southern Pennines. Deposition took place within an area of crustal
instability' where the extrusion of tholeitic basalt lavas occurred
regularly on this shelf.

Subsidence within the shelf area was irregular, thicker

sequences of darker "basinal facies" limestones accumulating in
those areas of rapid subsidence which coincided with the development
of penecontemporaneous synclines. Thinner sequences of shelf facies
limestones were deposited in areas of less rapid subsidence that
generally lay in anticlinal areas. Throughout the Southern Pennines
the limestones were deposited under conditions of shallowing upward
cycles: evaporating or near evaporating conditions were established
towards the end of these cycles and the connate Lower Carboniferous
waters were sulphate enriched. The shelf facies lime stones contained
numerous erosion surfaces, porous reef masses, pseudobreccias, etc.
and were generally more porous than the intervening more compact
dark basinal facies limestones. The shelf limestones are flanked by
a series of deeper water bssins or gulfs where large thicknesses of
thinly bedded dark limestones with shales and turbidites were deposited.

Towards the end of the Dinantian the limestone shelf of the

Southern Pennines began to subside more rapidly and soon became
buried beneath several kilometres of Upper Carboniferous shales and
sandstones. It is probable that the limestones on both the shelf and
within the adjacent gulf areas were only partially lithified and that
both connate and diagenetically expelled waters containing chloride,
sulphate, and possibly, some base metals fluorine, and barium were
trapped within the limestones. These largely connate Dinantian waters
were probably chloride-rich and also contained sulphate derived during
 238;

the near evaporation phases.

Crustal instability persisted in the area throughout the

Permian and Triassic periods as rifting took place during the
initial stages of opening of the North Atlantic and formation of
the NorthSea Basin. An increased geothermal gradient is likely
to have existed in the area during this period. The fracturing and
increase in geothermal gradient promoted deep circulation of some
of the connate Dinantian waters through a variety of rocks in the
crust including the buried basin and shelf facies Dinantian limestones,
Lower Palaeozoic basement rocks, and associated igneous intrusions.
These probably leached le~d, zinc, barium and fluorine, which may
have mixed with deeper seated possibly magmatic solutions containing
reduced forms of sulphur. During the deep circulation the connate
waters became heated due to the increased geothermal gradient: a
circulation to a depth of about 6 kms. seems likely from a study of the
fluid inclusions.

These solutions migrated along the major fracture systems

which were opening in response to crustal rifting. The major rake-vein
systems were linked to these and were able to flow along a hydraulic
"

gradient towards the Southern Pennine shelf area which resumed its
position as a structural high during the Mesoszoic.

The early flushes of mineral - bearing solutions appear to

have been acidic producing a complex series of fracture linked hydro-
thermal karst cavity systems. The flow of mineral bearing solutions
appears to have taken place over a long period mainly during the
Permo - Triassic and Jurassic. These solutions tended to migrate
along major fracture systems within the shelf limestones which are
more densely developed in anticlinal areas. The paler or shelf lime-
stones situated upon these anticlines and being more porous were
favourable to the development of replacement deposits - pipes and
flats.
 2'39..

These favourable limestones include, pseudobreccias, shell beds,

erosion surfaces, reefs, coarse crinoidal biosparrudites stylolitically
bedded limestones. Other lithological features such as lavas, clay
wayboards, chert bands, and shale beds control the distribution of
these deposits.

Precipitation of the minerals occurred in response to cooling

upon mixing with colder meteoric waters contained within the host
limestones, decreasing pressure, and changes in pH.

The mineralisation occurred in a pulsatory manner, reflected

in the complex paragenetic sequences. Parage netic sequences can-
not be matched across the orefield indicating that the plumbing system
was not always open and some parts became sealed off, whilst others
remained opened in response to faulting. Mineral deposition was
accompanied by concomitant dissolution of the wall - rocks which has
led to the formation of solution collapse breccias.

After deposition of the mineral deposits was completed and

the limestones became exposed, karst drainage systems began to
develop. These utilised the existing mineralised fracture and fissure
veins and pipes vein systems. The passage of water through these
mineral deposits has caused solutional enlargement and stripping
erosion of the minerals from the walls of the veins. These processes
have led to the formation of alluvial placer deposits.' Speleothem
deposits of calcite pyrolusite, and goethite also accumulated in some
of these deposits.

This study has demonstrated that the mineralisation in the

Southern Pennines has resulted from the coincidence and interaction
of many geological processes. However a rational understanding of
the str-atdgr-aphical and structural evolution of the area has shown that
mineralisation can be explained in terms of these processes.
 PAGE/PAGES
EXCLUDED
UNDER
INSTRUCTION
FROM
UNIVERSITY
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