BMOS MENTORING SCHEME (Senior Level)

November 2012 (Sheet 2)

Solutions

These solutions represent one way of solving the questions. They are not the only way,
and just because your solution is different does not mean that it is worse or wrong. You
will get most from the solutions if you have at least attempted the questions. Only then
will you appreciate the difficulties that a problem posed and how they were addressed by
the solution. Relevant theorems have been identified where possible, and references to
further information on the Web have been given. If you are still unclear, ask your mentor.
A. Rzym UKMT
c 2012.

1. Suppose the positive integer, n, has d digits. Then the duplicate of n is given by r =
(10d + 1)n.
Now (10d + 1)(10d + 1) is clearly a perfect square, but unfortunately (10d + 1) has d + 1
2
digits. We therefore look for a number of the form n = (10d + 1) × ppa2 . This will be an
b
integer provided p2b |(10d + 1), and we will look to choose pa to ensure that n has d digits.
In general, (ab + 1) has a factor (a + 1) provided b is odd. Therefore 11 is a factor of
(10d + 1) for all odd d. This motivates seeking a value of d for which 112 |(10d + 1), and
(using modular arithmetic) we see that d = 11 is such a value.
Choosing pa = 9 will guarantee that n has 11 digits, so we arrive at the duplicate (1011 +
92
1) × 112 which is a perfect square.

In decimal form, this equates to the identity 6694214876166942148761 = 818181818192 .



2. (a) We can write any integer n in the form n = 5p + q where p, q are integers and
−2 ≤ q ≤ 2.
• If q = 0 then (mod 5) n ≡ 0, n5 ≡ 0 and so n5 − n ≡ 0.
• If q = ±1 then (mod 5) n ≡ ±1, n5 ≡ ±1 and so n5 − n ≡ 0.
• If q = ±2 then (mod 5) n ≡ ±2, n5 ≡ ±32 ≡ ±2 and so n5 − n ≡ 0.
We have shown that n5 − n is divisible by 5 for all n. This result also follows from
Fermat’s Little Theorem. 
(b) The same argument as above applies. We can write any integer n in the form
n = 7p + q where p, q are integers and −3 ≤ q ≤ 3.
• If q = 0 then (mod 7) n ≡ 0, n7 ≡ 0 and so n7 − n ≡ 0.
• If q = ±1 then (mod 7) n ≡ ±1, n7 ≡ ±1 and so n7 − n ≡ 0.
• If q = ±2 then (mod 7) n ≡ ±2, n7 ≡ ±128 ≡ ±2 and so n7 − n ≡ 0.
• If q = ±3 then (mod 7) n ≡ ±3, n7 ≡ ±2187 ≡ ±3 and so n7 − n ≡ 0.
We have shown that n7 − n is divisible by 7 for all n. This result also follows from
Fermat’s Little Theorem. 
(c) The above approach fails (and Fermat’s Little Theorem does not apply since 9 is not
prime) since (for example) 29 − 2 6≡ 0 mod 9. Indeed, for all n of the form 9k + 2,
n9 − n is not divisible by 9. 

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http://www.mentoring.ukmt.org.uk/
3. (a) We will prove the two parts of the inequality separately.
For the first part, we have x3 − x2 y − xy 2 + y 3 = (x − y)2 (x + y) ≥ 0 so
x3 + y 3 ≥ x2 y + xy 2
and similarly
y 3 + z 3 ≥ y 2 z + yz 2
z 3 + x3 ≥ z 2 x + zx2 .
Adding the last three inequalities gives the required result.
For the second part, we have (x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2 ≥ 0, i.e. x2 + y 2 ≥ 2xy, i.e.
x2 z + y 2 z ≥ 2xyz.
Similarly,
y 2 x + z 2 x ≥ 2xyz
z 2 y + x2 y ≥ 2xyz.
Adding the last three inequalities gives the required result. 
(b) We have proved (above) that if x, y, z are real and positive then
2(x3 + y 3 + z 3 ) ≥ 6xyz
Replacing x, y, z by the (real and positive numbers) x1/3 , y 1/3 , z 1/3 gives the required
result. This is (the 3-variable case of) the Arithmetic mean - Geometric mean (AM-
GM) inequality, and is a result of great importance. 
(c) We have x2 + 2xy + y 2 + 2z 2 = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + (xy + xy + z 2 ). We now apply the
AM-GM inequality (proved above) on each of the bracketed terms to give
x2 + 2xy + y 2 + 2z 2 = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + (xy + xy + z 2 )
p p
≥ 3 3 x2 y 2 z 2 + 3 3 x2 y 2 z 2 = 3 × 16 × 2 = 96. 
(d) If p, q, r are real, then (p − q)2 + (q − r)2 + (r − p)2 ≥ 0. Expanding and rearranging,
we get
2(p2 + q 2 + r2 ) − 2(pq + qr + rp) ≥ 0
3(p2 + q 2 + r2 ) ≥ p2 + q 2 + r2 + 2(pq + qr + rp) = (p + q + r)2 .
Setting p = x + x1 , q = y + y1 , r = z + z1 , this implies
 2  2  2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
x+ + y+ + z+ ≥ (x + + y + + z + )
x y z 3 x y z
 2
1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + . (1)
3 x y z
Now applying the AM-GM inequality to the collection {x, y, z} and {1/x, 1/y,
p 1/z}
√
gives (respectively) (x + y + z)/3 ≥ 3 xyz and (1/x + 1/y + 1/z)/3 ≥ 3 1/xyz.
Combining these inequalities gives (1/x + 1/y + 1/z) ≥ 9/(x + y + z). Applying this
result to (1) gives
 2  2  2  2
1 1 1 1 9 100
x+ + y+ + z+ ≥ 1+ = . 
x y z 3 x+y+z 3

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4. The last three digits of n and the last three digits of n101 are equal if and only if n101 − n
end in three zeros, i.e. is divisible by 23 53 = 1000.
Now

n101 − n = n(n100 − 1)
= n(n50 − 1)(n50 + 1)
= n(n25 − 1)(n25 + 1)(n50 + 1) (2)

but since 2 - n it follows that the last three factors must be even. Thus 23 | n101 − n.
Any integer not sharing a factor with 10 must be of the form 10k + 1, 10k + 3, 10k + 7
or 10k + 9 (for integer k).
If n = 10k + 1, then (mod 125)

n25 − 1 ≡ (10k + 1)25 − 1

 
25 · 24
≡ ··· + 10k + 25 · 10k + 1 − 1
2
≡ 0.

Similarly, if n = 10k + 9, then (mod 125)

n25 + 1 ≡ (10k + 9)25 + 1

 
25 · 24 23 24 25
≡ ··· + 10k · 9 + 25 · 10k · 9 + 9 +1
2
≡ 925 + 1

But (mod 125) 92 ≡ 81, 94 ≡ 812 ≡ 61, 98 ≡ 612 ≡ 96, 916 ≡ 962 ≡ 91, therefore
925 ≡ 916+8+1 ≡ 91 · 96 · 9 ≡ −1. Consequently n25 − 1 ≡ 0.
The other cases can be disposed of similarly, so we conclude that (2) is divisible by 23
and 53 and therefore by 1000. 

5. We look for a proof based on actually constructing the four cubes, and find (after some
experimentation) the identity

6n = (n + 1)3 + (n − 1)3 + (−n)3 + (−n)3 .

Thus any mutiple of 6 can be written as the sum of four integer cubes.

6. Let OAB = α, OBC = β, BCO = δ. Then ABO = 180 − β, AOB = β − α, BOC =

180 − β − δ.
For a given arc, the inscribed angle is half of the central angle, therefore considering the
circle through ABO we must have AO3 B = 2AOB = 2(β − α), BO3 O = 2α, AO3 O =
360 − 2β.
Considering the other circles similarly we have BO1 O = 2δ, BO1 C = 360 − 2(β + δ),
OO1 C = 2β, and OO2 C = 2α, AO2 O = 2δ, AO2 C = 360 − 2(δ + α).
Now consider the quadrilateral OO3 AO2 . From the above, we know that the interior
angles OO3 A = 2β and OO2 A = 2δ. But |OO3 | = |AO3 | and |AO2 | = |OO2 | so triangles
O3 AO2 and O3 OO2 are similar, hence OO3 O2 = β and OO2 O3 = δ.

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 By similarly considering quadrilateral OO2 CO1 with interior angles OO2 C = 2α, OO1 C =
360 − 2β, triangles O2 OO1 and O2 CO1 are similar, thus OO2 O1 = α, O2 O1 O = 180 − β.
A necessary and sufficient condition that O1 lies on the circle through OO3 O2 is that
O2 O1 O = 180 − O2 O3 O. From the above, we see that O2 O1 O = 180 − β, O2 O3 O = β and
hence OO1 O2 O3 are concyclic. 

7. Define the integers an , bn by the relation

√ √
an + bn 2 = (2 + 2)n .

Then a1 = 2, b1 = 1 and
√ √ √
an + bn 2 = (2 + 2)(2 + 2)n−1
√ √
= (2 + 2)(an−1 + bn−1 2)
√
= (2an−1 + 2bn−1 ) + (an−1 + 2bn−1 ) 2

so

an = 2an−1 + 2bn−1
bn = an−1 + 2bn−1 .
√ √
We further note that (2 − 2)n = an − bn 2, consequently
√ √ √ √
(2 + 2)n + (2 − 2)n (an + bn 2) + (an − bn 2) 1 a
√ √ = √ √ = √ n.
(2 + 2)n − (2 − 2)n (an + bn 2) − (an − bn 2) 2 bn

We now consider successive fractions on the RHS of the given equation:

2
2, ,....
1
1+
1+2
If xn = pqnn is the n’th fraction, then we can take p1 = 2, q1 = 1 and successive fractions
are related by
pn 2 2 2pn−1 + 2qn−1
= = =
qn 1 qn−1 pn−1 + 2qn−1
1+ 1+
pn−1 pn−1 + qn−1
1+
qn−1
which will hold if pn , qn obey the recurrence relation

pn = 2pn−1 + 2qn−1
qn = pn−1 + 2qn−1 .

Thus ai = pi and bi = qi for all i.

To summarise, the LHS of the given equation is equal to √12 abnn and the RHS of the given
equation is given by √12 pqnn . However we have shown that ai = pi and bi = qi and so both
sides of the given equation are equal. 

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References

Modular arithmetic:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular arithmetic

Fermat’s little theorem:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat’s little theorem

Continued fraction:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continued fraction