The structure of DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick worked out the structure of DNA in 1953. By using data from
other scientists they were able to build a model of DNA. The X-ray data they used showed that
DNA consists of two strands coiled into a double helix.

Base pairs
Each strand of DNA is made of chemicals called bases. Note that these are different to bases in
relation to acids and alkalis in chemistry. There are four different bases in DNA:
 thymine, T
 adenine, A
 guanine, G
 cytosine, C
There are chemical cross-links between the two strands in DNA, formed by pairs of bases. They
always pair up in a particular way, called complementary base pairing:
 thymine pairs with adenine (T–A)
 guanine pairs with cytosine (G–C)

Base pairs on a section of DNA

 Alleles
There are pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of a body cell. The chromosomes in a pair carry
the same genes in the same places. But there are different versions of the same gene.
Different versions of the same gene are called alleles. For example, the gene for eye colour has
an allele for blue eye colour and an allele for brown eye colour. For any gene, a person may have
the same two alleles or two different ones.

Dominant or recessive alleles

Alleles may be either dominant or recessive:
 A dominant allele is always expressed, even if the individual only has one copy of it. For example, the
allele for brown eyes is dominant. You only need one copy of it to have brown eyes. Two copies will still
give you brown eyes.
 A recessive allele is only expressed if the individual has two copies of it and does not have the dominant
allele of that gene. For example, the allele for blue eyes is recessive. You need two copies of this allele to
have blue eyes.

Mitosis
In mammals, body cells are diploid. The chromosomes need to be copied exactly so that new
cells can be produced for:
 growth
 repair to damaged tissue
 replacement of worn-out cells
The type of cell division involved is called mitosis. The diagram shows how it works.

Identical cells
Mitosis produces two genetically identical cells in which the number of chromosomes is the same
as in the original cell.

Meiosis
Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces gametes. A human body cell contains
46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Human gametes are haploid – so their nucleus only
contains a single set of 23 unpaired chromosomes.
The diagram shows the stages of meiosis.
Reduction division
Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. Unlike mitosis, meiosis is a reduction
division – the chromosome number is halved from diploid (46 chromosomes in 23 pairs in
humans) to haploid (23 chromosomes in humans).

Mitosis Meiosis

Number of cells
produced 2 4

Chromosome
number Diploid Haploid
 Mitosis Meiosis

Genetically
identical Yes No

Growth, repair,
Used for asexual Production of gametes
reproduction for sexual reproduction