Chapter 9

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2014 1
Chapter 9 Flow over Immersed Bodies

Fluid flows are broadly categorized:
1. Internal flows such as ducts/pipes, turbomachinery, open

channel/river, which are bounded by walls or fluid interfaces:
Chapter 8.
2. External flows such as flow around vehicles and structures,

which are characterized by unbounded or partially bounded
domains and flow field decomposition into viscous and
inviscid regions: Chapter 9.
a. Boundary layer flow: high Reynolds number flow

around streamlines bodies without flow separation.
Re ≤ 1: low Re flow (creeping or Stokes flow)
Re > ∼ 1,000: Laminar BL
Re > ∼ 5×105 (Recrit): Turbulent BL
b. Bluff body flow: flow around bluff bodies with flow

separation.
3. Free Shear flows such as jets, wakes, and mixing layers,

which are also characterized by absence of walls and
development and spreading in an unbounded or partially
bounded ambient domain: advanced topic, which also uses
boundary layer theory.
Basic Considerations
Drag is decomposed into form and skin-friction

contributions:
1 
CD = ∫ ( − ) ⋅ + ∫ τ ⋅
1 2 S 
p p ∞ n î dA w τ î dA
ρV A S 
2
CDp Cf
1  
CL = ( − ) ⋅
1 2 S∫ 
p p ∞ n ĵ dA
ρV A 
2
t
<< 1 Cf > > CDp streamlined body
c
t
∼1 CDp > > Cf bluff body
c
Streamlining: One way to reduce the drag
 reduce the flow separationreduce the pressure drag

 increase the surface area  increase the friction drag
 Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag
Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag
Benefit of streamlining: reducing vibration and noise

Qualitative Description of the Boundary Layer
Flow-field regions for high Re flow about slender bodies:

τw = shear stress
τw ∝ rate of strain (velocity gradient)
∂u
=µ
∂y y=0
large near the surface where

fluid undergoes large changes to
satisfy the no-slip condition
Boundary layer theory and equations are a simplified form

of the complete NS equations and provides τw as well as a
means of estimating Cform. Formally, boundary-layer
theory represents the asymptotic form of the Navier-Stokes
equations for high Re flow about slender bodies. The NS
equations are 2nd order nonlinear PDE and their solutions
represent a formidable challenge. Thus, simplified forms
have proven to be very useful.
Near the turn of the last century (1904), Prandtl put forth
boundary-layer theory, which resolved D’Alembert’s
paradox: for inviscid flow drag is zero. The theory is
restricted to unseparated flow. The boundary-layer
equations are singular at separation, and thus, provide no
information at or beyond separation. However, the
requirements of the theory are met in many practical
situations and the theory has many times over proven to be
invaluable to modern engineering.
The assumptions of the theory are as follows:
Variable order of magnitude

u U O(1)
v δ<<L O(ε) ε = δ/L
∂
1/L O(1)
∂x
∂
1/δ O(ε-1)
∂y
ν δ2 ε2
The theory assumes that viscous effects are confined to a

thin layer close to the surface within which there is a
dominant flow direction (x) such that u ∼ U and v << u.
However, gradients across δ are very large in order to
∂ ∂
satisfy the no slip condition; thus, >> .
∂y ∂x
Next, we apply the above order of magnitude estimates to

the NS equations.
∂u ∂u ∂p  ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 
u +v − +ν  2 + 2 
=
∂x ∂y ∂x  ∂x ∂y 
1 1 ε ε-1 ε2 1 ε-2
∂v ∂v ∂p  ∂ 2v ∂ 2v 
u +v = − +ν  2 + 2  elliptic
∂x ∂y ∂y  ∂x ∂y 
1 ε ε 1 ε2 ε ε-1
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
1 1
Retaining terms of O(1) only results in the celebrated

boundary-layer equations
∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ 2u
u +v − +ν 2
=
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂p
=0
∂y parabolic
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
Some important aspects of the boundary-layer equations:

1) the y-momentum equation reduces to
∂p
=0
∂y
i.e., p = pe = constant across the boundary layer
from the Bernoulli equation: edge value, i.e.,

1 2 inviscid flow value!
p e + ρU e = constant
2
∂p e ∂U e
i.e., = −ρU e
∂x ∂x
Thus, the boundary-layer equations are solved subject to
a specified inviscid pressure distribution
2) continuity equation is unaffected
3) Although NS equations are fully elliptic, the

boundary-layer equations are parabolic and can be
solved using marching techniques
4) Boundary conditions
u=v=0 y=0
u = Ue y=δ
+ appropriate initial conditions @ xi

There are quite a few analytic solutions to the boundary-
layer equations. Also numerical techniques are available
for arbitrary geometries, including both two- and three-
dimensional flows. Here, as an example, we consider the
simple, but extremely important case of the boundary layer
development over a flat plate.
Quantitative Relations for the Laminar Boundary

Layer
Laminar boundary-layer over a flat plate: Blasius solution

(1908) student of Prandtl
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂p
Note:
∂x
=0 ∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
u +v =ν 2
for a flat plate ∂x ∂y ∂y
u=v=0 @y=0 u = U∞ @y=δ
We now introduce a dimensionless transverse coordinate

and a stream function, i.e.,
U∞ y
η= y ∝
νx δ
ψ = νxU ∞ f (η)
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η
u= = = U ∞ f ′(η) f ′ = u / U∞
∂ψ ∂η ∂ψ
∂ψ 1 νU ∞
v=− = (ηf ′ − f )
∂x 2 x
Substitution into the boundary-layer equations yields
ff ′′ + 2f ′′′ = 0 Blasius Equation

f = f′ = 0 @ η = 0 f′ =1 @ η → ∞
The Blasius equation is a 3rd order ODE which can be

solved by standard methods (Runge-Kutta). Also, series
solutions are possible. Interestingly, although simple in
appearance no analytic solution has yet been found.
Finally, it should be recognized that the Blasius solution is
a similarity solution, i.e., the non-dimensional velocity
profile f′ vs. η is independent of x. That is, by suitably
scaling all the velocity profiles have neatly collapsed onto a
single curve.
Now, lets consider the characteristics of the Blasius

solution:
u
vs. y
U∞
v
U ∞ vs. y
5x
δ= value of y where u/U∞ = .99
Re x
U x
Re x = ∞
ν
µU f ′′(0)
τw = ∞
2ν x / U
∞
see below
2τ w 0.664 θ
i.e., cf = = = : Local friction coeff.
ρU ∞
2
Re x x
L
b
bL ∫0
Cf = c f dx = 2c f ( L) : Friction drag coeff.
Note: 1.328 U∞L

=
𝑏𝑏 = plate width
𝐿𝐿 = plate length
Re L ν
ρµ
Wall shear stress: τ w = 0.332U ∞ or τ w = 0.332µ (U ∞ x )
32
Re x
x
Other:
δ u  x
δ = ∫ 1 −
*
δy = 1.7208 displacement thickness
0 U ∞ Re x
measure of displacement of inviscid flow due to

boundary layer
δ u  u x
θ = ∫ 1 −  δy = 0.664 momentum thickness
0 U∞  U∞ Re x
measure of loss of momentum due to boundary layer

δ*
H = shape parameter = =2.5916
θ
Quantitative Relations for the Turbulent

Boundary Layer
2-D Boundary-layer Form of RANS equations

∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂  pe  ∂ 2u ∂
u + v = −   + ν 2 − (u ′v′)
∂x ∂y ∂x  ρ  ∂y ∂y
requires modeling
Momentum Integral Analysis
Historically similarity and AFD methods used for idealized

flows and momentum integral methods for practical
applications, including pressure gradients. Modern
approach: CFD.
To obtain general momentum integral relation which is

valid for both laminar and turbulent flow
∞ For flat plate or δ for general case

∫ (momentum equation + (u − v) continuity )dy
y =0
τw 1 dθ θ dU dp dU
= c f = + (2 + H ) − = ρU
ρU 2 2 dx U dx dx dx
dU
flat plate equation =0
dx
δ u u
θ=∫ 1 − δy momentum thickness
0 U  U
δ*
H= shape parameter
θ
d
 u
d = ∫ 1 − dy
*
displacement thickness
0 U
Can also be derived by CV analysis as shown next for flat

plate boundary layer.
Momentum Equation Applied to the Boundary Layer

Consider flow of a viscous fluid at high Re past a flat plate, i.e.,
flat plate fixed in a uniform stream of velocity Uiˆ .
Boundary-layer thickness arbitrarily defined by y = δ 99% (where,

δ 99% is the value of y at u = 0.99U). Streamlines outside δ 99% will
deflect an amount δ * (the displacement thickness). Thus the
streamlines move outward from y = H at x = 0 to
y = Y = δ = H + δ * at x = x1 .
Conservation of mass:
H H +d ∗
∫ ρV • ndA =0= − ∫0 ρUdy + ∫0
CS
ρ udy
Assume incompressible flow (constant density):
UH = ∫ udy = ∫ (U + u − U )dy = UY + ∫ (u − U )dy
Y Y Y
0 0 0
Substituting Y = H + δ * defines displacement thickness:

d * = ∫0Y 1 − dy
u
 U
δ * is an important measure of effect of BL on external flow.
Consider alternate derivation based on equivalent flow rate:
δ
δ* Lam=δ/3
δ* Turb=δ/8
δ δ
∫ Uδy =∫ uδy
δ* 0
Inviscid flow about δ* body
Flowrate between δ and δ of inviscid flow=actual flowrate, i.e., inviscid flow rate
*
about displacement body = viscous flow rate about actual body
δ δ* δ δ
 u
∫0 − ∫0 = ∫0 ⇒ δ = ∫0  U δy
 − *
Uδy Uδy uδy 1
w/o BL - displacement effect=actual discharge
For 3D flow, in addition it must also be explicitly required that δ *

is a stream surface of the inviscid flow continued from outside of
the BL.
Conservation of x-momentum:
∑F − ∫ ρU (Udy ) + ∫ ρ u ( udy )
H Y
x =− D =∫ ρ uV • ndA =
0 0
CS
Y
Drag = D = rU 2 H − ∫0 ru 2 dy
= Fluid force on plate = - Plate force on CV (fluid)
Again assuming constant density and using continuity:

Y u
H =∫ dy
0 U
Y
Y x
=D ρU ∫ u / Udy − ρ ∫ u= ∫τ
2 2
dy w dx
0 0
0
D Y u u
= θ = −
∫0 U  U dy
1
ρU 2  
where, θ is the momentum thickness (a function of x only), an
important measure of the drag.
2θ 1
x
2D
C=
D = =
ρU x x x 0
2 ∫ c f dx Per unit span
τw d dθ
=
cf
1
⇒=
cf ( xC=
D ) 2
ρU 2 dx dx Special case 2D
2 momentum integral
dθ c f dθ equation for dp/dx = 0
= τ w = ρU 2
dx 2 dx
Simple velocity profile approximations:
u = U (2 y / δ − y 2 / δ 2 )
u(0) = 0 no slip
u(δ) = U matching with outer flow
uy(δ)=0
Use velocity profile to get Cf(δ) and θ(δ) and then integrate
momentum integral equation to get δ(Rex)
δ* = δ/3
θ = 2δ/15
H= δ*/θ= 5/2
τ w = 2µU / d
2 µU / d dθ d
⇒ c f= = 2 = 2 (2d /15)
1/ 2 ρU 2
dx dx
15µ dx
∴dd d =
ρU
30 µ dx
d2 =
ρU
d / x = 5.5 / Re1/2
x
Re x = Ux / ν ;
d * / x = 1.83 / Re1/2
x
10% error, cf. Blasius
θ / x = 0.73 / Re1/2
x
= =
CD 1.46 / Re1/2
L 2C f ( L)
Approximate solution Turbulent Boundary-Layer
Ret = 5×105∼ 3×106 for a flat plate boundary layer

Recrit ∼ 100,000
c f dθ
=
2 dx
as was done for the approximate laminar flat plate

boundary-layer analysis, solve by expressing cf = cf (δ) and
θ = θ(δ) and integrate, i.e. assume log-law valid across
entire turbulent boundary-layer
u 1 yu* neglect laminar sub layer and

= ln +B
u* κ n velocity defect region
at y = δ, u = U
U 1 δu *
= ln +B
u* κ n
1/ 2
c 
Re δ  f 
2
2 
1/ 2
  cf  
1/ 2
or   = 2.44 ln Re δ    + 5
 cf    2   cf (δ)
c f ≅ .02 Re δ −
1/ 6
power-law fit
Next, evaluate
δθ δ δ u  u 
= ∫ 1 − δy
δx δx 0 U  U 
can use log-law or more simply a power law fit

1/ 7
u  y
=  Note: cannot be used to
U δ obtain cf (δ) since τw → ∞
7
θ = δ = θ(δ )
72
1 dθ 7 dd
⇒ τ w = c f ρU 2 = ρU 2 = ρU 2
2 dx 72 dx
dd
Re d −1/ 6 = 9.72
dx
δ −1/7
or x = 0.16 Re x i.e., much faster
growth rate than
δ∝x 6/7
almost linear laminar
boundary layer
0.027
cf =
Re1/7
x
0.031 7
=
Cf = c f ( L)
Re1/7
L 6
These formulas are for a fully turbulent flow over a smooth

flat plate from the leading edge; in general, give better
results for sufficiently large Reynolds number ReL > 107.
1
𝑢𝑢 𝑦𝑦 7
≈� �
𝑈𝑈 𝛿𝛿
(See Table 4-1 on

page 13 of this
lecture note)
𝑢𝑢 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 2
≈ 2� � − � �
𝑈𝑈 𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿
Comparison of dimensionless laminar and turbulent flat-plate velocity profiles (Ref:

White, F. M., Fluid Mechanics, 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill)
Alternate forms by using the same velocity profile u/U =

(y/δ)1/7 assumption but using an experimentally determined
shear stress formula τw = 0.0225ρU2(ν/Uδ)1/4 are:
δ 0.058
= 0.37 Re −x 1/5 cf = Cf =
0.074
x Re1/5
x Re1/5
L
0.029 ρU 2
shear stress: τw =
Re1/5
x
These formulas are valid only in the range of the

experimental data, which covers ReL = 5 × 105 ∼ 107 for
smooth flat plates.
Other empirical formulas are by using the logarithmic

velocity-profile instead of the 1/7-power law:
𝛿𝛿
= 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 (0.98 log 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 − 0.732)
𝐿𝐿
𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 = (2 log 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 − 0.65)−2.3
0.455
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = (log 2.58
10 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 )
These formulas are also called as the Prandtl-Schlichting skin-

friction formula and valid in the whole range of ReL ≤ 109.
For these experimental/empirical formulas, the boundary layer

is usually “tripped” by some roughness or leading edge
disturbance, to make the boundary layer turbulent from the
leading edge.
No definitive values for turbulent conditions since depend on

empirical data and turbulence modeling.
Finally, composite formulas that take into account both the

initial laminar boundary layer and subsequent turbulent
boundary layer, i.e. in the transition region (5 × 105 < ReL < 8
× 107) where the laminar drag at the leading edge is an
appreciable fraction of the total drag:
0.031 1440
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = 1 −
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 7
0.074 1700
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = 1 −
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿5
0.455 1700
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = −
(log10 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 )2.58 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿
with transitions at Ret = 5 × 105 for all cases.
Local friction coefficient 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓 (top) and friction drag coefficient

𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 (bottom) for a flat plate parallel to the upstream flow.
Bluff Body Drag
Drag of 2-D Bodies

First consider a flat plate
both parallel and normal to
the flow
1
C Dp = (p − p ∞ )n ⋅ î = 0
1 2 S∫
ρV A
2
1
Cf = τ w τ ⋅ î dA
1 2 S∫
ρV A
2
1.33
= laminar flow
Re1L/ 2
.074
= turbulent flow
Re1L/ 5
flow pattern
vortex wake
typical of bluff body flow
where Cp based on experimental data
1
C Dp = (p − p ∞ )n ⋅ îdA
1 2 S∫
ρV A
2
1
= ∫ C p dA
AS
= 2 using numerical integration of experimental data
Cf = 0
For bluff body flow experimental data used for CD.

In general, Drag = f(V, L, ρ, µ, c, t, ε, T, etc.)

from dimensional analysis
c/L
Dρag  t ε 
CD = = f  Rε, Aρ, , , T, εtc.
1 2
ρV A  L L 
2
scale factor
 a2 
Potential Flow Solution: ψ = − U ∞  r −  sin θ
 r 
1 1
p + ρV 2 = p ∞ + ρU ∞2 1 ∂ψ
ur =
2 2 r ∂θ
p − p∞ u 2r + u θ2
Cp = = 1− ∂ψ
1 2 U 2 uθ = −
rU ∞ ∞ ∂r
2
C p (r = a ) = 1 − 4 sin 2 θ surface pressure
Flow Separation
Flow separation:
The fluid stream detaches itself from the surface of the body at
sufficiently high velocities. Only appeared in viscous flow!!
Flow separation forms the region called ‘separated region’

Inside the separation region:
low-pressure, existence of recirculating/backflows
viscous and rotational effects are the most significant!
Important physics related to flow separation:

’Stall’ for airplane (Recall the movie you saw at CFD-PreLab2!)
Vortex shedding
(Recall your work at CFD-Lab2, AOA=16°! What did you see in
your velocity-vector plot at the trailing edge of the air foil?)
Terminal Velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity attained by a

falling body when the drag reaches a magnitude such that
the sum of all external forces on the body is zero. Consider
a sphere using Newton’ Second law:
∑
Z
F = F d + Fb − Fg = ma
when terminal velocity is attained

∑ F= a= 0 :
Fd + Fb =
Fg
or
1
2
rV02C
= D Ap (γ Sphere − γ fluid ) V Sphere
For the sphere

p p
Ap = d2 and V Sphere = d3
4 6
The terminal velocity is:

 ( γ sphere − γ fluid ) ( 4 3) d 
12
V0 =  
 CD r fluid

Magnus effect: Lift generation by spinning
Breaking the symmetry causes the lift!

Effect of the rate of rotation on the lift and drag coefficients of a

smooth sphere:
Lift acting on the airfoil
Lift force: the component of the net force (viscous+pressure) that

is perpendicular to the flow direction
Variation of the lift-to-drag ratio with angle of attack:
The minimum flight velocity:

Total weight W of the aircraft be equal to the lift
1 2W
W = FL = C L ,max ρVmin
2
A → Vmin =
2 ρC L ,max A
Effect of Compressibility on Drag: CD = CD(Re,

Ma)
U∞
Ma =
a
speed of sound = rate at which infinitesimal
disturbances are propagated from their
source into undisturbed medium
Ma < 1 subsonic < 0.3 flow is incompressible,

Ma ∼ 1 transonic (=1 sonic flow) i.e., ρ ∼ constant
Ma > 1 supersonic
Ma >> 1 hypersonic
CD increases for Ma ∼ 1 due to shock waves and wave drag
Macritical(sphere) ∼ .6
Macritical(slender bodies) ∼ 1
For U > a: upstream flow is not warned of approaching

disturbance which results in the formation of
shock waves across which flow properties
and streamlines change discontinuously

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57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 9

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2014 1

Chapter 9 Flow over Immersed Bodies

1. Internal flows such as ducts/pipes, turbomachinery, open

2. External flows such as flow around vehicles and structures,

a. Boundary layer flow: high Reynolds number flow

b. Bluff body flow: flow around bluff bodies with flow

3. Free Shear flows such as jets, wakes, and mixing layers,

Drag is decomposed into form and skin-friction

Streamlining: One way to reduce the drag

 reduce the flow separationreduce the pressure drag

 Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag

Trade-off relationship between pressure drag and friction drag

Benefit of streamlining: reducing vibration and noise

Qualitative Description of the Boundary Layer

Flow-field regions for high Re flow about slender bodies:

τw ∝ rate of strain (velocity gradient)

large near the surface where

Boundary layer theory and equations are a simplified form

The assumptions of the theory are as follows:

Variable order of magnitude

The theory assumes that viscous effects are confined to a

Next, we apply the above order of magnitude estimates to

Retaining terms of O(1) only results in the celebrated

Some important aspects of the boundary-layer equations:

from the Bernoulli equation: edge value, i.e.,

2) continuity equation is unaffected

3) Although NS equations are fully elliptic, the

+ appropriate initial conditions @ xi

Quantitative Relations for the Laminar Boundary

Laminar boundary-layer over a flat plate: Blasius solution

u=v=0 @y=0 u = U∞ @y=δ

We now introduce a dimensionless transverse coordinate

Substitution into the boundary-layer equations yields

ff ′′ + 2f ′′′ = 0 Blasius Equation

The Blasius equation is a 3rd order ODE which can be

Now, lets consider the characteristics of the Blasius

Note: 1.328 U∞L

measure of displacement of inviscid flow due to

measure of loss of momentum due to boundary layer

Quantitative Relations for the Turbulent

2-D Boundary-layer Form of RANS equations

Momentum Integral Analysis

Historically similarity and AFD methods used for idealized

To obtain general momentum integral relation which is

∞ For flat plate or δ for general case

Can also be derived by CV analysis as shown next for flat

Momentum Equation Applied to the Boundary Layer

Boundary-layer thickness arbitrarily defined by y = δ 99% (where,

Substituting Y = H + δ * defines displacement thickness:

Inviscid flow about δ* body

w/o BL - displacement effect=actual discharge

For 3D flow, in addition it must also be explicitly required that δ *

Again assuming constant density and using continuity:

Ret = 5×105∼ 3×106 for a flat plate boundary layer

as was done for the approximate laminar flat plate

u 1 yu* neglect laminar sub layer and

can use log-law or more simply a power law fit

These formulas are for a fully turbulent flow over a smooth