Combined non-destructive

and destructive tests

for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

Beatrice Faggiano
Maria Rosaria Grippa
Anna Marzo
Federico M. Mazzolani

Department of Structural Engineering (DIST)

University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy

speaker Dr. Paolo Negro

Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

contents

Aim of the study….

  introduction
identification of a methodological process for
  material and methods in situ mechanical characterization of ancient
timber members by means of combined non-
  non-destructive tests (NDT)
destructive techniques.
  destructive tests (DT)

  mechanical identification by NDT-DT methods

The research activity has been developed in the framework of the Italian project PRIN 2006
“Diagnosis techniques and totally removable low invasive strengthening methods for the structural
rehabilitation and the seismic improvement of historical timber structure”, prof. M. Piazza coordinator.

Research UNIT UNINA “Experimental evaluation of the mechanical properties of wood by means of
non-destructive compared techniques for the characterization of existing wooden structures”,
research team: prof. B. Faggiano scientific responsible, Ing. M. R. Grippa and Ing. A. Marzo.

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

introduction

non destructive techniques (NDT)

towards diagnosis, structural analysis and consolidation intervention of existing wooden structures
GTM LTM
  Global Test Methods (GTM)
- ultrasonic and vibration methods

  Local Test Methods (LTM)

- electronic penetrometers
- superficial hardness systems

experimental activity (DIST Laboratory, University “Federico II”, Naples, Italy)

evaluation of the mechanical properties of old structural timber by means of NDT compared techniques

  Non-destructive tests (NDT)

NDT
- hygrometric
DT
- ultrasonic
- sclerometric
- resistographic
  Destructive tests (DT)
- compression parallel to the grain and bending
  Correlations between NDT and DT parameters 3
Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

material chestnut structural elements

ancient timber roofing trusses standard dimensions (UNI EN 408)

inclined strut
king post
14 specimens type C for compression tests

6D D

L/D≅6

king post 10 specimens type B for bending tests

inclined strut

L/D≥19

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

material geometric survey and visual inspection

Visual inspection 10 specimens type B for bending tests

qualitative assessment of the conservation state
Defects and alterations nearly circular cross-section
  knots and fibre deviation Dmean [15.0 cm; 16.5 cm]
  longitudinal splitting L (≥ 19D) [300 cm; 340 cm]
  ring shakes
  biological damage and insect attacks

14 specimens type C for compression tests

square cross-section with large rounded edges

Dmean [14.5 cm; 16.0 cm]
L (≅ 6D) [87 cm; 96 cm]

knots
ring insect
shake attacks

longitudinal fissures knot

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive methods (NDT)

  hygrometric tests
evaluation of the moisture content of the wood, which severely affects its
mechanical properties and its susceptibility to degradation by decay
  ultrasonic investigations
definition of a direct relationship between the stress wave speed and the elastic properties
of the material, based on the theory of acoustic wave propagation
  sclerometric tests
assessment of the material hardness and superficial consistence by the penetration depth
of a blunt pin, fired into the wood
  resistographic measurements
detection of internal defects and density variations by means of measure of drilling resistance
along the path of a small needle inserted into the wood

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive methods (DT)

  compression tests parallel to the grain (14 specimens type C)

determination of the modulus of elasticity (Ec,0) and strength (fc,0) in compression
  bending tests (10 specimens type B)
determination of the local (Em,l) and global (Em,g) modulus of elasticity, together with
bending strength (fm)

The full-scale static tests aim at evaluating the structural

behaviour of the timber elements in terms of stiffness, load
bearing capacity and collapse mechanism.
The tests were performed according to UNI EN 408 standard.

UNI EN 408 (2004)

Timber structures – Structural timber and glued laminated timber – Determination of some physical
and mechanical properties.

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) hygrometric tests

testing equipment
Tramex Professional device
  digital pin type resistance meter
testing set-up
  resistor pins aligned along the
direction parallel to the grain
  10 readings per specimen

  moisture content readings:

7% - 40%; 0.1% increments

  the professional is callibrated on

wood at an ambient temperature
of 20 °C

temperature Adjustment chart

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) ultrasonic investigations

testing equipment testing set-up

Ultrasonic System CMS transducers direct method

parallel to the grain

TSG-20   5 readings per specimen
in longitudinal direction

RSG-55

perpendicular to the grain

signal acquisition software (Pocket Sonic)   11 tested sections
  4 readings per section
  44 readings per specimen
in transversal direction
1 2
3

4
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) ultrasonic investigations

data processing

Data Sonic processing software → signals in ASCII format → diagrams in scale time [usec] – Amplitude [mV]

cross-section
typical stress waveform Transversal signals fissures
discovery of weak
and critical zones

TF
T3

T1 T2

Dynamic parameters
•  TF: “Time of Flight” (transmission time)
•  SWS: Stress Wave Speed = L/TF
T4
•  Edyn: dynamic elasticity modulus = SWS2 ρ
(*) L: distance between the transducers
ρ: wood density
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) sclerometric tests

testing equipment testing set-up

Wood Pecker mechanical hammer grid area longitudinal tests

  2 tested end-sections
  9 shots per area
  18 shots per specimen

  blunt metallic needle:

25 mm diameter; 50 mm length
  shot by means of 5 spring blows transversal tests
  equipped by a comparator system   2 orthogonal directions
  5 tested areas
pin penetration depth (PD)   9 shots per area
  PD = Ln – (Lc+Dc) [mm]   90 shots per specimen
(*) Ln: pin length
Lc: comparator reading
Dc: depth of protective cap
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) resistographic measurements

testing equipment testing set-up
wax paper strip longitudinal measurements
IMLRESIF400 System
  2 tested end-sections
  5 measures
per section
  10 measures
electronic unit per specimen

transversal measurements
  drilling resistance measuring system
  11 tested sections
  needle 1.5 to 3.0 mm diameter and 40 mm length   2 measures
  spent energy of drilling device measured as per section
  22 measures
drilling resistance every 0.1 mm per specimen
  data recorder on a wax paper strip at a scale of 1:1
and stored on a electronic unit as graphic profiles
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) resistographic measurements

data processing

F-Tools Pro software → data in ASCII format → graphic profiles in scale Drilling Depth [mm] – Amplitude [%]

wood with high quality wood of good quality wood of poor quality
  presence of internal more resistant part   homogeneous parts   damaged zone with low amplitude
  presence of knots on the lateral surface   hollow areas with null drilling resistance

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) resistographic measurements

data processing

mean value of amplitude as parameter of wood drilling resistance

longitudinal profile
similar drilling resistance on homogeneous parts
transversal profile
strong variation of drilling resistance due
damaged zone the crossing of the growth rings

hollow area

Mean amplitude (Am)

ratio between the integral of the diagram

area and the depth of the needle path (L)
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

non-destructive tests (NDT) experimental results

NDT parameters
average values for each specimen
  Hygrometric tests
moisture content (MC) [%]
  Ultrasonic investigations
stress wave speed (SWS) [m/sec]
  Sclerometric tests
pin penetration depth (PD) [mm]
  Resistographic measurements
drilling resistance (Am) [%]

mean values and variation coefficients

the resistographic parameters are affected by the higher

coefficients of variations, due to the presence of defects which
inflluence the local measures of the drilling-resistance
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) compression tests parallel to the grain

testing equipment
Mohr & Federhaff machine

  Hydraulic press with capacity of 5000 kN

(force controlled tests)
  Loading cell HBM of 740 kN
  Displacements transducers (LVDT)
with accurancy of 1×10-3
  Acquisition system (HBM-Spider 8) and PC
for data recording by means of the software Catman (v. 6.2)

load cell
test methods
top fixed
head The compression tests were performed in two step:
1.  Elastic cycles, for the determination of the elasticity
modulus (Ec,0)
LVDTs
specimen
2.  Failure cycles, for the evaluation of the
base plate
compression strength (fc,0), post-elastic behaviour
and collapse modes of the tested specimens

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) compression tests parallel to the grain

testing set-up elastic cycles

test procedure: 3 load ranges

elasticity modulus

typical F-w curves

Ec,0 (I) = 9268 N/mm2

Ec,0 (II) = 9948 N/mm2
Ec,0 (III) = 11016 N/mm2
Ec,0(mean)=10078 N/mm2
4 LVDTs (1, 2, 3, 4) are placed on the
opposite faces of the specimen to measure
the relative displacements (Δw) in the elastic
range over the central gauge length (L1)
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) compression tests parallel to the grain

testing set-up failure cycles
typical F-w curves

compression
strength

2 LVDTs (5, 6) are placed on loading-base envelope curves and mean curve
plate of the testing machine, measuring the
base displacements (w) of the samples

test procedure
  several loading-reloading failure cycles
  in each step, the load is increased up to
the failure and applied at a constant
base plate speed in such a way that the
maximum force is reached within
300±120 sec (UNI EN 408) 18
Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) compression tests parallel to the grain

longitudinal splitting collapse mechanisms
fractures in radial direction

cleavage along the annual rings

multidirectional rupture

The propagation of the failure patterns

was developed for the presence of
defects, such as longitudinal cracks,
ring shakes, knots and slope of grain
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements
destructive tests (DT)
Mohr & Federhaff machine
actuator
steel profile
support
test arrangement (UNI EN 408)
  four-points static scheme
  simply supported beam by means of two
semi-cylindrical hinges
  loaded beam with two concentrated forces
by interposition of a steel profile between
the actuator and the specimen
Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST)
bending tests
testing equipment
specimen
test methods
The bending tests were performed in two step:
1.  Elastic cycles, for the determination of the
local (Em,l) and global (Em,g) elasticity modulus
2.  Failure cycles, for the evaluation of the bending
strength (fc,0), post-elastic behaviour and collapse
modes of the tested specimens
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University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) bending tests

testing set-up elastic cycles
test procedure: 3 load ranges
local elasticity modulus

global elasticity modulus

typical F-w curves

LVDT2
LVDT3

LVDT1

LVDT4

  Determination of the local elasticity modulus:

3 LVDTs (1, 2, 3) are placed on the neutral
axis to measure the deformations over the
central gauge length (w; L1)
  Determination of the global elasticity modulus: Em,l (I) = 12391 N/mm2 Em,g (I) = 10307 N/mm2
Em,l (II) = 12375 N/mm2 Em,g (II) = 11036 N/mm2
LVDT (4) measures the deflections (w) at the
Em,l (III) = 12068 N/mm2 Em,g (III) = 11011 N/mm2
mid-span of the beam
Em,l (mean) = 12278 N/mm2 Em,g (mean) = 11023 N/mm2
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) bending tests

testing set-up failure cycles
typical F-w curves

bending
strength

LVDT5

LVDT4

LVDT (4) is placed at the mid-span of the

envelope curves
beam; LVDT (5) measures the loading-
actuator displacements.

test procedure
  several loading-reloading failure cycles
  in each step, the load is increased up to
the failure, reaching the maximum force
within 300±120 sec (UNI EN 408)
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) bending tests

collapse mechanisms
For almost all the specimens, failure mechanisms triggered around large knots located at the central zone at the tensile edge of the
beam cross-section, in some cases anticipated by fibres buckling mechanism at the compression side and slip phenomena

Specimen B1 Specimen B4 Specimen B5

Specimen B6 Specimen B8 Specimen B9

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) bending tests

collapse mechanisms

specimen B3

rupture at the beam tension side: tear of the more stressed fibres

II cycle
V cycle
VII cycle
IX cycle 24
Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) bending tests

collapse mechanisms

specimen B2

rupture at the beam compression side: buckling mode and slipping phenomena

I cycle
III cycle
IV cycle 25
Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

destructive tests (DT) experimental results

compression tests bending tests
physical and dynamic
properties
  ρ: wood density [kg/m3]
determined on the basis of the
measured sizes and weight of the
timber specimens
  Edyn: dynamic elasticity
modulus [N/mm2]
determined by means of the
theoretical relation for homogenous
and isotropic elements:
Edyn = SWSL2 ρ
(SWS is the stress wave speed)

coefficients of variations
mechanical properties
  E: elasticity modulus [N/mm2]
- Ec,0: in compression
- Em,l: local in bending
- Em,g: global in bending
  f: strength [N/mm2]
- fc,0: in compression
- fm: in bending
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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

mechanical identification applied methodology

by NDT- DT parameters

NDT parameters (X) DT parameters (Y)

longitudinal and transversal average values: physical and mechanical properties:
  SWS: ultrasonic stress wave speed [m/sec]   ρ: wood density [kg/m3]
  PD: sclerometric penetration depth [mm]   E: modulus of elasticity [N/mm2]
  Am: resistographic drilling-resistance [%]   f: strength [N/mm2]

  estimation of wood density

linear regression model
  prediction of elasticity modulus
  prediction of strength

regression-coefficient (R2) ranges

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

mechanical identification estimation of wood density

by NDT- DT parameters
regression-coefficients (R2) between density and NDT parameters

sclerometric and, especially, resistographic techniques may be taken in practical applications

for a quick and quantitative estimation of wood density

sclerometric tests resistographic tests

density

density

penetration depth drilling resistance

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

mechanical identification prediction of elasticity modulus

by NDT- DT parameters
regression-coefficients (R2) between elasticity modulus and NDT parameters

the prediction of the stiffness properties could be allowed by means of ultrasonic investigations
ultrasonic tests

static elasticity modulus

static elasticity modulus

stress wave speed dynamic elasticity modulus 29

Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

mechanical identification prediction of strength

by NDT- DT parameters
regression-coefficients (R2) between strength and NDT parameters

the drill-resistance method appears mostly suitable for a non-destructive estimation of strength

resistographic tests
compression strength

bending strength

mean amplitude drilling resistance 30

Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
Combined non-destructive and destructive tests
for the mechanical characterization of
old structural timber elements

conclusions
on the basis of experimental results…
definition of a methodology for in situ mechanical characterization of old timber members based on NDT techniques
sclerometric

strength (f)
resistographic

density (ρ) × SWS2 = dynamic elasticity

modulus (Edyn)
static elasticity
modulus (E)
ultrasonic

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Faggiano et al. Department of Structural Engineering (DIST) University of Naples “Federico II” Italy
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