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(Food Science and Technology) Sullivan, Doris-Sweet Potato - Production, Nutritional Properties, and Diseases-Nova Science Publishers (2016)
(Food Science and Technology) Sullivan, Doris-Sweet Potato - Production, Nutritional Properties, and Diseases-Nova Science Publishers (2016)
SWEET POTATO
PRODUCTION, NUTRITIONAL
PROPERTIES AND DISEASES
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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SWEET POTATO
PRODUCTION, NUTRITIONAL
PROPERTIES AND DISEASES
DORIS SULLIVAN
EDITOR
New York
Copyright © 2016 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
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Preface vii
Chapter 1 Sweet Potato: Production, Nutritional Properties
and Diseases 1
O. A. T. Namo and O. J. Akinbola
Chapter 2 Boron Management in Sweet Potato Crops 35
Fábio Rafael Echer and José Eduardo Creste
Chapter 3 Food Applications and Health Benefits Related
to Antioxidant Activity of Phenolic Compounds
from Sweet Potato Peels and Leaves:
Review of Literature and Patents 47
Ana Anastácio and Isabel S. Carvalho
Index 121
PREFACE
in articles, flour/powder was the most studied for tuber, leaf and peel.
Beverage and extract were the top patented foods for tuber and leaf,
respectively. Text mining tools were applied to articles and patents abstracts to
provide a global vision for main themes and knowledge gaps. A functional
beverage development using design of experiment tools was identified as
relevant new research line for the valorisation of sweet potato peels and
leaves.
In: Sweet Potato ISBN: 978-1-63484-461-1
Editor: Doris Sullivan © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
ABSTRACT
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) is a short-cycle, low input
crop in the family Convolvulaceae. It originated from tropical areas of
Central and South America, from where it spread to other parts of the
world. It is a minor crop in most parts of Africa, where it is regarded as a
„backyard‟ crop or found in the fringes of other crops. The food situation
in different parts of the world is influencing a shift towards sweet potato
such that it is no longer treated as a minor crop. It is a nutritious root crop
with reasonable amount of fibre, beta carotene and vitamin C, especially
in orange-fleshed cultivars. The crop thrives well in warm summer days
and nights, which are required for optimal growth and root development.
Production is influenced by variety, husbandry practice, propagation
methods, pests and diseases. With proper management, the crop has the
potential to be one of the most profitable vegetable crops. The tubers can
be stored for many months when properly cured and held under proper
conditions. With the introduction of improved production technology,
pest and disease management, the crop has the potentials to contribute to
2 O. A. T. Namo and O. J. Akinbola
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.)Lam.) is a short-cycle, dicotyledonous
plant in the morning glory family Convolvulaceae. It is a vegetable crop with
roots that are sweet-tasting, starchy and tuberous. It is native to the tropical
regions in America, from where it spread to other parts of the world (Tewe et
al., 2003).
The genus Ipomoea also includes several garden flowers called morning
glories, though the term is not usually extended to Ipomoea batatas. Some
cultivars of Ipomoea batatas are grown as ornamental plants; the name
tuberous morning glory may be used in a horticultural context (Tewe et al.,
2003).
The plant is a herbaceous perennial vine, bearing alternate heart-shaped or
palmately lobed leaves and medium-sized sympetalous flowers. The edible
tuberous root is long and tapered, with a smooth skin whose colour ranges
between yellow, orange, red, brown, purple and beige. Its flesh ranges from
beige to white, red, pink, violet, yellow, orange or purple. Sweet potato
cultivars with white or pale -yellow flesh are less sweet and moist than those
with red, pink or orange flesh (Gad and George, 2009).
Sweet potato is a root crop native to the tropics and requires warm days
and nights for optimum growth and root development. It yields better quality
roots on well drained, light, sandy loam or silt loam soils (Gad and George,
2009).
Sweet potato is reported to be one of the world‟s most important food
crops; the tuber is high in food value, fibre and energy (ACIAR, 2012). The
tubers contain a high level of vitamins A, C and B6, potassium, phosphorus
and niacin (WHfoods, 2013). Johnson and Pace (2010) reported that the leaves
of sweet potato contain high amounts of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants,
dietary fibre and essential fatty acids which play a vital role in promoting
health.
The utilization of the crop as animal feed has been reported to be on the
increase especially in developing countries (Scott, 2000). The usage of the
crop as a livestock feed aside from human consumption cannot be
unconnected with its high nutritional content and palatability to livestock.
Sweet Potato: Production, Nutritional Properties and Diseases 3
The crop thrives well during warm summer days and nights, which are
required for optimal growth and root development. Sweet potato production is
influenced by factors such as cultivar, husbandry practice, pests and diseases
as well as propagation methods. With the introduction of improved production
technology, pest and disease management, the crop has the potentials to
contribute to food security and industrial development. This chapter focuses
on production, nutritional properties and diseases of the sweet potato.
1.2. CLASSIFICATION
The systematic classification of the sweet potato is as follows (Huaman,
1999):
Family: Convolvulaceae
Tribe: Ipomoeae
Genus: Ipomoea
Sub‐genus: Eriospermum
Section: Eriospermum
Series: Batatas
Species: Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.
1.4. PRODUCTION
1.4.1. Major Production Areas in Nigeria
Nigeria produces 2.5% of the world‟s sweet potato, being the third largest
producer after China and Uganda (FAO, 2004; Bergh et al., 2012). Sweet
potatoes are grown in all parts of the country in the different agro-ecological
zones, from the tropical rainforest to semi-arid and arid zones. While the crop
is considered as a cash crop in certain parts of Nigeria, in most areas, it is
grown as a secondary crop. It is a staple crop in northern Nigeria where it is
mostly produced (Namo, 2005; Amienyo and Ataga, 2007).
The production of sweet potato has expanded in the last decade to almost
all ecological zones in Nigeria (NRCRI, 2009). Presently, 381,000 – 510,000
hectares of land are used for sweet potato cultivation in Nigeria with an annual
production figure of 3.46 million metric tonnes (NRCRI, 2008). Estimated
yields in research fields vary from 40 to 70 t/ha for improved cultivars, while
in multi-locational trials average yields of 23.5 t/ha across seasons and
locations have been reported (Tewe et al., 2003).
The production cycle in Nigeria involves the following activities (Tewe
et al., 2003):
Sweet potato production generally follows the activities listed above but
the timing varies from one agro-ecological zone to another. The table below
summarizes the production patterns in different regions of Nigeria.
Leaves are spirally arranged on the stem without stipules. The petiole
ranges in length from 5 to 30 cm depending on the cultivar (Namo, 2005). The
petiole has a groove on the upper surface. Laminae vary in shape between
cultivars and may be large or small, erect or horizontal (Namo, 2005).
Adventitious roots develop at an early stage from the nodes at and near the
attachment of the first expanded leaf (Namo, 2005). The total number of roots
formed reaches a maximum 10 to 15 days after planting. Roots are divided
into four classes, namely young roots, fibrous roots, pencil-form and tuberous
roots, depending on the primary cambial activity and the amount of
lignifications of cells of the stele. Environmental conditions during early
growth influence the proportion of roots that are formed in each class. The
number of tuberous roots may be determined as early as 30 days after planting.
Cool temperatures (22-24°C) and an adequate supply of potassium lead to
rapid activity in the cambium and little lignifications of the roots, a condition
that favours the development of tubers (Onwueme, 1978). Further
development of the tuberous roots depends on an increase in both the number
and size of cells in the stele and on the development of starch granules in the
cells. The number of cells increases slowly until 40 days after planting.
Flowering or anthesis is a process by which plants produce stamens (male
sex organs) and pistils (female sex organs) on structures called flowers.
Flowering is influenced by daylight and temperature; vegetative growth is a
pre-requisite for flower initiation (Rieger and Sedgley, 1996).
Photoperiodically-controlled flowering causes flowering to be extremely rare
Sweet Potato: Production, Nutritional Properties and Diseases 7
any large clods and provide enough loose soil for hilling of beds. A yearly soil
test is recommended to assess soil properties, pH and nutrient levels before
land preparation (Biswal, 2008).
1.4.4. Cultivar
Philpott et al., (2004) divided sweet potato cultivars which are commonly
used for commercial production into three categories:
Purple-fleshed sweet potatoes have purple colour in the skins and flesh of
the storage root due to the accumulation of anthocyanin (Philpott et al., 2004;
Terahara et al., 2004). Anthocyanins are natural soluble food pigments which
contribute to the red, blue or purple colouration of leaves, flowers and other
parts of the plant. Red and purple pigmentation in various parts of sweet potato
is caused by the presence of acylated anthocyanins (Fan et al., 2008).
roots remain under the soil within the heaps. If a mechanical digger is used at
harvest time, it is important to match the width of the mound with the width of
the digger mouth. Spacing the mounds at 1.5 to 2.0 m apart (depending on the
tractor width) with a roadway every six rows allows access for boom spray.
Mounds are formed, using hilling discs, and the base fertilizer can be
incorporated during this operation (Ngoan, 2006).
Time of planting has been identified as one of the most important factors
affecting growth, yield and quality of roots (Nedunchezhiyan and Byju, 2005).
Planting time is mainly determined by the climate of a location. The best crop
yields generally occur in areas of 750 to 1,000 mm annual precipitation, with
at least 500 mm falling during the growing season (Tewe et al., 2001).
Generally, planting takes place from February through July in the central to
southern regions, where rainfall is heavier. However, planting along
riverbanks in the central zone, or in swampy areas („fadama‟) in the north can
extend the season to permit planting from September to December (Tewe
et al., 2001).
Optimum plant density depends on cultivar, but it may vary from 33,000
to 40,000 plants per hectare. Inter-row spacing may vary from 1 to 1.25 m
while intra-row spacing is usually between 25 and 30 cm (Thomas, 2005;
Salawu and Mukhtar, 2008).
Sweet potato removes appreciable quantities of plant nutrients, hence
incorporation of considerable amount of organic manure at the time of
planting is recommended to maintain soil productivity. Application of organic
or inorganic fertilizers has significant impact on growth and root yield of
sweet potato (Namo and Christopher, 2002; Salawu and Mukhtar, 2008).
Usually, farmyard manure/cow dung compost or green manure is used as
organic manure for sweet potato. Application of green manure has been
observed to be an alternative to farm-yard manure (Kaggawa et al., 2006).
The application of nitrogen fertilizer has been reported to increase the root
yield (Namo and Christopher, 2002; Satapathy et al., 2005). However,
excessive amount of nitrogen application encourages vine growth rather than
storage root development. A moderate dose of 50-75 kgN/ha is optimum for
root production in sweet potato (Sebastiani et al., 2006; Biswal, 2008). The
response of sweet potato to phosphorus is very low. A dose of 25-50
kg P2O5/ha is considered optimum for sweet potato (Mohanty et al., 2005;
Akinrinde, 2006; Sebastiani et al., 2006). Potassium is essential for the
synthesis and translocation of carbohydrates from the tops to the roots (Byju
and Nedunchezhiyan, 2004). A moderate dose of 75-100 kg k2O/ha is
recommended (John et al., 2001).
Sweet Potato: Production, Nutritional Properties and Diseases 11
of 85 to 90% and good ventilation to remove carbon dioxide from the curing
area. Wounds and bruises heal and a protective cork layer develops over the
entire root surface. Properly cured roots can store for 12 months or longer with
15 to 25% losses under the best conditions. After curing, the tubers must be
stored at a temperature of 13 to 16°C for long-term storage at a relative
humidity of 85 to 90% (Lerner, 2001).
The tubers are sensitive to chilling injury and should not be stored below
120C. Storage at freezing temperatures will severely damage the tubers; the
damage usually does not show until the tubers are returned to a warmer
temperature. Storage temperature is between 12 and 15°C. Relative humidity
should be maintained between 75 to 80% to prevent excessive water loss from
the roots. Some ventilation should be provided to prevent carbon dioxide
build-up. Post-harvest storage rots such as that caused by Rhizopus can infect
damaged areas on roots, which can spread to other roots on contact. The best
control is to avoid skin damage and packing of damaged roots. Roots should
be dried before packing. Optimum storage conditions are at 14 to 160C in a
high humidity cool store. Storage below 100C may cause chilling injury, and
above 160C it can lead to weight loss and sprouting (Lerner, 2001).
Nutrient Composition
Dry matter (% FW) 19-40
Starch (%FW) 6-20
Total sugars (%FW) 1.5-5.0
Protein (% FW) 1.5-2.5
Lipids (% FW) 0.5-6.5
Ash (% FW) 1.0
Energy (KJ/100 g) 490
Beta-carotene (ug/100g) 0-30,000
Vitamin A (ug RAE/100g FW) 0-2500 (300-1200)*
Vitamin C (mg/100g FW) 22-35
Iron (mg/100g) 0.19-0.65
Zinc (mg/100g) 0.09-0.46
Vitamin B1 (mg/100g) 0.078
Vitamin B2 (mg/100g) 0.061
Vitamin B3 (mg/100g) 0.557
Vitamin B5 (mg/100g) 0.800
Vitamin B6 (mg/100g) 0.209
Vitamin E (mg/100g) 0.26
Vitamin K (mg/100g) 1.8
Calcium (mg/100g) 30
Anti-nutritional factors Trypsin inhibitors
Starch Extraction Rate (% FW) 10-15
Starch Grain Size (microns) 2-42
Amylose (% total Starch) 8-32
Gelatinization temp. (◦C) 58-85
Source: Stathers et al., 2013.
coarse mycelium and sclerotia may be found on the ground in places where
plants have rotted.
The fungus has a wide host range besides sweet potato. It can survive in
the soil for at least 4 years as mycelium or as sclerotia. Infected transplants
and irrigation water can disseminate the fungus. Temperature is not a limiting
factor for disease development, but considerable moisture in the soil favours
the disease.
Planting material should come from healthy plants. The use of early-
maturing cultivars helps in disease escape. Rotation with cereals also helps to
prevent the disease.
nematode is one of the most destructive on sweet potato because of its wide
distribution and damage caused to storage roots.
The use of disease-free planting material, resistant cultivars and crop
rotation can help to control this disease.
the crop should be included in the weekly work schedule (Kumar and Saxena,
2009; Kumar and Gupta, 2012).
Crop monitoring should begin when the crop is still at the seedling or
transplant stage (especially when transplants are obtained or purchased from a
propagator) (Kumar and Gupta, 2012).
Cultural control involves providing the conditions that favour the growth,
development and health of the crop, and wherever possible, providing
conditions that work against pests and diseases (Kumar and Saxena, 2009).
Many disease-causing fungi and bacteria require the presence of free water or
condensation on the plants in order to cause disease (Kumar and Saxena, 2009;
Kumar and Gupta, 2012). High relative humidity promotes the development of
disease (Kumar and Saxena, 2009; Kumar and Gupta, 2012). Good crop
sanitation is another important component of successful cultural control.
CONCLUSION
Sweet potato is a minor crop in most parts of Africa, where it is regarded
as a „backyard crop‟ or found at the fringes of other crops. In such instances, it
is resorted to in times of famine and thus regarded as life-safer. This situation
is fast changing as the potential of the crop is now being realized. The food
situation in Nigeria, for example, is influencing a shift towards sweet potato
such that it is no longer treated as a minor crop. Projections show that given its
efficient biological production and low input requirements, the crop has the
potential of overtaking yam. This is more so that urban dwellers have acquired
a taste for sweet potato fries as a breakfast menu.
Sweet potato production is influenced by many factors such as cultivar,
spacing, pests and diseases, land preparation and propagation methods. With
the introduction of improved production technology, pest and disease
28 O. A. T. Namo and O. J. Akinbola
management, the crop has the potentials for contributing to food security,
especially in developing countries.
REFERENCES
Akinrinde, E. A. (2006). Phosphorus fertilization effect on dry matter
production and biomass partitioning in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.)
grown on an acidic loamy-sand alfisol. Journal of Food Agriculture
Environment, 4(3-4): 99-104.
Amamma, F. A. (2006). Effect of type of planting material on growth and
yield of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) in Jos-Plateau, Nigeria.
Unpublished B. Sc. Project Report. University of Jos, Jos.
pp. 66.
Amienyo, C. A. and Ataga, A. E. (2007). Use of indigenous plant extracts for
the protection of mechanically injured sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.)
Lam) tubers. Scientific Research and Essay, 2(5):167–170.
Andersen, C. R. (2009). Home Gardening Series Sweet Potatoes. Agriculture
and Natural Resources, University of Arkansas, USA. FSA 6018.
Anderson, P., Kapinga, R., Zhang, D. and Hermann, M. (2007). Vitamin A for
Africa (VITAA): An entry point for promoting orange-fleshed sweet
potato to combat vitamin A deficiency in sub-Saharan Africa. In:
Proceedings of the 13th ISTRC Symposium, Arusha, Tanzania. pp. 711-
720.
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) (2012).
The importance of sweet potatoes.aciarblog.blogspot.com/2012/the-
importance-of-sweet-potatoes.html).
Bergh, K., Orozco, P., Gugerty, M. K. and Anderson, C. L. (2012). Sweet
potato value chain: Nigeria. Evans School Policy Analysis and Research
(EPAR), University of Washignton, USA Brief, No 220.
Biswal, S. (2008). Response of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) to irrigation
and fertility levels. Ph.D Thesis, Orissa Agricultural University and
Technology, Bhubaneswar, India.
Bourke, R. M. (2006). Differences between calendar time and planting time in
sweet potato: A potential source of significant experimental error. In: 14th
Triennial Symposium of Tropical Root Crops, 20-26 November, 2006.
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, India, pp.
253.
Sweet Potato: Production, Nutritional Properties and Diseases 29
Nath, R., Kundu, C. K., Majumer, A., Gunri, S., Chattopadhyay, A. and Sen,
H. (2006). Productivity of sweet potato as influenced by cultivar, season
and staggered harvesting in laterite ecosystem of West Bengal. In: 14th
Triennial Symposium of International Society of Tropical Root Crops, 20-
26 November, 2006. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute,
Thiruvananthapuram, India, pp. 213.
Neduchezhiyan, M. and Byju, G. (2005). Effect of planting season on growth
and yield of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) varieties. Journal of Root
Crops, 31 (2): 111-114.
Neduchezhiyan, M., Naskar, S. K. and Byju, G. (2008). Performance of sweet
potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) varieties under shaded and open field
conditions. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 78 (11): 974-977.
Nedunchezhiyan, M. and Ray, R. C. (2010). Sweet potato growth,
development, production and utilization: Overview. In: Ray R. C. and
Tomlins, K. I. (eds.) Sweet potato: Post-harvest aspect in Food. Nova
Science Publishers Inc., New York. pp. 1-26.
Ngoan, T. N. (2006). Status of root crops production, utilization and marketing
in Vietnam. In: Concise papers of the 2nd International Symposium on
Sweet Potato and Cassava, 14-17 June 2005, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp.
141-142.
NRCRI (2008). National Root Crops Research Institute: Sweet Potato
Programme. www.nrcri.gov.ng/pages/spotato.htm. Retrieved 6th October,
2015.
NRCRI (2009). National Root Crops Research Institute: Sweet Potato
Programme. www.nrcri.gov.ng/pages/spotato.htm. Retrieved 6th October,
2015.
Ojeniyi, T. and Tewe, O. O. (2001). Processing and utilization of sweet potato
for food and livestock in Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the 8th Symposium
on Tropical Root Crops, Africa Branch, Syrup, Ibadan.
Onwueme, I. C. (1978). The Tropical Tuber Crops. John Wiley and Sons Ltd.,
New York. pp. 233.
Philpott, M., Gould, K. S., Lim, C. and Ferguson, L. R. (2004). in situ and in
vitro antioxidant activity of sweet potato anthocyanins. Journal of
Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 52: 1511-1513.
Ravindran, C. V., Ravi, V., Nedunchezhiyan, M., George, J. and Naskar, S. K.
(2010). Weed management in tropical tuber crops: an overview. Journal
of Root Crops, 36(2): 119-131.
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on flowering of the cut flower species Banksia coccinea and Banksia
32 O. A. T. Namo and O. J. Akinbola
Chapter 2
ABSTRACT
Boron (B) is an essential micronutrient required for plant growth and
development. Boron is necessary for the tissue development and
differentiation, particularly growing tips, phloem and xylem. Soil organic
matter (OM) is the main B source to the plants, and hot (or cold), dry
weather can reduce OM decomposition at the soil surface, which decrease
the release of B to crops. Boron toxicity is a worldwide problem that
limits crop yield in agricultural areas under alkaline and saline soils with
a low rainfall and poor leaching. On the other hand, B deficiencies are
common in poor OM and sandy soils subjected to high rainfall. Boron
deficiency has been associated with disorders in sweet potato such as
“internal brown spot” and “sweet potato blister.” Additionally, sweet
potato tubers with severe B deficiency show less sweet and bitter flavor.
The effect of severe B deficiency is the growth of terminal bud cessation,
which becomes short in size and bunchy in appearance. Finally, tips start
wilting and drying. There is no tuber formation. Studies have reported the
positive response of B application on sweet potato yield, especially in
Corresponding author: Fábio Rafael Echer, Professor and Researcher at São Paulo Western
University (UNOESTE), Brazil. fabioecher@gmail.com.
36 Fábio Rafael Echer and José Eduardo Creste
low organic matter and acid soils. B recommendation varies from 1-2 kg
ha-1 in sandy/acid soils to 4 kg ha-1 for alkaline soils.
BORON IN PLANTS
Boron is transported through xylem, but it can also be transported via
phloem, depending on plant species, to both reproductive and vegetative
tissues in a process mediated by transpiration stream (Shelp et al., 1995). B is
immobile in the plant so deficiency symptoms appear in the youngest leaves as
abnormal growth and growing tips with apical growing points eventually
becoming stunted and dead.
Figure 1. Sweet potato yield responses to Boron sources, application form and rates.
From Echer et al., (2011).
Boron Management in Sweet Potato Crops 39
400
Leaves
Vines
Tuber
300
B uptake (g ha-1)
200
100
0
40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145
Figure 2. Boron uptake partitioning among sweet potato organs. Adapted from Echer
et al., (2009a).
100
Leaves
Vines
Tubers
Boron uptake (% of total) 80
60
40
20
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Figure 3. Boron uptake partitioning among sweet potato organs. From Echer et al.,
(2009a).
18
16
14
Tuber yield
Cracked tuber yield
12
Mg ha-1
10
0
0,0 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
-1
B rate (kg ha )
Figure 4. Sweet potato yield and cracked tuber yield as affected by B rates. From Byju
et al., (2007).
Boron Management in Sweet Potato Crops 41
DEFICIENCY DIAGNOSTIC
Soils with low B content (<0,5 mg dm-3 in hot water extraction, at the
depth 0-20 cm), commonly show response to B application. Leaf diagnosis
(sample the youngest fully expanded leaf of 15 plants/area at 60 days after
planting) can be useful for the diagnostic of B deficiency and critical leaf level
concentration reported in field conditions is 25-75 mg kg-1 (Lorenzi et al.,
1997). Additionally, O‟ Sullivan et al., (1997) determined a critical
concentration of 40 mg kg-1 in the 7th to 9th youngest leaf blades in solution
culture studies. Echer et al., (2009b) in a study involving B and potassium
rates, observed leaf boron concentration increase as B rates were increased
(Figure 5). They reported sufficiency ranges of B in leaves with 1 and
2 kg ha-1 of 53 and 69 mg kg-1, respectively. On the other hand, the highest
rate proportioned boron excess on sweet potato leaves and at no B application
leaf B content was 40 mg kg-1 in a soil with low content of B. A sequency of
images showing deficiency syntoms is showed in Figures 6 to 10.
120
a
100
Leaf B concentration (mg kg -1)
80
b
60 bc
c
40
20
0
0 1 2 3
-1
B rate (kg ha )
A B
Figure 6. Compact growth, mottled chlorosis, mild puckering and downward curling of
young leaves on a B-deficient plant (A). Deformity of a young leaf, including
thickening, reduction in lobes and irregular margins (B) (J. O‟Sullivan).
Figure 7. Boron-deficient leaves generally become thickened and brittle, and tend to
curl downwards. Tip death is common (J. O‟Sullivan).
Boron Management in Sweet Potato Crops 43
A B
Figure 8. Symptoms on a B-deficient crop, including small tubers with splits, vine tip
death and small, thickened, chlorotic young leaves (A) (R.M. Bourke). A vine showing
short internodes to the right of marker, and lengthened internodes on growth since
boron was applied (B) (L. Loader).
A B
Figure 9. Short, blunt-ended roots from a B-deficient crop (left) and normal, spindle-
shaped roots developing on a younger crop to which boron was applied (A) (L.
Loader). Healed and overgrown cracks on B deficient storage roots (B) (C. Asher).
A B
Figure 10. Blisters on storage roots caused by boron deficiency (A) (C. Clark, APS).
Short, highly branched lateral roots with thickened, club like ends are characteristic of
severe boron deficiency (B) (J. O'Sullivan).
44 Fábio Rafael Echer and José Eduardo Creste
REFERENCES
Byju, G.; Nedunchezhiyan, M.; Naskar, S. K. Sweet potato response to boron
application on an Alfisols in the subhumid tropical climate of India.
Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, New York, v. 38, n.
17-18, p. 2347-2356, 2007.
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Echer, F.R. Nutrição e adubação da batata-doce. Presidente Prudente: Ed. do
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Echer, F.R.; Creste, J.E.. Boron fertilization on sweet potato: effect of soruces,
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Echer, F. R.; Dominato, J. C.; Creste, J. E. Absortion march of nutrients and
distribution of fresh and dry matter among organs of sweet potato.
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10.1590/S0102-05362009000200009 (In Portuguese with abstract in
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Hartemink, A. E.; Poloma, S.; Maino, M.; Powell, K.S.; Egenae, J.;
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In: Sweet Potato ISBN: 978-1-63484-461-1
Editor: Doris Sullivan © 2016 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 3
ABSTRACT
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) is widely cultivated throughout
the world, being a favourite staple of many cultures, it is a favourite
ingredient in many ethnic cuisine. In 2013, it ranked as the 14 th top
commodity by quantity production with 1.11 x 10 8 ton. Peels are one of
the major wastes generated during the processing of sweet potato and
sweet potato leaves, although consumed in Asia and Africa, are
considered a waste in many countries. To join the trend on the recycling
of agro wastes into value added products, research lines for the
valorisation of sweet potato peels and leaves were defined by literature
and patents review. Focus was on food applications and health benefits
icarva@ualg.pt.
48 Ana Anastácio and Isabel S. Carvalho
INTRODUCTION
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) is a favourite staple of many cultures
and ethnic cuisines (Huntrods, 2013). Originated on the American continent at
least 5000 years ago, it was brought to Europe in 1492. Portuguese explorers
of the sixteenth century took it to Africa and Asia (Loebenstein, 2009) and
sweet potato has as well a long history cultivation in Oceania (Lebot, 2009).
The tuberous root of the plant is most commonly consumed in the Western
part of the world, but sweet potato leaves, rich in nutrients and functional
compounds, are consumed primarily in the islands of Pacific Ocean and in
Asian and African countries, (Johnson and Pace, 2010). In 2013, sweet potato
ranked as the 14th top commodity by quantity production, 1.11 x 108 ton.
According to 2011 proportions, the main destination of total amount produced
was food supply (53%), followed by feed (40%) and waste (7%) (FAOSTAT,
2014). There are no official data for sweet potato tops, however the harvested
Food Applications and Health Benefits … 49
area of 8.2 million hectare can be used for the estimation of vines production.
Considering an average yield of 30 ton of fresh vines per hectare from
Hartemink et al., (2000), 2.46 x 108 tons of fresh vines could have been
produced during 2013. Peels are one of the major wastes generated during
processing of sweet potato with currently little market value (Maloney,
Truong, & Allen, 2012). The peeling step required in many SP tuber
processing methods can lead to losses up to 29% and 17% for abrasive and
manual peeling respectively (Oladejo, 2011). SP peels and leaves are residues
that should be included in the drive for recycling agro wastes as peels into
value added products (Peschel et al., 2006). SP peels possessed high levels of
phenolics (Zhu, Cai, Yang, Ke, & Corke, 2010) that can reach almost three
times more antioxidant activity than the other plant tissues (Cevallos-Casals &
Cisneros-Zevallos, 2001). Similarly, polyphenolic compounds from SP leaves
were biologically active and presented physiological functions which may be
helpful for maintaining and promoting human health (Islam, 2006). The
review of Bovell-Benjamin (2007) on sweet potato highlighted the tuber‟s
potential as value‐added products in human food systems while Panda &
Sonkamble (2012) work listed the phytochemical constituents and
pharmacological activities of SP and indicated health benefits as antioxidant,
antidiabetic, wound healing, anti-ulcer, antibacterial and anti-mutagenic. More
recently, Mohanraj & Sivasankar (2014) demonstrated sweet potato potential
as a medicinal food due to its health benefits, phytochemical composition and
medicinal properties. Regarding the leaf, Islam (2006) emphasised the
presence of higher amounts of polyphenolics compared with the major
commercial vegetables. More recently, Johnson and Pace (2010) summarised
the bioactive compounds that played a vital role in health promotion by
reducing oxidative stress and free radical damage. Considerable progress has
been made in diversifying usage of the SP for alternative foods as fries, chips,
flakes, yogurt, as well as juices or weight loss snacks (Barnes & Sanders,
2012). Innovative applications such as ice-cream (Gurgel, Farias, Farias, &
Moreira, 2011) and non-carbonated drinks (Wireko-Manu, Ellis, & Oduro,
2010) were studied in an academic context. Tea, noodles, breads,
confectioneries and nutritional supplement were food applications previously
mentioned for SP leaves (Islam, 2006). The development of SP alternative
foods was predicted to continue its upward climb trend as consumers are more
conscious about their health (Barnes & Sanders, 2012). The commencing
stages in new foods development involve the translation of an essential
concept originated research into a prototype (Jones & Jew, 2007). Although,
there are available some reviews on the phytochemical composition and health
50 Ana Anastácio and Isabel S. Carvalho
benefits of sweet potato tuber and leaf, the health benefits specifically related
to the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds in the different food
applications were not focused yet. In addition, a framework for the
valorisation of agro wastes through the development of functional foods
requires the identification of knowledge gaps to favour early product
prototypes. Text mining tools as co-word clustering is a powerful method for
literature-review and knowledge discovery by exploring the co-occurrence and
co-absence of key words that appear in the titles or abstracts of texts
(Stegmann & Grohmann, 2003). Additionally, network analysis shows the
relationship among words as a visual network and therefore assists the
analyser in intuitively comprehending the overall structure of a document
database (Yoon & Park, 2004). The objective of this review was to identify
relevant research lines for the valorisation of SP peels and leaves into food
applications with health benefits. This will be accomplished by the analysis of
the state of the art and trends based on articles and patents published in the
period 2003-2014, using contingency tables and Text Mining tools.
SP articles
a1 Ahmed et al., (2009) a41 Jeng et al., (2012) a83 Ray et al., (2012)
a2 Ahmed et al., (2010a) a42 Jiao et al., (2012) a84 Redovnikovic et al., (2012)
a3 Ahmed et al., (2010b) a43 Ju et al., (2011) a85 Roy et al., (2012)
a4 Ahmed et al., (2011a) a44 Jung, J.-K. et al., (2011) a86 Rumbaoa et al., (2009)
a5 Ahmed et al., (2010) a45 Jyothi et al., (2005) a87 Saigusa et al., (2007)
a6 Ahmed et al., (2011b) a46 Kano et al., (2005) a88 Saigusa et al., (2005)
a7 Ahmed et al., (2010) a47 Karna et al., (2011) a89 Sasaki et al., (2013)
a8 Anastácio and Carvalho (2013a) a48 Kawano et al., (2010) a90 Sasaki and Ohba (2004)
a9 Anastácio and Carvalho (2013b) a49 Kim et al., (2012) a91 San et al., (2009)
a10 Boo et al., (2005) a50 Koncic et al., (2013) a92 Shan et al., (2013)
a11 Carvalho et al., (2010) a51 Konczak et al., (2004) a93 Shao and Huang (2008)
a12 Cevallos-Casals and Cisneros-Zevallos a52 Konczak-Islam et al., (2003a) a94 Song et al., (2013)
(2004) a53 Konczak-Islam et al., (2003b) a95 Song et al., (2011)
a13 Chan et al., (2012) a54 Krishnan et al., (2010) a96 Suda et al., (2008)
a14 Chang et al., (2007) a55 Kurata et al., (2007) a97 Taira et al., (2013)
a15 Chang et al., (2010) a56 Li and Zhang (2013) a98 Takenaka et al., (2006)
a16 Chen et al., (2008) a57 Li, F. et al., (2009) a99 Teow et al., (2007)
a17 Cho et al., (2003) a58 Li, C. et al., (2013) a100 Tian et al., (2005)
a18 Choi et al., (2008) a59 Li, J.Y. et al., (2012) a101 Tokusoglu and Yildirim (2012)
a19 Chon et al., (2005) a60 Liao et al., (2011) a102 Truong et al., (2012)
a20 Cui et al., (2011 a61 Lien et al., (2012) a103 Wang et al., (2011)
a21 Dincer et al.,,(2011) a62 Lien et al., (2010) a104 Wang et al., (2012)
a22 Ding et al., (2010) a63 Lim et al., (2013) a105 Wu et al., (2012)
a23 Dini et al., (2006) a64 Lin et al., (2006) a106 Xu et al., (2010)
Table 1. (Continued).
SP articles
a24 Donado-Pestana et al., (2012) a65 Lu et al., (2010) a107 Ye et al., (2010)
a25 Fan et al., (2008a) a66 Min et al., (2006) a108 Ye et al., (2004)
a26 Fan et al., (2008b) a67 Montilla et al., (2010) a109 Zhang et al., (2009)
a27 Gan et al., (2012) a68 Nagai et al., (2011) a110 Zhang et al., (2013)
a28 Gundala et al., (2013) a69 Niwa et al., (2011) a111 Zhao, J.G. et al., (2013)
a29 Han et al., (2011) a70 Oki et al.,,(2003) a112 Zhao et al., (2007)
a30 Harada et al., (2004) a71 Padda and Picha (2007) a113 Chun et al., (2014)
a31 Harrison et al., (2003) a72 Panda et al., (2009a) a114 Kim, H. Y. and Mo (2014)
a32 Huang et al., (2004) a73 Panda et al., (2009b) a115 Li, J. et al., (2014)
a33 Huang et al., (2010) a74 Panda and Ray (2007) a116 Ojeda et al., (2014)
a34 Huang et al., (2013) a75 Panda et al., (2013) a117 Sasaki et al., (2014)
a35 Huang et al., (2006) a76 Park et al., (2010) a118 Soison et al., (2014)
a36 Hwang et al., (2011a) a77 Peng et al., (2013) a119 Sun et al., (2014a)
a37 Hwang et al., (2011b) a78 Philpott et al., (2009) a120 Sun et al., (2014b)
a38 Hwang et al., (2011c) a79 Pochapski et al., (2011) a121 Sun et al., (2014c)
a39 Ishiguro et al., (2007) a80 Qiu et al., (2009) a122 Zhao, J.G. et al., (2014)
a40 Islam et al., (2003) a81 Rabah et al., (2005)
a82 Rabah et al., (2004)
Table 2. References of the patents selected for the review published during the period from 2003 to 2014
SP patents
p1 Baek et al., (2004) p46 Li, J. et al., (2012) p91 Xiangdong (2012)
p2 Chen and Wang (2013a) p47 Li and Li (2013) p92 Xianxiang (2008)
p3 Chen and Wang (2013b) p48 Li, Z. et al., 2013 (2013) p93 Xiaoling et al., (2009)
p4 Chengyu (2009) p49 Lichao et al., (2009). p94 Xiaosong (2010)
p5 Cho et al., (2013) p50 Liming et al., (2011). p95 Xiaoyan (2012)
p6 Chuanbin and Xianxun (2011) p51 Lin and Jiping (2009) p96 Xiguang et al., (2012)
p7 Chun et al., (2007) p52 Liu, H. (2013) p97 Xingcang (2011)
p8 Dechao et al., (2010) p53 Liu, L. (2013) p98 Xuesong (2012)
p9 Defa (2009) p54 Lixin et al., (2011) p99 Yan et al., (2012)
p10 Dehua et al., (2012) p55 Ma (2013) p100 Yanxiang (2011)
p11 Fanzhong (2011) p56 Mingna et al., (2011) p101 Yasumoto et al., (2006)
p12 Ge et al., (2013) p57 Minyao et al., (2011) p102 Ye and Li (2004)
p13 Gong (2013) p58 Mu et al., (2013a) p103 Yin et al., (2003)
p14 Gongjian et al., (2008) p59 Mu et al., (2013b) p104 Yongbin et al., (2012b)
p15 Guangyou (2008) p60 Na et al., (2013) p105 Yongbin et al., (2012a)
p16 Hidaka and Obayashi (2009) p61 Ning et al., (2010) p106 Yuan et al., (2013)
p17 Hiramoto et al., (2005) p62 Not_acessible (2007) p107 Yuanzheng et al., (2011)
p18 Hong and (2011) p63 Not_acessible (2011) p108 Yubao (2010)
p19 Hong and Seonryu (2013) p64 Oba and Saegusa (2003) p109 Yubo (2010)
p20 Hongmei et al., (2008) p65 Oba and Sasaki (2006) p110 Yunli (2008)
p21 Hui et al., (2012) p66 Oba and Noujiyo (2008) p111 Zhang, L. W. (2007)
p22 In et al., (2004) p67 Oiwa and Oiwa (2007) p112 Zhang, Z. (2013)
p23 Iwata (2006) p68 Peng (2013) p113 Zhao, G. (2013)
p24 Jeong (2012) p69 Qiang (2012) p114 Zhao, X. et al., (2013)
Table 2. (Continued).
SP patents
p25 Ji (2013) p70 Qiuyun (2012) p115 Zhenchang et al., (2012)
p26 Ji et al., (2010) p71 Quanan et al., (2011) p116 Zheng et al., (2009)
p27 Jian et al., (2011) p72 Quanan and Yubo (2012) p117 Zhenxin et al., (2012a)
p28 Jianyi (2012) p73 Ryu and Lee (2013) p118 Zhenxin et al., (2012b)
p29 Jinglue (2011) p74 Saeki et al., (2006) p119 Zhichao (2011)
p30 Jingyu et al., (2012) p75 Seo et al., (2010) p120 Chen, R. (2014)
p31 Jingyu et al., (2012) p76 Shi (2013) p121 Chen, X. et al., (2014)
p32 Jinsong et al., (2012) p77 Shuhua et al., (2012) p122 Chen, Y. et al., (2014)
p33 Jinsong and Bing (2009) p78 Shuyong (2011) p123 Cheng et al., (2014)
p34 Jiping and Lin (2009) p79 Sugawara et al., (2005) p124 Choi et al., (2014)
p35 Jo et al., (2013) p80 Sun et al., (2013) p125 Dong (2014)
p26 Juanying (2012) p81 Suzuki et al., (2006) p126 Guan (2014)
p37 Jung et al., (2007) p82 Takagaki and Tsubata (2009) p127 Guo, C. (2014)
p38 Jung et al., (2011b) p83 Tang et al., (2005) p128 Guo, T. (2014)
p39 Jung et al., (2011a) p84 Tianyin (2011) p129 Han et al., (2014)
p40 Kamata (2006) p85 Tsukada et al., (2004) p130 Hou et al., (2014)
p41 Kim et al., (2010) p86 Wang, F. et al., (2013) p131 Jiang (2014)
p42 Kwon et al., (2012) p87 Wang, S. et al., (2013) p132 Jing et al., (2014)
p43 Lee (2013) p88 Wang, Z. W. (2006) p133 Kim et al., (2014)
p44 Li, Y. (2013) p89 Wong et al., (2013) p134 Kwon (2014)
p45 Li, C. et al., (2009) p90 Wu (2013) p135 Lee et al., (2014)
p136 Li, B. (2014a)
SP patents
p137 Li, B. (2014b) p148 Rao et al., (2014) p159 Xu, G. and Xu (2014a)
p138 Li, C et al., (2014) p149 Shao (2014) p160 Xu, G and Xu (2014b)
p139 Liu et al., (2014) p150 Sun, F. (2014) p161 Yang, R. (2014a)
p140 Lu, J. (2014a) p151 Tao et al., (2014) p162 Yang, R. (2014b)
p141 Lu, J. (2014b) p152 Tong et al., (2014) p163 Yao et al., (2014)
p142 Lu, K. (2014) p153 Wang, K. (2014) p164 Zeng et al., (2014)
p143 Luo et al., (2014) p154Wang, Q. (2014a) p165 Zhang, J. et al., (2014)
p144 Mou et al., (2014) p155 Wang, Q. (2014b) p166 Zhang, X. et al., (2014)
p145 Pi and Li (2014) p156 Wang, Y. (2014) p167 Zhao et al., (2014)
p146 Qin (2014) p157 Wei (2014) p168 Zhou (2014)
p147 Qiong (2014) p158 Xu, D. (2014) p169 Zhou et al., (2014)
p170 Zou, G. (2014)
58 Ana Anastácio and Isabel S. Carvalho
Figure 1. Main features of the documents used in the review regarding for document
type, publication year, sweet potato variety and plant part.
Figure 2. Time series map of selected articles and patents on sweet potato published
during the period from 2003 to 2014.
Food Applications and Health Benefits … 59
The 122 selected articles for this review were published in 58 different
journals, where 4 - Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Food
Chemistry, International Journal of Food Science and Technology and Food
Science and Technology Research - reached 33% in number. Articles were
classified by plant part and variety as presented in Supplementary Table S1.
Tuber presented the highest number of papers both on the purple and non-
purple variety. SP leaf was the second most studied plant part with more
articles than stem, vine, peel, cell line and processing waste together. Although
SP leaves are considered a waste in many parts of the world, they are
consumed in Asia as a leafy vegetable and therefore gaining high research
attention. All the SP plant parts with exception of the tuber presented more
articles on the non-purple varieties. The purple variety was mostly studied by
research centers from China that presented the highest number of papers (18),
followed by Korea (14). For other SP varieties than purple, research centers
from Asia counties were still dominant but authors‟ affiliations were from
other continents (Europe, America and Oceania) in ~ 35% of the papers
Articles on the purple and non-purple varieties presented a similar trend
regarding the publication date profile over the period 2003-2014 (Figure 3A).
The number of articles on the purple variety presented an average of 3 per year
in the period 2003-2005 that increased to an average of 9 per year in the period
2010-2013. In 2014, a decrease in the number of articles on the purple variety
decreased to 6. For non-purple SP, the average in the period 2003-2005 was of
4 articles per year that increased to an average of 7 per year in the period
2010-2013. As observed for articles on the purple variety, in 2014 the number
of articles published for the non-purple SP decreased. Research on the other
SP plant parts SP less or absent for the period 2003-2014. Regarding plant
part, SP tuber and leaf presented similar trends but tuber presented always
more publications per year than the other plant parts (Figure 3B). Concerning
the number or articles, antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds by SP plant
part had the following order: tuber>>leaf>>peel. Studies on SP peel received
much less attention than tuber of leaf. To respond to the growing interest of
agro- and food industries in value added recycling (Peschel et al., 2006), there
is a need for research on antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds from SP
leaves but specially peels. This could contribute to overcome this knowledge
gap and promote to the valorization of both peels and leaves into food
applications with health benefits.
60 Ana Anastácio and Isabel S. Carvalho
Figure 3. Time series map of the number of sweet potato articles published during the
period from 2003 to 2014 by A) variety and B) plant part.
Food Applications and Health Benefits … 61
Types of Studies
Figure 4. Stacked bar chart of the number of articles on sweet potato tuber, leaf and
peel published during the period from 2003 to 2014 by types of studies. More than one
type of study could be attributed to an article.
Figure 5. Stacked bar chart of the number of articles on sweet potato tuber, leaf and
peel published during the period from 2003 to 2014 by antioxidant assays. More than
one assay could be attributed to an article. See Table S4 for assays abbreviations.
second most used assay (Figure 5). DPPH assay was also the most frequent
used method for most of SP plant parts and this was also observed by Alam
et al., (2013). DPPH is often included in antioxidant studies as it is more rapid,
simple and inexpensive when compared to other free radical scavenging
methods. Regarding in vivo antioxidant estimation for the tuber plant part,
lipid peroxidation assay (LPO) was the most used for tuber followed by
reduced glutathione (GSH) estimation. The decreasing order for in vitro
antioxidant methods used to study SP leaf were DPPH, RP, thiobarbituric acid
method (TBA) and FRAP. The antioxidant activity of SP peels was only
published using the FRAP method so future research should include other
methods as DPPH and RP for comparison purposes with other SP plant parts.
The time series map of articles publication dates did not add significant
information so it was not presented here. Therefore, there it was identified a
knowledge gap between SP leaf and peel regarding in vitro antioxidant
activities and also between DPPH assay and the other in vitro assays.
Phenolic Compounds
Statistical Analysis
Health Benefits
Figure 6. Stacked bar chart of the number of articles on sweet potato tuber, leaf and
peel published during the period from 2003 to 2014 by phenolic compounds groups.
TPC: total phenolic compounds; TMA: total monomeric anthocyanins; TFC: total
flavonoid content.
Figure 7. Stacked bar chart of the number of articles on sweet potato tuber, leaf and
peel published during the period from 2003 to 2014 by statistical analysis methods.
ANOVA: analysis of variance; PCA: Principal Components Analysis; RSM: Response
Surface Methodology; DA: Discriminant Analysis; HCA: Hierarquical Cluster
Analysis.
Figure 8. Time line of sweet potato tuber health benefits published in articles during the period from 2003 to 2014. Only clinical
(marked with *) and preclinical (animal) studies were considered. t-BHP: tert-butyl hydroperoxide.
Figure 9. Time line of sweet potato leaf health benefits published in articles during the period from 2003 to 2014. Only clinical (marked
with *) and preclinical (animal) studies were considered.
68 Ana Anastácio and Isabel S. Carvalho
Figure 10. Stacked bar chart of the number of articles on sweet potato tuber, leaf and
peel published during the period from 2003 to 2014 by food applications. More than
one food application could be attributed to an article.
As for SP tuber, flour/powder was the most classified food type for leaf
followed by extract. Regarding the distribution in time of the different food
applications, SP flour/powder presented more number of studies in the period
2010 to 2013. A large increase in articles about the SP flour/powder form was
observed from 2009 to 2010 but in 2014 number decreased abruptly. In 2014,
the food applications that were more mentioned in articles were extract and
anthocyanin extract. There is a lack of studies on food applications for other
SP plant parts than tuber or leaf. Research on applications for the valorisation
of SP wastes, a flour/powder or a beverage could benefits from knowledge
accumulated for tuber.
70 Ana Anastácio and Isabel S. Carvalho
The 170 selected patents were predominantly from China (72%) with
Qingdao Agricultural University as the top applicant (11 patents). The
classification of the selected patents by plant part and variety was presented in
Supplementary Table S8. The number of patents on antioxidant activity of
phenolic compounds from SP was concentrated on the purple variety (79%)
and on the tuber plant part (91%).
Figure 11. Time series map of the number of sweet potato patents published during the
period from 2003 to 2014 by A) variety and B) plant part.
Food Applications and Health Benefits … 71
Figure 12. Stacked bar chart of the number of patents on sweet potato tuber, leaf and
peel published during the period from 2003 to 2014 by food applications. More than
one food application could be attributed to a patent. Anthocy: anthocyanin.
Text Mining
Figure 13. Dendograms from Text Mining analysis of A) articles and B) patents
abstracts published during the period from 2003 to 2014. Word frequencies are
indicated in the left side of each graph.
The community that included the words “sweet” and “potato” was located
at the centre of the network (number 1). The words “total,” “acid,” “phenolic”
and “content” were located closely in this group and presented high co-
occurrence. The words “activity” and “effect” belonged to the “sweet potato”
group but “antioxidant” and “results” formed a small community on their own
(number 2) with several links to core group. “Purple” and “anthocyanin” made
a community (number 3) that also was linked by several edges to words of the
main group. “DPPH” was a satellite node only linked to the word “activity.”
The co-occurrence network for patents abstracts presented a different
configuration than the one built for articles (Figure 14B).
Figure 14. Co-occurrence network from Text Mining analysis of A) articles and B)
patents abstracts published during the period from 2003 to 2014.
Type of study Health benefits related to antioxidant activity Sweet potato plant part
Tuber Leaf
Clinical Anticancer activity a47
Decrease oxidative stress a15, a16
Decrease pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion a15
Enhance antioxidant defence a16
Modulate antioxidative status a14, a15
Reduce DNA oxidation a14
Reduce lipid oxidation a14
Selectively absorbed after ingestion a30
Suppression of low-density lipoprotein oxidation. a68
Preclinical Ameliorate diabetic disorders a69
(animal) Ameliorates cognition deficits a91
Ameliorates Inflammation in brain a91
Anticancer benefits a28,
Antidiabetic activity a57, a112
Anti-fatigue activity a56
Apoptosis in prostate cancer a47
Attenuates dimethylnitrosamine-induced liver injury a38
Attenuates hepatic insulin resistance via blocking oxidative stress a110
Attenuates inflammatory response in liver a109
Attenuates Oxidative Damage in brain a91
Attenuates oxidative stress induced by D-galactose in mouse liver a109
Cancer-preventing effects a82
Type of study Health benefits related to antioxidant activity Sweet potato plant part
Tuber Leaf
Cytoprotective activity against γ-radiation a29
Decreased the serum levels of hepatic biomarkers a96
Growth Suppression of Human Cancer Cells a55
Imparts neuroprotection a89
Improvement of Memory a89
Improvement of Spatial Learning a89
Inhibition of tumor growth a111
Memory enhancing effects a17
Prevention of Colorectal cancer a63
Preventive effect on acute and subacute alcoholic liver damage a119
Protection against t-BHP-induced hepatotoxicity a36
Protection on induced hepatic lipid accumulation a37
Selectively absorbed after ingestion a30
Treatment of Alzheimer‟s disease a107
t-BHP: tert-butyl hydroperoxide.
Table S7. Sweet potato articles published during the period from 2003 to 2014 by food application and plant part.
See Table 1 for article references
CONCLUSION
From the main food applications found in articles and patents for the
period 2003-2014, the development of a flour/powder or a beverage could
benefit from the knowledge already built for the tuber. As the strategy of
combining different SP plant parts presented a low intensity in the period of
time studied, it could be undertaken in future research. Rather than using result
means comparison tools as verified for the tuber, the use of design of
experiments and multivariate statistical tools during new food development
could narrow efficiently the knowledge gap found for peels and leaves. Design
responses should include DPPH assay combined with other in vitro antioxidant
assays and the determination of phenolic compounds by spectrophotometric
methods as well the content of individual anthocyanins and hydroxycinnamic
acids. These results could shape further research on health benefits, expected
to be related to the reduction of oxidative stress and improvement of brain and
liver functions. Although these health benefits could be inferred from the
antioxidant activity and phenolic composition of peels and leaves by
comparison to the tuber, validation through clinical and preclinical (animal)
studies will be necessary. In addition, text mining applied only to abstract texts
revealed the main research features of articles and claims of patents on
antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds of sweet potato. Dendograms and
co-occurrence networks form text mining analysis may be useful to compare
future research lines patterns and trends.
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INDEX
biomass, 28 clusters, 51
bleaching, 82 coatings, 110
blends, 113 cognition, 68, 86, 113
blood, 108, 117 colon, 15
boron, vii, viii, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, color, 104, 113, 119
42, 43, 44, 45 colorectal cancer, 68, 108
boron management, vii, 35 colour stability, 100
brain, 64, 68, 86, 96, 113 commercial, 8, 44, 49
Brazil, 35, 100 commodity, viii, 47, 48
breeding, 7, 20 communities, 51, 74, 76
community, 51, 75, 76
competitors, 27
C composition, 5, 13, 14, 15, 29, 49, 51, 61,
63, 68, 96, 101, 103, 105, 111, 112, 114
cabbage, 117
compost, 10
calcium, 119
compounds, viii, 48, 52, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65,
calorie, 110
68, 78, 83, 96, 111, 119
cambium, 6
Concise, 31
cancer, 68, 87, 106, 108, 116
condensation, 26
cancer cells, 68, 106
configuration, 75
capsule, 7, 114
constituents, 49, 102, 103, 108, 111
carbohydrate, 13, 14
consumers, 49
carbohydrates, 10, 37
consumption, 2, 5, 15, 98
carbon, 13
contingency, viii, 48, 50, 51
carbon dioxide, 13
control measures, 19, 23, 24
Caribbean, 4
convolvulaceae, vii, 1, 2, 3, 22
carotene, vii, 1, 14, 15, 82
cooking, 68, 72, 114, 115
carotenoids, 100
copper, 8
cash, 4
correlation, 64
categorization, 51
correlation analysis, 64
cation, 117
cost, 25
cell line, 59, 106, 115
covering, 20
chemical, 7, 20, 25, 29, 99, 103
cracks, 7, 18, 24, 43
chicken, 106
Croatia, 105
childhood, 117
crop(s), vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12,
children, 15
13, 18, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35,
China, 4, 59, 70, 99
36, 37, 43, 45
Chinese medicine, 98, 107
crop production, 25, 45
chromatography, 109, 112
crop residue, 12
chromosome, 3
crop rotations, 12
classes, 6, 63
cultivars, vii, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18,
classification, 3, 70
19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 32, 97, 100,
climate(s), 7, 10, 44
110, 112
clinical trials, viii, 48
cultivation, 4, 11, 48, 61, 79, 108
cluster analysis, 51
culture, 41, 100, 106
clustering, 50, 114
Index 123
iron, 44
irradiation, 101
M
irrigation, 11, 12, 18, 21, 23, 28, 36
magnesium, 44
Islam, 49, 53, 54, 103, 106
majority, 68
islands, 48
Malaysia, 31
isolation, 107, 109, 112
management, vii, 1, 3, 12, 25, 27, 28, 29,
Italy, 29, 32
31, 32
manufacturing, 99, 101, 106, 108, 113
J manure, 7, 10, 11, 24
marketing, 12, 31
Java, 22 mass, 115
juveniles, 23 mass spectrometry, 115
materials, 5, 9
matter, viii, 14, 32, 36
K Mediterranean, 47
membranes, 37
Kenya, 32 memory, 68, 99, 113
kinetics, 107 metabolism, 37
Korea, 59 methanol, 116
methodology, 29, 64, 96, 97, 100
L mice, 22, 102, 107, 119
micronutrients, 45
lactic acid, 69, 110, 113 microscope, 19
Lactobacillus, 116 misuse, 27
larvae, 11 model system, 105
lateral roots, 43 moisture, 5, 11, 18, 21
leaching, viii, 35, 36 Mozambique, 29
lead, 6, 13, 20, 36, 49 mucin, 118
leisure, 100 multiplication, 9
lesions, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24 mycelium, 20, 21
light, 2, 11
lipid oxidation, 68, 86
N
lipid peroxidation, 63, 98
liquid chromatography, 115 natural enemies, 24
liver, 64, 68, 86, 87, 96, 102, 114, 117, 119 natural resources, 25
liver damage, 87, 114 nematode, 24
livestock, 2, 15, 31 neuroprotection, 68, 87, 113
low temperatures, 103 niacin, 2
low-density lipoprotein (LDL), 68, 82, 86, Nigeria, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 27, 28, 30,
109, 115 31, 33, 110
LSD, 84 nitric oxide, 102
Luo, 57, 100, 108, 109, 112 nitrogen, 10, 32
nodes, 5, 6, 9, 51, 74
Nrf2, 102
126 Index
nutrient(s), 8, 10, 13, 14, 29, 37, 44, 48, 119 plant disease(s), 25, 26
nutrition, 44, 97, 99, 103, 117 plant growth, viii, 20, 35
plants, viii, 6, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22,
23, 24, 26, 27, 35, 36, 41, 45, 104
O pollen, 3, 7
pollen tube, 7
obesity, 104
polyphenols, 114
Oceania, 48, 59
population, 24, 25, 26
oil, 93, 119
Portugal, 47
optimization, 62, 109, 110
potassium, 2, 6, 29, 41, 44, 112
organic compounds, 36
potato, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
organic matter, viii, 21, 35, 36, 37
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22,
organs, 6, 39, 40, 44
23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38,
ornamental plants, 2
39, 40, 41, 44, 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 58,
oxidation, 64, 68, 86, 109, 115
60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72,
oxidative damage, 68, 113
73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,
oxidative stress, 49, 64, 68, 86, 96, 98, 106,
85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
118, 119
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112,
P 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120
precipitation, 10
p53, 55, 92, 101 predators, 26, 27
Pacific, 18, 48 preparation, 4, 8, 27, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103,
parasites, 24, 26 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116,
pasta, 71, 72 117, 118, 119, 120
patents, viii, 47, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, prevention, 99, 108
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 91, 92, 96 Principal Components Analysis (PCA), 64,
pathology, 30 65, 85
pathway, 97 processing variables, 61
peels leaves, 48 producers, 11
permit, 10 production technology, vii, 1, 3, 27, 117
peroxide, 82 pro-inflammatory, 64, 86
Peru, 33 proliferation, 101, 105
pest populations, 25, 26 propagation, vii, 1, 3, 27
pests, vii, 1, 3, 11, 25, 26, 27 prostate cancer, 68, 86, 101, 105
pH, 7, 18, 37, 98, 107 protection, 28, 68
phenol, 50, 51, 52 proteins, 112
phenolic compound(s), vii, viii, 47, 48, 50, prototype(s), 49, 50
51, 52, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 68, 70, 71, 72, puckering, 42
78, 83, 96, 104, 107, 112 pulp, 24, 118
phloem, viii, 35, 36 purification, 112, 116
phosphorus, 2, 10, 32
physicochemical properties, 96, 111, 113
Q
pigmentation, 8
pith, 23
quantification, 110, 116
Index 127
shape, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 96
R shock, 9
shoots, 5, 21
radiation, 64, 87
showing, 39, 41, 43
rainfall, viii, 10, 35, 36
signs, 21
rainforest, 4
skin, 2, 8, 13
raw materials, 117
software, 51
recycling, viii, 47, 49, 59
soil type, 37
red wine, 108
solution, 41, 118
regrowth, 11
South Africa, 8
relatives, 20, 32
South America, vii, 1
relevance, 52
Southeast Asia, 18
requirement, 9, 29
soymilk, 120
requirements, 27
spatial learning, 68, 113
residues, 49
species, 3, 16, 21, 23, 24, 31, 36
resistance, 20, 23, 26
spectrophotometric method, 63, 83, 96, 110
respiration, 37
speech, 51
response, viii, 10, 29, 35, 37, 41, 44, 64, 68,
spindle, 23, 43
86, 96, 97, 100, 119
sprouting, 11, 13
reticulum, 119
stability, 105
Rhizopus, 13, 23, 104
stamens, 6
rings, 19
starch, 6, 15, 109, 117
risk, 9
starch granules, 6
root(s), vii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
state, 50
13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32,
statistical analysis, viii, 48, 51, 64, 65, 84,
36, 43, 48, 77, 99, 101, 104, 110, 111,
85
113, 120
statistics, 64, 72
root crop, vii, 1, 2, 13, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,
stele, 6
33, 45
sterile, 7
root crops, 13, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 45
stigma, 3
root growth, 5
stock, 12
root system, 9, 23, 24
stomach, 101
storage, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 21, 22, 23,
S 24, 25, 32, 43, 101, 103, 111
stress, 36, 64, 68, 119
saline soil(s), viii, 8, 24, 35, 36 structure, 11, 50
science, 50, 52 subacute, 87, 114
SDS-PAGE, 112 sub-Saharan Africa, 28, 32
secretion, 64, 86 sulfur, 18
security, 2 Sun, 54, 56, 57, 109, 114, 115, 116, 117,
seed, 7, 11, 12, 20, 30 119
selenium, 103, 119 suppression, 68, 106
serum, 68, 87, 114 surveillance, 25
sex, 6 sustainability, 30
shade, 9
128 Index
word frequency, 51
worldwide, viii, 35, 36, 50, 51
Y
wound healing, 49
yield, viii, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 19, 25, 27, 28,
30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44,
X 49
xerophthalmia, 15
xylem, viii, 35, 36
Z
zinc, 119