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GE 282 Large Scale Surveying Lecture Notes
GE 282 Large Scale Surveying Lecture Notes
Syllabus:
(i) Distance measurements – direct and indirect distance measurements-taping, optical
(tacheometric, substance bar), EDM;
Reference:
1) Wolf, P. R. and Brinker, R. C., 1994, Elementary Surveying (9 th Ed.), HarperCollins College
Publishers, U.S.A., ISBN 0-06-500399-3;
2) Moffitt F. H. and Bouchard H., 1992, Surveying (9th Ed.), HarperCollins College Publishers,
U.S.A., ISBN 0-06-500059-5;
3) Bannister, A. and Raymond S., 1992, Surveying, Longman Group UK Ltd, ISBN 0-582-
274532;
4) Uren, J. and Price, W. F., 1994, Surveying for Engineers (2nd Ed.), Macmillan Press Ltd.,
London, UK, ISBN 0-333-37081-3
1
1 Introduction to Surveying
Surveying may be defined as the science, art, and technology of determining the relative
positions of natural and man-made features above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface and the
representation of this information either graphically or numerically.
Surveying, in a more general sense, can be regarded as that discipline which encompasses all
methods for measuring, processing, and disseminating information about the physical earth and
our environment. Surveying practice therefore involves:
(i) Determination of the shape of the earth and measurement of all facts needed to
determine the size, position, shape, and contour of any part of the earth’s surface,
and the provisions of plans, maps, files and charts recording these facts;
(ii) Positioning of objects in space, and positioning of physical features, structures, and
engineering works on, above, or below the surface of the earth;
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(vi) Study of the natural and social environment, measurement of land and marine
resources, and the use of this data in planning and development in urban, rural and
regional areas.
Basically, field operations in surveying involve measuring distances, height differences and
angles, using ground-based or space-based instruments and techniques. The measured
quantities are processed:
(i) to determine horizontal positions of arbitrary points on the earth’s surface;
(ii) to determine elevations or heights of arbitrary points above or below a reference
datum, such as mean sea level;
(iii) to determine the configuration of the ground;
(iv) to determine the lengths and directions of lines;
(v) to determine the areas of tracts bounded by given lines.
To transfer designed drawings from paper onto the ground, distances, angles and grade lines
are set-out (or laid off) to locate construction lines for buildings, bridges, highways and other
engineering works, and to establish the positions of boundary lines on the ground.
With respect to the assumptions on which the survey computations are based as well as the
orders of accuracies required, surveying may be divided principally into Plane and Geodetic
Surveying. In geodetic surveying, the curved surface of the earth is considered by performing
the computations on an ellipsoid (a curved mathematical figure used to approximate the size
and shape of the earth).
Geodetic methods are employed to determine relative positions of widely spaced monuments
and to compute lengths and directions of the long lines between them. These monuments serve
as the basis for referencing other subordinate surveys of lesser extent. All height measurements
in geodetic surveys are referenced to the surface of the ellipsoid, and are termed ellipsoidal or
geodetic heights.
In plane surveying, relatively small areas of the earth are involved and the surface of the earth
is considered to be a horizontal plane or flat surface. The direction of a plumb line (and thus
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gravity) is considered parallel throughout the survey region, and all measured angles are
presumed to be plane angles. All height measurements are referenced to mean sea Level or the
geoid, and are termed orthometric heights.
Field measurements for geodetic surveys are usually performed to a higher order of accuracy
(using special precise instruments and rigorous procedures) than those for plane surveys.
Cadastral Surveys: These are surveys conducted for legal purposes such as deed plans
showing and defining legal property boundaries and the calculation of area(s) involved.
Hydrographic Surveys: These are surveys conducted to determine the position of the
survey vessel, depth of water and to investigate the nature of the sea bed.
Mining Surveys: These are surveys executed to establish location and boundaries of
mining claims. It also involves the establishment of underground workings horizontally,
vertically and lay out shaft connections.
Global Positioning System (GPS) Surveys: Positioning in which the coordinates X, Y, and
Z of survey stations are determined by the reception and analysis of NAVSTAR Satellite
signals.
1.5 Questions
4
2 Distance Measurements
Measurement of distance between two points on the surface of the earth is one of the basic
operations in surveying. Distances can be measured and set out either directly using tapes or
indirectly using optical theodolites through tacheometric techniques or by using electronic
distance meters (EDMs) or Total Stations.
In plane surveying, the distance between two points at different elevations is reduced to its
equivalent horizontal distance either by the procedure used to make the measurement or by
computing the horizontal distance from a measured slope distance. Horizontal and vertical
distances are used in survey drawings, setting out plans, and engineering design works. Slope
distances and vertical distances are used on site during the setting out of designed points.
Note: Distances are corrected for mean sea level and local scale factor corrections only when
the survey is based on the National Grid System.
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2.2 Taping: Direct Distance Measurement
Taping is a direct means of determining the straight-line distance between two points using a
tape. The tape may be made of steel, fiberglass or plastic, and may be of length 20 m, 50 m or
100 m. Taping is performed in six steps:
(i) lining in (through ranging);
(ii) applying tension;
(iii) plumbing;
(iv) marking tape length;
(v) reading the tape; and
(vi) recording the distance.
When the length to be measured is less than that of the tape, measurements are carried out by
unwinding and laying the tape along the straight line between the points. The zero of the tape
(or some convenient graduation) is held against one point, the tape is straightened, pulled taut
and the distance read directly on the tape at the other point.
2.2.1 Ranging
When the length of a line between the two points exceeds that of a tape, some form of
alignment is necessary to ensure that the tape is positioned along the straight line required.
This is known as ranging and is achieved using ranging poles (or rods) and marking pins (or
arrows). Ranging a line between two points A and B requires two people, identified as the
leader (or surveyor) and the follower (or assistant), and the procedure is as follows:
(i) Ranging poles are erected as vertical as possible at the points A and B and, for a
measure in the direction of A to B, the zero point of the tape is set against A by the
follower;
(ii) The leader, carrying a third ranging pole, unwinds the tape and walks towards point
B, stopping just short of a tape length, at which point the ranging pole is held
vertical;
(iii) The follower steps a few paces behind the ranging pole at point A, and using hand
signals, lines up the ranging pole held by the leader with bottom part of the ranging
pole at A and with the pole at B. This lining-in should be done by the follower
sighting as low as possible on the poles;
(iv) The tape is now straightened and laid against the pole held by the leader, pulled
taut and the tape length marked by placing an arrow on line;
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(v) For the next tape length, the leader and the follower move ahead simultaneously
with the tape unwound, the procedure being repeated but with the follower now at
the first marking arrow;
(vi) As measurements proceeds, the follower picks up each arrow and, on completion,
the number of arrows held by the follower indicates the number of whole tape
lengths measured. This number of tape lengths plus the section at the end less than
a tape length gives the total length of the line.
D2
D3
B
D = D1 + D2 + D3
(i) To measure D1, the zero end of the tape is held at A and the tape then held
horizontally and on line towards B against a previously lined-in ranging pole;
(ii) At some convenient tape graduation (preferably a whole metre mark), the horizontal
distance is transferred to ground level using a plumb line (i. e. a string line with a
weight attached), a marking arrow or a ranging pole;
(iii) The leader notes the length of the first step in his book, and the tape is now moved
forward and the process is repeated to measure D2 and D3 in a similar manner; and
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(iv) The sum of the steps D1, D2 and D3 gives the required horizontal distance between A
and B.
The length of steps which can be adopted is limited by the gradient. At no time should the tape
be above the surveyor’s eye level, because plumbing becomes very difficult. As the gradient
increases the length of step must therefore decrease.
To use an Abney level, an observer first distinctly marks his eye height (h in Fig. 2.4) on a
ranging pole which is then placed at point B. Standing at point A and looking down the sighting
tube, the cross-wire is seen and is set against the mark on the ranging pole at B. The
observer’s line of sight will be A'B', which is parallel to AB.
8
To record the slope angle θ, the milled wheel is turned until the image of the bubble appears
centrally against the cross-wire when viewed through the sighting tube. A fine adjustment is
provided by the slow-motion screw. A simple vernier, attached to the milled wheel, is then read
with the aid of a small reading glass against the scale attached to the sighting tube. This gives
a measure of θ to within 10 minutes of arc.
Worked Example 1:
Calculate the plan length for a measurement of 126.300 m along a terrain sloping at 2° 34′.
Solution 1:
Let θ be the inclination (or slope) angle = 2º 34'
Plan (or Horizontal length) = slope length X cos θ
= 126.300 X cos 2º 34'
= 126.173 m
Worked Example 2:
Calculate the plan length where a distance has been measured along a slope of 1 in 3 and
found to be 149.500 m.
Solution 2:
Let θ be the inclination (or slope) angle
3
For a slope of 1 in 3, cos q =
10
3
Plan length = slope length �cos q = 149.500 m � = 141.828 m
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Questions
1. A horizontal distance of 745.000 m is to be established along a line that slopes at a
vertical angle of 5º 10'. What slope distance should be measured off?
2. A distance of 3236.86 ft was measured along a smooth slope. The slope angle was
measured and found to be 3º 22'. What is the horizontal distance?
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2.2.4 Reduction of Slope Measurements by Difference in Elevation
Measurements made on the slope (L) can be reduced to their corresponding horizontal
distances (H) using Pythagoras theorem if the differences in elevation between the two ends of
the tape (d) have been measured by levelling.
(L - d 2 ) = ( L2 - d 2 )
1
H= 2 2
Worked Example 3:
A distance of 290.430 m was measured along a smooth slope from A to B. The elevations of A
and B were measured and found to be 865.2 and 891.4 m, respectively. What is the horizontal
distance from A to B?
Solution 3:
Slope distance, L = 290.430 m
Elevation difference, d = 891.4 – 865.2 = 26.2 m
From Pythagoras theorem,
Question
A line measures 1446.25 m along a constant slope. The difference in elevation between the two
ends of the line is 57.24 m. Calculate the horizontal length of the line.
An error is the difference between a measured value for a quantity and its true value. That is,
E = M - T , where E is the error in a measurement, M the measured value, and T its true
value.
It can be unconditionally stated that:
(i) no measurement is exact;
(ii) every measurement contains errors;
(iii) the true value of a measurement is never known; and therefore
(iv) the exact error present is always unknown
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Note that mistakes are observer blunders and are usually caused by a misunderstanding of the
problem, carelessness, fatigue, missed communication, or poor judgement. Examples are
transposition of numbers such as recording 73.96 as 79.36; failure to include a full tape length.
Mistakes can be detected by systematic checking of all work, and eliminated by redoing part of
the job or even all of it.
There are basically three main sources of error in measurements namely natural, instrumental
and personal.
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They are usually constant (having the same magnitude and sign) throughout an
operation.
Systematic errors which change during a measurement process are termed drifts. Drift is
evident if a measurement of a constant quantity is repeated several times and the
measurements drift one way during the process, for example if each measurement is
higher than the previous measurement which could occur if the instrument becomes
warmer during the measuring process.
They conform to mathematical and physical laws; thus their magnitudes or values could
be computed and appropriate corrections (i.e. “negative the error”) can be applied to
mitigate them.
Cumulative observations will increase or propagate the effect of systematic errors.
Systematic errors can be detected by measuring already known quantities through a
process called calibration or by comparing the measurements with ones made using a
different instrument known to be more accurate.
The principal systematic errors in linear measurements made with a tape are:
(i) incorrect length of tape;
(ii) tape not horizontal;
(iii) fluctuations in the temperature of the tape;
(iv) incorrect tension or pull;
(v) sag in the tape;
(vi) incorrect alignment; and
(vii) tape not straight
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the angles of a triangle where the true value of the sum should be 180 o. Generally, the mean
of the repeated and ‘corrected’ measurements is accepted as the true value of the quantity.
Random Errors are associated with the skill and vigilance of the surveyor. They are introduced
into each measurement mainly due to the surveyor’s inability to take the same measurement in
exactly the same way to get exactly the same value. They represent the residual error after all
other errors have been eliminated. They are compensating and generally unavoidable, and
usually conform to the law of probability. Taking the mean of repeated observations minimizes
their effects.
A discrepancy is the difference between two measured values of the same quantity. A small
discrepancy indicates there are probably no mistakes and random errors are small. Small
discrepancies do not preclude the presence of systematic errors, however.
Accuracy denotes the absolute nearness of measured quantities to their true values. Since the
true value is seldom known, accuracy is generally indeterminate in practice.
Example
Two groups of students measured a line of 100 m nominal length with a tape, and obtained the
following results:-
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Group A: 99.01, 98.99, 99.02 and 98.98m
Group B: 99.85, 99.90, 100.15 and 100.00m
From the above definitions, the results of Group A, being closely grouped together with a small
spread, constitute a more precise measurement than those of Group B. However, the results of
Group B are nearer to the nominal length of the line and should therefore be the more accurate
of the two.
�A - N L �
CL = � L �M L
� NL �
and
TL = M L + CL
�A �
=� L �M L
�N L �
where CL = correction to be applied to the measured length of a line to obtain the true length
AL = actual tape length (obtained from standardization)
N L = nominal tape length (given by manufacturers)
M L = measured (or recorded) length of line
TL = corrected (or true) length of line
Worked Example 4:
A 100-m steel tape when compared with a standard is actually 100.020 m long. What is the
corrected length of the line measured with this tape and recorded to be 565.750 m?
Solution 4:
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100.020 - 100.000 �
�
Standardization correction, CL = � 565.75 = +0.113 m
�
� 100.000 �
Corrected length of line, TL = M L + CL = 565.750 + 0.113 = 565.863 m
Note (i): AL - N L = amount by which a full tape length is too long or too short = 0.020 m
ML
= number of tape lengths in the measured line = 5.6575
NL
Note (ii): In measuring unknown distances with a tape that is too long, a correction must be
added. Conversely, if the tape is too short, the correction will be minus, resulting in
a decrease.
Ct = La ( Tm - Ts )
and
LC = L + Ct
15
and
H = L - Cs
Suppose the theodolite is set up at station P and the levelling staff held vertically at station X as
shown in Fig. 2.5.
16
Fig. 2.5: Stadia Tacheometry
(ii) The vertical component of the inclined line of sight given by:
1
V= ( Ks sin 2q ) + C sin q
2
(iii) The reduced level of the staff position given by
RLX = RLP + hi �V - m
where K = multiplying constant of the telescope, usually set at 100;
s = stadia interval on the staff= upper stadia reading – lower stadia reading;
m =centre hair reading of the staff at X;
q = vertical angle or inclination of line of sight to the horizontal;
hi =height of the theodolite at P;
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C = additive constant, usually taken to be zero (0); and
RLP , RLX = reduced level of stations P and X, respectively.
The horizontal angle a between the targets is measured with a theodolite set over the other end
of the line (Fig. 2.7).
The horizontal distance H between the theodolite and the target is computed using the
relation:
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b
( )
tan a
2
= 2
H
H=
b
2
( )
cot a
2
( 2)
H = cot a Q b=2 m
Note: Distances determined by the subtense method are always horizontal, even though
inclined sights are taken, because a is measured in a horizontal plane.
The first EDM instrument, called the Geodimeter (an acronym for geodetic distance meter) was
introduced in 1948, used visible light and could measure distances up to 40 km. The second
EDM instrument, called the tellurometer, was introduced in 1957, used microwaves and was
capable of measuring distances up to 80 km, day or night. In the current generation, EDM
instruments have been combined with digital theodolites and microprocessors. The resulting
devices, called Total Station instruments, can measure simultaneously and automatically both
distances and angles. The microprocessor receives the measured slope distance and vertical
angle, calculates horizontal and vertical distances, and displays them in real time.
19
Fig. 2.8: Measurement principle of EDM
The indirect time measuring scheme of EDM involves determining how many cycles of
electromagnetic energy are required to travel the double path distance. The frequency (time
required for each cycle) is precisely controlled by the EDM instrument and thus known, so the
total travel time becomes known. Multiplying total time by velocity, and dividing by 2, yields the
unknown distance.
Note: Air temperature, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity are atmospheric conditions
that affect the velocity of propagation of light and microwaves, and therefore affect the
accuracy of the measured distance. Knowledge of these conditions allows a determination of
the refractive index of the air, which must be known to compute the velocity of light or
microwaves under given meteorological conditions.
Assignment 1
1. Tape readings totaled 357.879 m when a measuring tape of 50 m nominal length was
used to measure a line. The tape was calibrated later and found to have actually
measured 50.009 m at the temperature at which the line had been measured. Calculate
the correct length of the line.
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3. A line AB is measured in three sections AX, XY, and YB using a fiberglass tape of nominal
length 20 m. The tape was read to the nearest 0.01 m and distances obtained for the
three sections AX, XY, and YB were 79.45 m, 8.70 m, and 126.35 m, respectively.
There is a constant slope from A to X and from Y to B, and stepping was carried out
between X and Y due to very steep ground. The reduced levels of points A, X, Y, and B
are 37.62 m, 32.14 m, 19.47 m, and 20.21 m, respectively. Before measurement, the tape
was measured against a reference steel tape and found to be 20.015 m. Calculate the
horizontal length of AB.
21
3 Angular Measurements
Angular measurements are carried out in surveying for orientations of lines and determination
of locations of points. Angles are directly measured in the field using Total Stations, theodolites,
compasses, sextants, or the Abney level. An angle can be measured indirectly by the tape
method (or linear measurements) and its value computed from the relationships of known
quantities in a triangle or other geometric figure. To determine an angle, the following three
basic requirements must be met:
(i) reference or starting line;
(ii) direction of turning; and
(iii) angular distance (i.e. value of the angle).
Reference or Starting line
θ Angular distance
Station A
Fig. 3.1: Basic requirements in determining an angle
Angles measured in surveying are classified as horizontal or vertical depending on the plane in
which they are measured. Horizontal angles are measured in the horizontal plane and vertical
angles are measured in the vertical plane.
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3.1 Measuring Horizontal Angle
A horizontal angle is the angle formed in a horizontal plane by two lines extending from the
same point. In surveying, a horizontal angle has a direction or sense; it is considered clockwise
if it is measured to the right or anticlockwise if it is measured to the left. Horizontal angles are
the basic measurements needed for determining bearings and azimuths.
Suppose it is desired to measure the horizontal angle at B from A to C, as shown in Fig. 3.2. A
theodolite is set up over point B, centred, and levelled. A backsight is taken to a target set up at
point A and the initial horizontal circle reading is recorded. The telescope is rotated in the
direction of point C and a foresight is taken to a target set up at point C, and the final
horizontal circle reading is recorded. The horizontal angle is obtained by taking the difference
between the initial and final horizontal circle readings.
Station A
Station C
Backsight to A Foresight to C
122º 43' 176º 13'
53º 30'
Station B
Theodolites are precision instruments used extensively in construction work for measuring
angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. Many different theodolites are available for
measuring angles and they are classified according to the smallest reading that can be taken
with the instrument. For example, a 1'' theodolite is one which can be read to 1'' directly
without estimation.
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3.3 Setting up the theodolite
The sequence of operations required to get the theodolite ready for angle measurements is as
follows:
(i) Set up the tripod over the ground point such that the top is approximately
horizontal;
(ii) Mount the theodolite on the tripod;
(iii) Centre the theodolite over the ground mark using the optical plummet or the
plumb line;
(iv) Level the theodolite by centralizing the horizontal plate bubble; and
(v) Remove parallax.
When a theodolite is set up over a survey mark and properly levelled, the position of the
vertical circle with respect to the observer when looking through the telescope is used to define
the two positions or faces of the theodolite:
When a theodolite is in face left position when sighting one of the points, it is usually swung to
the left to sight the other point. Similarly, when it is in face right position, it is swung to the
right to sight the other point. Combining the face and swing we have:
LL meaning face left, swing left; and
RR meaning face right, swing right
Double sighting consists of making a measurement of a horizontal or a vertical angle once with
the telescope in the direct or face left position and once with the telescope in the reversed,
inverted, plunged or face right position. The act of turning the telescope upside down, that is,
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rotating it about the transverse axis, is called “plunging” or “transiting” the telescope. When the
telescope is in its plunged position, the telescope bubble is on top of the telescope.
Question 2:
A backsight was made at K to J, and the horizontal circle read 312º 14' 30''. A foresight was
made to L, and the circle read 14º 42' 00''. The telescope was reversed, and face-right readings
made to L and J were 194º 42' 10'' and 132º 14' 30'' respectively. What is the value of the mean
included angle at K?
A zenith angle is an angle measured in a vertical plane downward from an upward directed
vertical line through the instrument. It is thus between 0º and 180º.
25
Vertical (or zenith) angles are used in trigonometric levelling, stadia tacheometry, and for
reducing measured slope distances to horizontal.
To measure the vertical angle of the line of sight from one point to another, the theodolite is
set up over the first point, centred, and levelled. The line of sight is brought in the direction of
the other point, and the telescope bubble is centred. The reading of the vertical circle is
recorded as the initial reading. The line of sight is then raised or lowered and is directed
accurately to the second point by means of the vertical clamp and tangent screw. The reading
of the vertical circle is recorded as the final reading. The correct vertical angle is the difference
between the initial and the final readings.
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N
M
97º 20' 30''
P
L
If the theodolite is set up at each station in turn in the order just given, all the interior angles
would be measured in an anticlockwise direction. Thus the interior angle at L is measured from
P to M, that at M from L to N, that at N from M to O, that at O from N to P, and that at P from
O to L. On the other hand, if the instrument is set up in turn at L, P, O, N, and M, then all the
interior angles would be measured clockwise.
Note: If the stations are occupied in a clockwise direction, the interior angles are measured in
an anticlockwise direction. On the other hand, if the stations are occupied in an
anticlockwise direction, the interior angles are measured in a clockwise direction.
27
The sum of the interior angles in a closed plane figure must equal (n – 2) x 180º, in which n is
the number of sides in the figure. This relation furnishes a check on the accuracy of the field
measurements of the angles and a basis for distributing the error.
28
The magnetic meridian at a point on the earth’s surface is defined as a line passing through the
point and joining the earth’s magnetic north and south poles. A freely suspended needle of a
magnetic compass will always come to rest in a north-south direction defining the direction of
the magnetic meridian.
Unlike the true meridian, whose direction is fixed, the magnetic meridian varies in direction. The
amount and direction by which the magnetic meridian deviates from the true meridian is called
the magnetic declination. Declination may also be defined as the angular difference between
the true north and magnetic north. Declination is positive or plus when the needle of a
magnetic compass points east of true north, and it is negative or minus when the needle points
west of true north.
Magnetic meridians tend to converge at the magnetic poles but the convergence is not regular
and it is not readily obtainable.
29
line gives the direction of that line with respect to a reference meridian, and that in plane
surveying,
(i) bearing is always measured from the north (for countries in the northern
hemisphere like Ghana);
(ii) meridians passing through other points in the survey are assumed to be parallel
to the meridian passing through the origin of the survey.
Bearings may be of different types depending on the type of reference meridian: magnetic
bearing is with respect to magnetic meridian, true bearing is with respect to true meridian, grid
bearing is with respect to grid meridian, and assumed bearing is with respect to assumed
meridian.
N
N B
WCB=70º
P
S
S
Fig. 3.4: Whole Circle Bearings
The whole circle bearing of line AB shown in Fig. 3.4 is 70º while that of line MP is 240º 20' 30''.
The quadrant bearing of line AB is N 70º E and that of line MP is S 60º 20' 30'' W.
Note:
30
(i) If a whole circle bearing (WCB) from north is between 0º and 90º, the line is in
the northeast quadrant and the quadrant bearing is equal to the whole circle
bearing.
(ii) If the WCB is between 90º and 180º, the line is in the southeast quadrant, and
the quadrant bearing is 180º minus the WCB;
(iii) If the WCB is between 180º and 270º, the line is in the southwest quadrant, and
the quadrant bearing is the WCB minus 180º;
(iv) If the WCB is between 270º and 360º, the line is in the northwest quadrant, and
the quadrant bearing is 360º minus the WCB.
Questions
1. Convert the following quadrant bearings to whole circle bearings:
(a) S 15º 56' 30'' E
(b) N 18º 15' 20'' W
(c) S 85º 16' 35'' W
In Fig. 3.4, the back bearing of line AB = the bearing of line BA = 70º + 180º = 250º. Similarly,
the back bearing of line MP = the bearing of line PM = 240º 20' 30'' - 180º = 60º.
Note: The back bearing of a line expressed in the quadrant form can be obtained from the
forward bearing by simply changing the letter N to S and S to N, and also changing E to W or W
to E.
31
Question
Find the back bearings of the following lines, express your answers in whole circle format:
(i) S 15º 56' 30'' E (ii) N 85º 40' 30'' W (iii) S 65º 35' 20'' W
3.11 Determining directions with the magnetic compass
When using a pocket compass, the observer occupies one end of the line whose magnetic
bearing he wishes to obtain. He holds the compass level, releases the needle by lifting the
sights to their sighting position, sights the other end of the line, and allows the needle to come
to rest. He then depresses the needle clamp and reads the circle at the north end of the
compass needle. This reading gives him the magnetic bearing of the line directed from his
position to the point sighted.
To obtain the back magnetic bearing as a check, he occupies the second point and sights back
to the first point, reading the north end of the needle as before. The bearings should show
reasonable agreement.
Local attraction is detected when the forward and back magnetic bearings of a line differ by
more than 180º. This effect is minimized by meaning each line’s forward and back bearings, and
eliminated when stations with no local attractions are encountered.
Question
Table below shows bookings of a closed loop compass traverse survey conducted by a student.
Using any of the methods of eliminating the effect of local attraction, obtain the corrected
forward bearings of the traverse legs.
Line Forward Bearing (FB) Back Bearing Correction Corrected FB
A–B 32º 00' 213º 30'
B–C 78º 30' 257º 00'
C–D 107º 00' 285º 00'
D–E 120º 00' 302º 00'
32
E–A 265º 00' 85º 00'
33
4 TRAVERSING
E D
E E
AA
C
C C
A
B B D D
B
A, B, D and E are points of There are no starting and/or
Point A is both the starting and known coordinates, and are finishing control points
finishing point termed Points of Departures
Fig 4.1 (i) Polygon Traverse (ii) Link Traverse (iii) Open Traverse
34
A link closed traverse originates at a point of known coordinates and closes on another known
station of equal positional accuracy. Closed traverses provide checks on the measured angles
and distances.
An open traverse is one in which the horizontal coordinates of either the starting point or the
finishing point is unknown or both are unknown. Open traverses do not offer any means of
checking for errors and mistakes.
N
F
372.47m
70º00'00''
138º54'40'' 526.72m E
A
110º30'00''
115º11'20''
287.40m
429.37m
130º36'20'' D
95º00'20''
B
301.83m
656.54m 129º49'20''
The angular misclosure for an interior-angle traverse is the difference between the sum of
the measured angles and the geometrically correct total for the polygon. Checks will be
considered for both polygon and link theodolite traverses.
35
Check for polygon traverse:
The observed angles of a polygon traverse can be either internal or external angles.
For internal angles: Sum of internal angles = (n – 2) x 180º
For external angles: Sum of external angles = (n + 2) x 180º
Where n is the number of angles measured.
where n is the number of angles measured between the initial back bearing and final
forward bearing.
Considering the above example, we will have the sum of angles as shown in Table 4.1.
The angles are adjusted by distributing the misclosure over all the measured angles as in
Table 4.2. For the above, the adjustment per angle will be – (02' 00'')/6, since six (6)
internal angles were measured:
36
Table 4.2: Adjustment of angles
The conversion of the adjusted angles to bearings for the traverse is illustrated in Figure
4.3. This is done because the angles measured by the theodolite are not bearings. The
whole circle bearing of a line is the clockwise horizontal angle measured from the meridian
passing through the starting point of the line to the line.
N
back bearing XY
X
Y
direction of traverse
left hand angle
forward bearing YZ
Z
Figure 4.3: Whole circle bearing calculation (Source: Uren and Price 1994)
37
N
N
A 115° 11′ 00″
Direction of traverse
05° 11′ 00″ Computation (Anticlockwise)
B 95° 00′ 00″
C
Figure 4.4: Conversion of angles to whole circle bearings
At station A:
Forward bearing AB = back bearing of FA + left-hand angle at A
= forward bearing of AF + left-hand angle at A
= 70º 00' 00'' (given) + 115º 11' 00''
= 185º 11' 00''
At station B:
Forward bearing BC = back bearing of AB + left-hand angle at B
= forward bearing of BA + left-hand angle at B
= 05º11'00'' + 95º 00' 00''
= 100º 11' 00''
The bearings of all the other lines are computed in the same manner, and are shown in Table
4.3.
38
Table 4.3: Computation of Adjusted Forward Bearings
Note: A left-hand angle at a traverse station (also termed angle-to-the-right) is the horizontal
angle measured clockwise from a backsight on the “rearward” traverse station to a
foresight on the “forward” traverse station.
For polygon traverses when working in an anticlockwise direction around the traverse, the
left-hand angles are the internal angles of the traverse and when working in a clockwise
direction, the left-hand angles will be the external angles.
The departure of a traverse leg or a line is the distance the line extends in an east or west
direction, and is equal to the length of the line multiplied by the sine of its whole circle bearing.
A departure to the east is considered plus; a departure to the west is minus. Departures are
sometimes termed difference in easting or westing of the end points of the line.
39
N (Northing)
∆E
B
Latitude
∆N
L
N
E (Easting)
0 Departure
where L is the horizontal length of the traverse leg and a is the whole circle bearing of the
traverse leg. In traverse computations, north latitudes and east departures are considered
plus whilst south latitudes and west departures are considered minus.
40
where stations Y and X are the final and starting points respectively of the traverse. Since
Y and X are control points, their coordinates are known, and therefore the values of
algebraically summing the latitudes and departures, and comparing the totals to the required
conditions.
Table 4.4: Computation of Latitudes and Departures and Rectangular Coordinates of Traverse Stations
41
For any closed traverse, the linear misclosure must be adjusted (or distributed) throughout the
traverse to close or balance the figure. The Compass or Bowditch Rule, which adjusts the
latitudes and departures of the traverse legs in proportion to their lengths, is normally used.
N B = N A + latitude of AB
EB = E A + departure of AB
Questions
1. The internal angles of a closed-loop anticlockwise traverse ABCDEA were observed with a 10 ''
theodolite as follows: A = 89º 39' 40'', B = 129º 18' 50'', C = 83º 41' 00'', D = 112º 38' 10'', and
E = 124º 43' 10''. The bearing of line AE is fixed at 254º 58' 00'' and the coordinates of A are
(1000.00 m E, 500.00 m N).
The following horizontal distances were measured: AB = 120.39, BC = 232.71, CD = 168.30,
DE = 152.00 and EA = 186.13 m. Calculate:
(i) the angular misclosure of the traverse and adjust the angles
(ii) the forward bearings of the traverse legs
(iii) the coordinate differences for the traverse adjusting any linear misclosure by the
Bowditch method
(iv) the fractional linear misclosure (FLM)
(v) The coordinates of stations B, C, D, and E.
42
2. The measured angles and lengths of a clockwise traverse CDEF are given in Table 4.5.
Assuming the coordinates of station C to be (250.00 m E, 250.00 m N) and that station D is due
East of C, calculate the adjusted coordinates of stations D, E and F, and the fractional linear
misclose of the traverse.
Table 4.5
Angle Observed external angle Leg Horizontal length (m)
FCD 272º 55' FC 112.61
CDE 296º 43' FE 106.26
DEF 262º 13' CD 180.29
EFC 248º 13' DE 164.58
Table 4.6
Internal angle Horizontal length (m)
W 110º 47' 10'' WA = 65.39
A 91º 25' 30'' AR = 285.94
R 111º 20' 30'' RD = 233.57
D 46º 26' 10'' DW = 402.45
43
5 Computation of Areas
In plane surveying, area is considered to be the orthogonal projection of the surface onto a
horizontal plane. The commonest unit of area for large tracts is the acre. 1 acre = 43,560
square feet = 4046.835 square metres. 1 hectare = 10,000 square metres = 2.471 acres.
Since plans themselves are derived from field measurements, methods of area determination
invariably depend on this basic source of data.
44
5.2.1 (i) Areas by subdivision into simple figures
The tract is divided into simple geometric figures such as triangles, rectangles, or trapezoids.
The sides and angles of these figures are then measured in the field and their individual areas
calculated and totalled.
(1) Areas from triangles
(a) Semi-perimeter method
The area of a triangle whose sides are known is computed by the formula
Worked example 1:
Compute the area of a right-angled triangle of sides 3 m, 4 m and 5 m.
45
Solution to example 1
c=5m
b=3m
a=4m
Worked example 2: Compute the area of a trapezium whose parallel sides are 4m and 6m and
of height 5m.
46
a=4m
b=6m
a=4m h=5m
h=5m
b=6m
Solution to example 2:
1 1
area = (a + b) h = (4m + 6m)5m = 25 m 2
2 2
The trapezoidal rule approximates an irregular boundary of a tract to a series of straight lines. A
reference traverse line close to the boundary is selected and offsets (or ordinates)
y1 , y2 , y3 ,... yn at regular intervals (or width) w are measured from the traverse line to the
boundary.
Irregular boundary, GT
T
G y--- Yn-1 Yn
Y3 Y5
Y2
Offsets y1
Traverse line
A w w w w w w B
The area bounded by the traverse line, the irregular boundary and the first and last offsets is
computed using the trapezoidal rule given as follows:
47
Area = Regular Interval x ( Average of first and last offsets + sum of other offsets )
1
� �
= w � ( y1 + yn ) + y2 + y3 + ... yn -1 �
2
� �
w
= � ( y1 + yn ) + 2 ( y2 + y3 + ... yn -1 ) �
2� �
Note:
i. If the first or last offset is zero, it must still be included in the computation.
ii. The number of offsets could be odd or even.
iii. The offsets must be at regular intervals.
iv. The interval must be short enough for the length of boundary between the offsets to
be assumed straight.
v. If the boundary is curved to such an extent that approximating it with a series of
straight lines would introduce appreciable error, Simpson’s rule should be used.
Simpson’s rule approximates the boundary to a series of parabolic arcs. A reference traverse
line close to the boundary is selected and odd number of offsets (or ordinates) y1 , y2 , y3 ,... yn
at regular intervals (or width) w are measured from the traverse line AB to the boundary GT.
G T
Offsets y1 y2 y3 y4 y--- yn-2 yn-1 yn
A B
Simpson’s rule states that the area enclosed by a curvilinear figure divided into an even number
of strips of equal width is equal to one-third the width of a strip, multiplied by the sum of the
two extreme offsets, twice the sum of the remaining odd offsets, and four times the sum of the
even offsets.
48
( sum of first and last offsets ) + 4( sum of even offsets ) �
Regular Interval �
Area = �
3 � + 2( sum of remaining odd offsets ) � �
Worked example 3:
Boundary
9.2 m
10.0 m
8.0 m
9.5 m
3.0 m
2.5 m
7.1 m
4.5 m
Offsets
R P
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Calculate the area between the traverse line RP and the irregular boundary line. The offset
distances from the station R to P are 3.0, 8.0, 10.0, 9.5, 9.2, 7.1, 4.5 and 2.5 m respectively.
Solution to example 3
Since there is an even number of offsets between R and P at regular intervals of 10 m,
Trapezoidal rule could be used.
interval
Area = ( first offset + last offset + twice sum of all other offsets )
2
10
= � 3.0 + 2.5 + 2 ( 8.0 + 10.0 + 9.5 + 9.2 + 7.1 + 4.5 ) �
2 � �
= 510.5 m 2
Worked example 4
The following offsets 10 m apart were measured at right angles from a traverse line PQ to an
irregular boundary: 4.0 m, 4.5 m, 5.1 m, 6.5 m, 6.3 m, 5.1 m and 4.0 m respectively. Calculate
the area between the line PQ and the irregular boundary line.
Solution to example 4
Using Simpson’s rule,
49
( sum of first and last offsets ) + 4( sum of even offsets ) �
Regular Interval �
Area = �
3 � + 2( sum of remaining odd offsets ) � �
10
= ( 4.0 + 4.0 ) + 4 ( 4.5 + 6.5 + 5.1) + 2 ( 5.1 + 6.3) �
�
3 � �
= 317.33 m 2
Worked example 5
State Simpson’s rule for the determination of areas.
In a chain survey the following offsets were taken to a fence from a chain line:
Chainage (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Offset (m) 0 5.49 9.14 8.53 10.67 12.50 9.76 4.57 1.83 0
Find the area between the fence and the chain line using
(a) Trapezoidal rule
(b) Simpson’s rule
Solution to example 5
(a) Using Trapezoidal rule,
interval
Area = ( first offset + last offset + twice sum of all other offsets )
2
20
= � 0 + 0 + 2 ( 5.49 + 9.14 + 8.53 + 10.67 + 12.50 + 9.76 + 4.57 + 1.83 ) �
2 � �
= 1249.80 m 2
(b) Since Simpson’s rule can be applied to an odd number of offsets only, it will be used here
to calculate the area contained between the first and ninth offsets. The residual triangular
area between the ninth and tenth offsets is calculated separately.
50
4 8.53 4 34.12
5 10.67 2 21.34
6 12.50 4 50.00
7 9.75 2 19.50
8 4.57 4 18.28
9 1.83 1 1.83
Sum=185.31
Now the area between the ninth and tenth offsets is computed
20
Area(9-10) = x 1.83 = 18.30 m 2
2
Therefore, the total area between the chain line and the fence is 1253.70 m 2 .
51
Worked example 6: Given that the coordinates of the traverse stations A, B, C and D are as
follows;
Travesre Station Northing, X (m) Easting, Y (m)
A 100.0 200.0
B 205.0 300.0
C 250.0 350.0
D 200.0 400.0
52
Solution to example 6:
53
The map or plan containing the parcel whose area is required is placed on a digitizing table
which is interfaced with a computer, and the coordinates of its corner points quickly and
conveniently recorded. From the file of coordinates, the area is computed using the cross
coordinate method.
A planimeter is most useful for irregular areas. It is simple to use, and capable of a high degree
of accuracy. To use it, place the pole block in a suitable position relative to the figure such that
the tracing point can reach every part of the outline, (Figure .9.54.6). Put the tracing point on a
known point on the outline and read both drums with reference to the index mark.
54
Carefully move the tracing point in a clockwise direction round the outline of the figure, back to
the starting point. Take a second reading. The different between the two readings, multiplied
by the scale factor, gives the required area. Repeat the operation until three consistent values
are obtained. The mean of the three is then taken as the accepted value.
[Note: the foregoing refers to conventional mechanical planimeters. There are now, on the
market, Digital Planimeters which are more versatile, yet simple to use. An electronic
planimeter operates similarly to the mechanical type, except that the results are given in digital
form on a display console].
55
6 Levelling and Contouring
Levelling is the process of determining the relative elevations (or height differences) of points
on the earth’s surface. A level instrument, a barometer or a theodolite may be used to
determine the relative elevations of points.
(i) design highways, railways, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other
facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;
(ii) lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
(iii) calculate volumes of earthworks and other materials;
(iv) investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
(v) develop maps showing general ground configurations; and
(vi) study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
MSL datum
Vertical line
A vertical line is a line that follows the direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line. A
plumb line is the direction in which gravity acts.
56
Horizontal plane or line
Level surface
A level surface is a curved surface that is perpendicular to the local plumb line at every
point. Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape.
Vertical datum: Any level surface to which elevations are referred (e.g. mean sea level).
Elevation
MSL is the average height of the sea’s surface for all stages of the tide over a considerable
period.
A bench mark is a relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point
whose elevation above or below an adopted datum is known or assumed.
Vertical control
57
6.2 Curvature and refraction
It is essential to understand the nature of the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction as
they horizontal
affect levelling A
line operations.
at A
The definition of a level surface indicates that it is parallel to the curvature of the earth. A line
level line
of constant throughtermed
elevation, A a level line, is likewise a curved line and is everywhere normal to
the plumb line. However, a horizontal line of sight through the surveyor’s telescope is
perpendicular to the plumb line only at the point of observation.
Curvature
mean sea level
vertical at A
(a)
R
R
(b)
58
Figure 6.2 shows a section passing through the earth’s centre. It can be seen that the level and
horizontal lines through the instrument diverge. This divergence between the level line and
horizontal line over a specified distance is known as the curvature, C. This is caused by level
lines following the curvature of the earth which is defined by the mean sea level.
Refraction
When considering the divergence between level and horizontal line, one must also account for
the fact that all sight lines are refracted downward by the earth’s atmospheric conditions. That
is, the effect of atmospheric refraction on a line of sight is to bend it towards the earth’s surface
causing staff readings to be too low.
Note: The combined effects of curvature and refraction are negligible when undertaking
levelling where the sighting length is less than 120 metres. However, if longer sight length must
be used, the effects of curvature and refraction will cancel out if the sight lengths are equal.
This is the basis for all levelling work no matter how complex the particular levelling may
be.
line of collimation
0.500m
2.500m
B I2 C
I1
A
95.400m
datum
59
A is known as the back sight (BS) and B is known as the fore sight (FS) if level
instrument is at I1.
B is known as the back sight and C is known as the fore sight if level instrument is at I2.
On and on it goes.
Point B is called a change point (CP) since at point B a foresight is taken followed by a
backsight reading.
In practice, a BS is the first reading taken after the instrument has been set up and is
always to a point of known or calculated reduced level. Conversely, a FS is the last
reading taken before the instrument is moved. Any readings taken between the BS and
FS from the same instrument position are known as intermediate sights (IS).
2.500m and 0.500m are the respective readings observed on the staff at stations A and
B. In all cases, the back-station is observed on a known reduced level (RL).
Back-sight (BS) = 2.500m
Foresight (FS) = 0.500m
If RL at A = RLA = 95.400m
Then RL at B = RLB = 95.400 + (2.500 - 0.500) = 97.400m
60
6.4 Field booking and reduction of levels
Figure 6.4 will be used in demonstrating the field bookings and the reduction of the levels. Two
methods of booking and reduction of levels will be discussed, i.e. the rise and fall method and
the height of collimation method.
61
1.169
Checks:
Checks to be performed for the rise and fall method are as follows:
Adjustment:
Adjustments to be performed for the rise and fall method are as follows:
The difference between the calculated and known values of the RL of the final Bench Mark (BM)
is -0.006m. This is known as the misclosure.
Since the misclosure is -0.006m, it implies that the total adjustment is +0.006m. This must
be distributed to all the RL’s.
Correction Cn to be applied to a reduced level obtained from the n th instrument station is given
by
Cn = n x correction per station
62
2.513 51.074 +0.004 51.078 D
1.752 2.811 52.528 50.776 +0.004 50.780 E (CP)
3.824 48.704 +0.006 48.710 TBM 48.710
Checks:
Checks to be performed for the height of collimation method are as follows:
The critical difference between rise and fall and height of collimation methods:
The rise and fall method is quicker to reduce where a lot of backsights and foresights have
been taken and very few intermediate sights taken. For this reason, the rise and fall
method tends to be used when establishing control when no intermediate sights would
normally be taken.
The collimation method is quicker to reduce where a lot of intermediate sights have been
taken since fewer calculations are required and it is a good method to use when setting out
levels where, usually, many readings are taken from each instrument position. A
disadvantage of this method is that the check can be lengthy.
63
6.5 Precision of levelling
When the actual and allowable misclosures are compared and it is found that the actual value is
greater than the allowable value, the levelling should be repeated. If, however, the actual value
is less than the allowable value, the misclosure should be distributed equally between the
instruments positions as already described.
Frequently the reduced levels of points above the height of instrument are required. For
example: the soffit of a bridge or underpass; the underside of a canopy; the levels of roof,
caves, buildings etc. Generally, these points will be above the line of collimation. To obtain the
reduced levels of such points, the staff is held upside down in an inverted position with its base
on the elevated point.
When booking an inverted staff reading it is entered in the levelling table with a minus sign.
The calculation proceeds in the normal way, taking the minus sign into account.
6.7 Contouring
Contouring is art of showing relief features on a flat sheet of paper. This is because both the
height and shape of the land surface can be specifically shown.
Contours are lines drawn on maps to join places of equal heights above or below sea level.
For example, on a topographic map, a 500-ft contour line means the line joins points on the
land that are 500 ft above sea level.
(i) Contour lines are continuous lines within the areas they cover;
(ii) Contour lines do not meet or cross each other;
(ii) A contour line do not split into other contours or join any other contour line;
(iii) Widely spaced contours indicate a gentle slope;
64
(iv) Contours which are closer together indicate steep slopes and contours which are
evenly spaced indicate uniform slope.
Characteristically, contours are indicated by brown curved lines on maps. Every fifth contour
line is thickened to facilitate easy reading. The interval between two contours, i.e. vertical
interval (VI), is constant on the same map. Contour maps are used in obtaining sections (i.e.
cross sections and longitudinal sections). Sectioning is usually undertaken for construction work
such as road works, railways and pipelines. Two types of section are often necessary and these
are longitudinal and cross sections. A longitudinal section (or profile) is taken along the
complete length of the proposed centre line of the construction showing the existing ground
level. Cross sections are taken at right angles to the centre line such that information is
obtained over the full width of the proposed construction.
The difference in height between successive contours is known as the contour or vertical
interval and this interval dictates the accuracy to which the ground is represented.
6.7.3 Gradients
For example, using figure 6.12, the gradient of the ground between the points A and C is:
D A C
E = AB = Vertical Interval
40
BC30 Horizontal Equivalent
20
10
0
60
40
A
20 65
C
B
0
Figure 6. 5: Gradient and profile
Direct contouring:
In this method, the position of particular contour is located on the ground and marked using
a level instrument. Using this method, the contour lines are physically followed on the
ground. Two distinct operations can be used in this method:
a. Levelling
The height of collimation (= reduced level at observed station + backsight reading at
observed station) of the levelling instrument is first of all determined. Staff-man holds
the staff facing the instrument and backs slowly until prompted by observer for a
particular reading on the staff. Pegs are positioned are the various prompted points
which will indicate a particular contour line.
b. Survey of the pegs
Here the plan positions of the pegs are established to allow plotting to take place. On a
smaller site, chain lines and offset can be used to survey these pegs. On a larger site,
compass, Theodolite or tacheometric traverse can be employed. The plan positions of
the contours are then plotted directly onto the site plan and smooth curves drawn
through them.
Indirect contouring:
When using this method, no attempt is made to follow the contour lines. Instead, a series of
spot levels is taken and the contour positions are interpolated. Three distinct positions are
involves:
66
a. Setting out grid
In this method, the area to be contoured is carefully divided into a series of lines that
form squares. The interval of the grid lines depends on the contour interval.
The area to be contoured is divided into a series of lines forming squares and ground
levels are taken at the intersection of the grid lines. The sides of the squares can vary
from 5 to 30 m, the actual figure depending on the accuracy required and on the nature
of the ground surface. The more irregular the ground surface the greater the
concentration of grid points.
b. Levelling
Levels are taken at the intersections of the grid lines. The reduced level of every point
on the grid is obtained.
To obtain the ground level at each grid point the person holding the staff lines the staff
in with the two ranging rods in each direction that intersect at the point being levelled,
and a reading is taken. The procedure is repeated at all grid points.
This is done mathematically or graphically. With the mathematical method, the positions
of the contours are interpolated mathematically from the reduced level by simple
proportions. The height difference between each spot height is calculated and used with
the horizontal distance between them to calculate the position on the line joining the
spot heights at which the required contour is located
Contour maps are used in obtaining sections (i.e. cross sections and longitudinal sections). For
example, it is possible to use contours to obtain sectional information for use in the initial
planning of such projects as roads, pipelines, earthworks and reservoirs. These sections are
used in earthworks.
6.3 Sectioning
Contour maps are used in obtaining sections (i.e. cross sections and longitudinal sections).
Sectioning is usually undertaken for construction work such as road works, railways and
67
pipelines. Two types of section are often necessary and these are longitudinal and cross
sections. A longitudinal section (or profile) is taken along the complete length of the proposed
centre line of the construction showing the existing ground level. Cross sections are taken at
right angles to the centre line such that information is obtained over the full width of the
proposed construction.
In surveying, a longitudinal section (or profile) is taken along the complete length of the
proposed centre line of the construction showing the existing ground level. Cross sections taken
at right angles to the centre line such that information is obtained over the full width of the
proposed construction. Levelling can be used to measure heights at points on the centre line so
that the profile can be plotted.
Generally, this type of section provides data for determining the most economic formation level,
this being the level to which existing ground is formed by construction methods. The fieldwork
in longitudinal sectioning normally involves two operations.
Firstly, the centre line of the section must be set out on the ground and marked with
pegs. For most works, this is done by theodolite and some form of distance
measurement so that pegs are placed at regular intervals (frequently 20 m) along the
centre line.
Secondly as soon as the centre line has been established levelling can commence.
For longitudinal sections, it is usually sufficiently accurate to record readings to the nearest 0.01
m. Levels are taken at the following points, the object being to survey the ground profile as
accurately as possible:
1. At the top and ground level of each centre line peg noting the through chainage of the
peg.
2. At points on the centre line at which the ground slope changes.
3. Where features cross the centre line, such as fences, hedges, roads, pavements, ditches
and so on. At points where, for example, roads or pavements cross the centre line,
levels should be taken at the top and bottom of kerbs. At ditches and streams, the levels
at the top and bottom of any banks as well as bed levels are required.
68
4. Where necessary, inverted staff readings to underpasses and bridge soffits would be
taken.
In order to be able to plot levels obtained in addition to those taken at the centre line pegs, the
position of each extra point on the centre line must be known. These distances are recorded by
measurement with a tape, the tape being positioned horizontally between appropriate centre
line pegs. The method of booking longitudinal sections should always be by the height of
collimation method since many intermediate sights will be taken. Distances denoting chainage
should be recorded for each level and most commercially available level books have a special
column for this purpose. Careful booking is required to ensure that each level is entered in the
level book with the correct chainage. Good use should be made of the 'remarks' column in this
type of levelling so that each point can be clearly identified when plotting.
A longitudinal section provides information only along the centre line of a proposed project. For
works such as sewers or pipelines, which usually are only of a narrow extent in the form of a
trench cut along the surveyed centre line, a longitudinal section provides sufficient data for the
construction to be planned and carried out. However, in the construction of other projects such
as roads and railways, existing ground level information at right angles to the centre line is
required. Taking cross sections provides this. These are sections taken at right angles to the
centre line such that information is obtained over the full width of the proposed construction.
For the best possible accuracy in sectioning a cross-section should be taken at every point
levelled on the longitudinal section. Since this would involve a considerable amount of
fieldwork, this rule is generally not observed and cross-sections are, instead, taken at regular
intervals along the centre line usually where pegs have been established. A right angle is set
out at each cross-section either by eye for short lengths or by theodolite for long distances or
where greater accuracy is needed. A ranging rod is placed on either side of the centre line to
mark each cross-section.
The longitudinal section and the cross-sections are usually levelled in the same operation.
Starting at a temporal benchmark (TBM), levels are taken at each centre line peg and at
intervals along each cross-section. These intervals may be regular, for example, 6m, 20 m, 30
m on either side of the centre line peg or, where the ground is undulating, levels should be
69
taken at all changes of slope such that a good representation of existing ground level is
obtained over the full width of the construction. The process is continued taking both
longitudinal and cross-section levels in the one operation and the levelling is finally closed on
another known point. Such a line of levels can be very long and can involve many staff readings
and it is possible for errors to occur at stages in the procedure. The result is that if a large miss-
closure is found all the levelling will have to be repeated, often a soul destroying task.
Therefore, to provide regular checks on the levelling it is good practice to include points of
known height such as traverse stations at regular intervals in the line of levels and then, if a
large discrepancy is found.
A map view looks at the surface of the earth from overhead. Contour maps use the contour
lines to represent the third dimension of elevation. Another view of the earth is a profile view. A
profile or cross section shows a cut through the earth. The top line on the cross section or
profile represents the surface of the earth. We can apply this alteration of perspective to
contour maps. From the information provided by the contour map, we can produce a cut across
this surface into the earth and, thus, show a side view like a silhouette or skyline. Specifically,
this illustration is called a topographic profile.
A topographic profile is a diagram that shows the change of elevation of the land surface along
a given line. As indicated above, it represents graphically the skyline viewed from a distance.
The vertical scale is the scale used to plot the elevation. It is usually larger than the horizontal
or map scale, exaggerated, in order to emphasize the difference in the relief. The maximum
relief is the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points.
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If a graph is not provided, construct the horizontal line for your profile of the SAME LENGTH
as your profile (unless a different horizontal scale is to be used for the profile.) Generally,
the same horizontal scale is used. Prepare the VERTICAL SCALE by lightly drawing lines
parallel to your horizontal base line on the proper scale for each of the elevations to be
represented. Label these lines with the correct elevations starting one or two intervals below
the lowest elevation that will be plotted (lowest elevation on the profile). Thus, the side
represents a kind of graphic scale.
Place the edge of the strip of paper with the labelled contour lines at the bottom of the
profile base line and project each contour and feature to the horizontal line of the same
elevation. Put a small dot at the intersection of these two lines.
Connect all of the points with a smooth line being careful to show all hilltops at the proper
height and all valleys and depressions at their correct approximate values.
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6.4 Questions
List the differences between the direct method and the indirect method.
Indicate also where a method more applicable than the other.
Briefly describe the graphical interpolation of contours.
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KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
B. Sc. (Civil & Geological Engineering) Second Semester Examination, 2008
Second Year
May, 2008 GE 282 PRINCIPLES OF LAND SURVEYING Three (3) Hours
SECTION A
1. Surveys covering areas so large that the spherical or spheroidal shape of the earth has to be taken into
account are called . . . . . . .
(a) Mining surveys
(b) Geodetic surveys
(c) Plane surveys
(d) Engineering surveys
2. . . . . . . are carried out for the production of plans showing property boundaries and sizes of tracts of
land required for assessment of properties and computation of land taxes.
(a) Cadastral surveys
(b) Construction surveys
(c) Hydrographic surveys
(d) Topographic surveys
4. Discrepancy denotes
(a) the absolute nearness of measured quantities to their true values.
(b) the difference between two measured values of the same quantity.
(c) the degree of consistency of a group of measurements.
(d) the spread of the measured values of a quantity.
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IV. vertical angles.
Which of the above is/are correct?
(a) I and II only.
(b) II and III only.
(c) I and IV only.
(d) All of the above
A line AB is measured in three sections AX, XY, and YB using a fiberglass tape of nominal length 20 m.
The tape was read to the nearest 0.01 m and distances obtained for the three sections AX, XY, and YB
were 79.45 m, 8.70 m, and 126.35 m, respectively.
There is a constant slope from A to X and from Y to B, and stepping was carried out between X and Y
due to very steep ground. The reduced levels of points A, X, Y, and B are 37.62 m, 32.14 m, 19.47 m,
and 20.21 m, respectively. Before measurement, the tape was measured against a reference steel tape
and found to be 20.015 m.
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Use this information to answer questions 9 – 15.
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(c) - 0.002 m.
(d) + 0.002 m.
16. A plot of land measures 45 cm 2 on a plan of scale 1:2500. What is the equivalent area of the plot on
the ground?
(a) 28,125.00 m2
(b) 281.250 m2
(c) 28.125 m2
(d) 112.50 m2
17. A triangular plot measures 60 m by 50 m by 36 m on the ground. When plotted on a plan of scale
1:P, its equivalent area on the plan is 143.786 mm2. What is the value of P?
(a) 5,000
(b) 500
(c) 2,500
(d) 250
20. The horizontal angle measured clockwise from the true meridian to a line is
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(a) the true magnetic bearing of the line.
(b) the true meridian of the line.
(c) the true bearing of the line.
(d) the true declination of the line.
21. Find the quadrantal bearing of a line whose whole circle bearing is 157° 46′ 25″.
(a) N 12° 13′ 35″ W
(b) S 22° 13′ 35″ E
(c) S 22° 46′ 25″ W
(d) N 12° 46′ 25″ E
22. The bearing of a line AB is 175° 45′ 27″. What is the back-bearing of the line BA?
(a) 355° 45′ 27″
(b) - 4° 14′ 33″
(c) 175° 45′ 27″
(d) 175° 45′ 27″ �180°
.
23. The left-hand angle at a traverse station is
(a) the horizontal angle measured clockwise from the back station to the forward station.
(b) the vertical angle measured clockwise from the back station to the forward station.
(c) the horizontal angle measured clockwise from the forward station to the back station.
(d) the horizontal angle measured anticlockwise from the back station to the forward station.
24. The bearings of two lines PQ and PT are 060° 45′ 27″ and 290° 30′ 42″ respectively. Calculate the
clockwise angle TPQ.
(a) 229° 45′ 15″
(b) 130° 14′ 45″
(c) 069° 29′ 18″
(d) 351° 16′ 09″
26. The true bearing of a line is given as 169° 29′ 18″. This line is to be traced by using a compass when
the magnetic declination is 6° 35′ W. What should be the reading on the compass to observe this line?
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(a) 169° 29′ 18″
(b) 169° 35′ 53″
(c) 162° 54′ 18″
(d) 176° 04′ 18″
Table 1 below shows a Surveyor’s spirit levelling bookings (all values recorded in metres). After exposure
to rain, some of the entries have become illegible as indicated by the letters X, W, T, Q, Y, and K. Use
the information in Table 1 to answer questions 28 – 38.
Table 1:
Intermediate Height of Initial Reduced
Backsight Foresight Remarks
sight Collimation Level
1.862 T Peg 3
Y 32.305 Peg 5
K 31.397 BM B (31.400 m)
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(a) 10
(b) 5
(c) 3
(d) 2
31. At which instrument station was the greatest number of staff readings taken?
(a) First
(b) Second
(c) Third
(d) Fourth
32. Which of the following sets of readings were taken from the same instrument position?
(a) 1.612, 2.312, 1.715, W
(b) 1.612, W, 1.957
(c) W, 1.862, 1.988
(d) 2.312, 1.862, Y, 1.859
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34. The values of Y and Q are respectively
(a) 32.110 m, 1.672 m.
(b) 1.762 m, 32.110 m
(c) 1.672 m, 32.110 m
(d) 32.110 m, 0.195 m
37. Calculate the correction to be applied to the initial reduced level of Peg 5.
(a) - 0.003 m
(b) +0.002 m
(c) - 0.002 m
(d) +0.003 m
The coordinates of two traverse stations A and B are given in Table 2 below.
Table 2
Station Northing (m) Easting (m)
M 894.25 450.78
P 674.85 735.68
Use the information in Table 2 to answer questions 39 – 41.
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39. What is the latitude of line MP?
(a) 219.40 m
(b) 284.90 m
(c) – 219.40 m
(d) – 284.90 m
40. What is the departure of line PM?
(a) 284.90 m
(b) – 284.90 m
(c) 219.40 m
(d) – 219.40 m
Table 3 below shows an incomplete computation of coordinates of traverse stations for closed loop
traverse ABCDEA. Moreover, after exposure to rain, some of the entries have become illegible as
indicated by the letters Z, R, and H. Given the northing and easting coordinates of station A as 1500.00
m and 2000.00 m respectively, use the table to answer questions 42 – 49.
1500.00 2000.00 A
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43. Calculate the latitude of line BC corresponding to the value of R.
(a) – 197.57 m
(b) – 111.91 m
(c) – 191.57 m
(d) +84.95 m
44. What is the bearing of the traverse leg DA?
(a) 29° 37′ 20″
(b) 330° 22′ 40″
(c) 150° 22′ 40″
(d) 209° 37′ 20″
46. What is the fractional misclosure of the traverse corrected to the nearest hundred?
(a) 1 : 8,000
(b) 1 : 2,000
(c) 1 : 200
(d) 1 : 14,700
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50. The coordinates of a triangular parcel ABC are given by A(50mN,200mE), B(120mN,150mE), and
D(300mN, 175mE). Compute the area of the parcel.
(a) 32,350 m2
(b) 5,625 m2
(c) 16,175 m2
(d) 64,700 m2
1. (a) State Simpson’s rule for determining areas of irregular figures and give three (3) conditions under
which the formula may be used.
(b) Figure 1 below shows a parcel of land consisting of a regular section ABCD (with indicated
dimensions) and an irregular portion ADE. Side AB is perpendicular to side BC, and AD is parallel
to BC.
A D
137.20 m
77.36 m
Figure 1
B 110.00 m C
By using the Simpson’s rule, compute the area of the parcel in hectares.
(b) Draw a 3 cm grid of the data below and plot the 76th and above contours at 2 m vertical interval.
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74.0 74.0 77.0 78.0 90.5
(b) During stadia tacheometry work in a detail survey of KNUST campus, a theodolite having a
multiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of 0 was correctly centred and levelled at
a height of 1.490 m above a traverse station Q of reduced level 46.870 m. A levelling staff was
held vertically at a traverse station P to provide a reference direction and then at the bases of
two electric poles labelled D and L in turn. The readings shown in Table 4 were taken.
Table 4
Staff position Staff reading (m) Vertical circle reading Horizontal circle reading
P - - 000° 00' 00"
Electric pole D 1.981, 1.497, 1.013 90° 08' 20" 169° 33' 45"
Electric pole L 1.773, 1.456, 1.142 88° 13' 00" 275° 12' 25"
Given that the coordinates of station Q are 721.33 m E, 619.47 m N, and the whole circle bearing
of the line PQ is 218° 12' 20", compute:
(i) the reduced levels at the bases of electric poles D and L;
(ii) the horizontal distances of lines QD and QL;
(iii) the bearings of lines QD and QL;
(iv) the latitudes and departures of QD and QL;
(v) the coordinates of the bases of electric poles D and L.
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