Residual s t r e s s e s in cold-rolled profiles

Jacques Rondal,
Doctor in Applied Sciences, Civil Engineer, Associate Professor, University of Liege, Belgium.

Abstract
Structural steel members obtained by cold.forming have become more and more popular in steel constructiort They allow for
lightening the weight and thus provide appreciable savings over conventional hot.rolled sections.
Cold. forming leads to changes in the main structural characteristics of the virgin materiaL Among them the increase of the
yield strength due to strain.hardening and of the ultimate strength due to strain.ageing and the birth of residual stresses which
play an important role in the behaviour of the profiles under compression loads.
The aim of the paper is to propose a theoretical method for predicting residual stresses due to cold.rolling. The numerical
results obtained lead to a better knowledge of the characteristics of the cold.rolling (elastic spring.back, effect of the ratio of the
thickness versus the radius of the comer, distribution and size of the residual stresses with respect to the dimensions of the
profiles).

I n t r o d u c t i o n account of the effects of residual stresses on the ultimate

In steel construction, three main families of structural
members are used.
Hot-rolled shapes belong to the first family; they are of
c o m m o n use and were born at the same time as the steel
construction itself. The second family contains built-up
members, ie. members c o m p o s e d by plates which are
connected by bolts, rivets or welding. The third family is
perhaps less familiar, though of growing importance: the
cold-formed sections, obtained from steel sheets by roll
forming or by press braking (11.
Compared with hot-rolled shapes, cold-formed steel
structural members provide interesting advantages in
building construction(2~:
- more especially for relatively low Ioadings and/or short
spans, an important weight saving can be obtained;
- it is easy to produce sections, the shapes of which are
unusual but are appropriate to the function of the
profile;
- nestable sections can be obtained easily, allowing for
compact packaging and economical transportation;
- the light weight simplifies handling and erection;
- many secondary operations can take place which are
associated directly to the forming (piercing, notching,
marking, painting...).
in contrast to hot-rolled steel m e m b e r s which are
subject to residual cooling stresses, cold-formed profiles
are affected by deformational residual stresses in both
longitudinal and transverse directions (31. These residual
stresses play an important role when the structure is
subject to fatigue or stability problems and new EEC
recommendations for the design of steel structures take
load of structure(4).
]'he distribution and the amplitude of the residual
stresses much depend on the fabrication process of the
section. Cold-formed sections can be produced:
- either by a discontinuous process, for small series of
sections, with a leaf press brake (Figure I a) or a coin
press brake (Figure l b);
- or by a continuous forming, for more important series,
by passing through successive pairs of rolls (Figure
lc).
Major difficulties are met with when measuring residual
stresses in cold-formed sections. On the one hand,
measurements are allowed in a restricted number of
points only at least for profiles of small dimensions. On the
other hand, accurate measurements cannot be performed
in the rounded parts of the sections, although these areas
are subject to large residual stresses when cold-formed
and are therefore worthwhile investigating. In the fiat
areas, measurements can be made more easily; but the
accuracy is rather small because of the reduced amplitude
of the residual stresses.
Any attempt to theoretical determining of residual
stresses would therefore be welcome. The theoretical
methods aimed to this purpose will not depend, contrary
to experimental methods, on the size of the specimens
and will allow for Darametric studies, with the result of a
better understanding of the influence of the variables
respectively and of the history of the onset of residual
stresses. Theoretical methods may nevertheless require
some calibration. Therefore, the validity of any theoretical
method must be checked by comparing the theoretical

150 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol, 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987

 I
II \
iI
s~"
/ " x~xx~ 11\
i! S ~
~ ~ ~s~
~ "~x~
• , ~

a. leaf press braking b.coin press braking

C. cold roll forming machine

Cold-forming machines; (a) leaf press braking; (b) coin press baking; (c) cold.roll forming machine

results to the experimental; conclusions can then be
drawn either about the accuracy of the method or about
the range of validity of the latter.
Predicting methods of residual stresses have been
suggested by several authors for fabrication procedures
other than cold-rolling: Plumier for welded ! sections ml,
ingvarsson for sections produced by press-brakingl6) and
Kato for welded hollow sections ~3~.
In the frame of the present study, it will be referred to the
simple model of a rounded corner obtained by elasto-
plastic bending and a subsequent equilibrium of the
stresses to account for the actual shape of the section.
Several processes - uncoiling, levelling and side trimming
- are not included here, although they result also with
residual stresses.
Roll-forming of a comer
The method used to predict residual stresses due to cold-

CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987 151

 0

fu .............................
• •

mq) m©

• \.~./
E

~e ~p ~u
Fig 3 Forming of a corner by pure
Fig 2 Stress.strain diagram of the material bending

~ ,~
/
/
/
~ ~

f
, ~ . ~ / t ~
.... - ....",,/ /
/ ! "~" ~
¢;z.-. ,~

f /
/
-~ - / ~ 1 - ' / ~ " x, /
/
i..'1" /
I •

I /
/
/ /
/ /
/
/
\.,o~. /. j

Fig 4 Notations

forming is based on the following assumptions:

- the strain-stress relationship is represented by a tri- ~, = 0 (3)
linear law with an isotropic strain-hardening (F~lure 2); As shown in F i g u r e 4, a polar co-ordinates system is
- as sugessted by Karren (71, the forming of a corner is used, so that p can vary from 0 to the thickness t with a
assumed to be obtained from a pure bending (Figure view to define any fibre.
.~). The method describes the history of the cold-roll
- the cold-roll forming used for a steel sheet of long forming of the comer (incremental increase of the
length, justifies the assumption of plane strain, ie: curvature from 0 to the final inside radius r) with account
(Figure 4) taken of the elastic spring-back at the end of the
process.
de z = 0 (1) The general flow-chart of the method is plotted in
F i g u r e 5. T h e main steps are as follows:
with, because of the continuity of the manufacturing
procedure: aj Data and initial values:
The data are:
*z = 0 (2) - the inside radius r of the comer to be reached after
forming;
In addition the radial direct stresses are negligible: - the coil thickness t;

152 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987

 Oafa : r, f, f y , f u , ~ p , ~ u , Nf

INc
go= f/2, c=0
= Inf.[5.10 6, f/(r.fy)], dc=l/(r.N¢)

t
Ic--c d l
t

t
(9 - % ) d e
d¢¢(i)= (l+9c)(l+goC+godC)

t
1
I
,

~N . @ d=l/c
f
~°- Inl(d+f)/d]

'~ ¥ " ~

o¢1i)+o¢1i+1) . f .~ +
Do i=l,Nf : A He(i) = --[( i-1
2 Nf Nf 2 Nt

= He r"= d+ go
H e = ~ & He(i)
i=1 t. ( f/2-go) .210000 1+6

d~ =1~-- ~-I
r

-~= (i-1)fin t
~)÷ r"
[n[(r+~)/r]
o~(i)= He
Do i:l,Nt+l: t
t(r+g) t/2-~ r
tn[{ r+t)/r]
ore~i) = ~ (i) ÷ oe(1) ge~i) : oli)
e O ¢ z z

Fig 5 General flow-chart of the method

CONSTRUCTION& BUILDINGMATERIALSVol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER1987 153

- the parameters of the stress-strain diagram of the
material (f~, f,, ep, e,) (Figure 5); I
the number of layers, Nt, across the plate thickness.
-

Newton and millimetre are the units used in the

program. Several applications show that Nt = 40 is a \.
suitable value. The computation is started with a fiat plate,
ie. a zero curvature (c = 0) and a neutral axis at mid-depth
of the plate (po -- t/2). The incremental curvature dc is
\ /.
given by

dc = 1/rNc (4)
o
where N c is determined so that the associated increase of
circumferential stress at each step does not exceed 2% of
the yield stress; such a tdck is required by the necessity to
detect the end of the elastic range in the fibres with a
sufficient accuracy.

b) Increase of the circumferential strain and location of

the netrual axis: Fig 6 Effect of an increase of the curvature
As demonstrated in (8), the increase of circumferential
strain in the fibre i (Figure 6), that is associated to the
curvature increment dc, is: c) Stresses and strains:
In each fibre the behaviour is successively elastic, plastic
P,- Po dc and strain hardening. The flow-chart dealing with the
d~,(O = 1 + p,c 1 + poc + podc (5) computation of stresses and strains is drawn in Figure 7;
the generalised Hooke's law and the Prandtl-Reuss
equations are used(gL
where, Po, that determines the location of the neutral axis,
shifts towards the inside fibre as a result of the curvature d) Elastic spring-back:
and is given by: The 'active' part of the cold-roll forming is followed by an
unloading (because of the bending moment vanishes),
t 1 that yields a stress redistribution in the cross section and
Po = ]/c + t c (6) thus a change in curvature. This unloading is elastic and is
In produced by a bending moment equal but of opposite
i/c
y~ N

tasfi[ behav Piasfi: behaviour ~ Isotropic ha

I

d~z(i) =69231 dE®(i} de(i)= d~c(i}.o~[i)/lo~li}-~-oz{i)) LJ =(fo-fy)l{Eo-Ep)

P
d%{i)= 3.333 doz(i) do~(i) = (LJ ,/~ O~3)dE¢(i)
,"olil =
dE~(;) : -0.429dE®(i) dEPr(1) = ( d~p(i)/o,( i))[- ~ (%( i} +o, (~)) ] do [i)= 3.3~3 d~ ~)
m z'
~li) : ~(i)+ d%(i) dj;) = d~ ~ • d~(~) ~E~r(~)=-0 L29 dz~(~)

~I~l: ~{il, ~C(il ~P~(i) : ~P~ (i) + d~P~(h e~¢(i}=e~(~) .dee {~)
~(~) = E~([)~ ~(i) =~ {i)~ ~P~(;) ~ {~}=~ {~}+ d~", ~)
E {~)=£e (~)+ Ep{~) E¢ (~} mE e¢ []) + Ep@ {~)
Er(i) : E~[E) r r r
%(~) = %Ii)+ d%(i) ~ ( ~ ) = ~ (~) ~r (~) =Er~ (i} + erp (i)
% (i~ =% (i} +d% (~)
~zIi) = ~z(il + d~z(i)
£ep(i) : ~E~(;)+Er2{i ) -£~ (i} Zr (i)
az(i ) =a=t;)+da= (i)
~(i) : ~o~(i/+~zZIi)-%(i)'o:(;)
o, { ~ ) = ~ ( ~ ) ~ ( ~ } - ~ = ~(~)~z (~)
~p(i) = &~d(i}+~(~)~
~ ~ -~(;)'~(~[
~p
(i):~(i)-~ r ~
(E)~r (;)

Fig 7 Flow-chart of the subroutine 'CALDECO'

154 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987

sign to that reached at the end of the active part of the 0
forming.
The unloading bending moment is obtained by adding
the elementary bending moments (Figure 8):

'
2 ~ (i-l) ~ + (7)

and 0
P

tv/e = z ,~ Me (/) (8)

i=]

The associated relative angular variation is:

A

"T

& = ,~de = Me (9) Fig 8 Calculation of the bending moment

de t(~- po) E

- in accordance with the theory of curved beams, the

neutral axis, shifts towards the inside fibre but remains,
The radius of curvature after unloading is then:
nevertheless, rather close to the mid-depth because of
plastic yielding in the cross-section;
r+po - the ~ and ~rz stresses before elastic unloading are
r' -- l+5 Po nearly identical, but of opposite sign, in the extreme
fibres;
the ¢, and ~z stresses before elastic unloading on the
When (r' - r) is in excess with respect to the fabrication
-

tolerances, an additional forming is applied (Figure 5). one hand, and the circumferential residual stresses o~
on the other hand are nearly proportional to the yield
The stresses associated with the unloading bending
stress of the material. Therefore, the diagrams here-
moment are:
after were only drawn for fy = 355 N / m m 2.
Circumferential stresses reached before and after
e (P~- Po) elastic unloading are given in Figure 9 for four steel
~ (0 =Me (11 ) grades and two values of the radius of curvature.
t( ~ - Po) (r + p,.) Figure I0 shows the evolution of the circumferential
residual stresses in the four extreme points with respect to
the relative radius of curvatures, when the o-- ¢ diagram is
or, account taken of (6): assumed to be elastic-perfectly plastic. It is observed that
the location where the maximum residual tensile stress is
t reached depends on the relative radius of curvature.
p~+r-
r+t The results obtained can be of great interest not only for
In
e f the researcher, who has thus a better knowledge on the
~ (0 = Mo
(12) onset of residual stresses due to cold-roll forming, but also
t(r+ ,,) ( ~ + r- tt+ r) for the manufacturer, who is now able to specify a
In F minimum ductility of the material with respect to forming
requirements (maximum strain that will be reached), to
e) Residual stresses in the corner. know the amplitude of the bending moment to be
The circumferential residual stresses in the comer are developed and of the elastic spring-back with the result of
obtained by superimposing the stresses associated to the better dimensional accuracy.
loading and the unloading respectively, ie. For an elastic-perfect plastic material, the maximum
strain in the corner is reached in the inside fibre and does
not depend on the material yield stress fy (Figure 1 laj. On
res (i) =¢q~ (i) + ~r ~e (i) base of numerous simulations, the maximum strain can
~q~ (13) be expressed as a simple function of the relative radius
r/t:

Some conclusions can be drawn from the numerical

results obtained accordingly: e~ (~) = 40 (r/t )-o.~ (]4)

CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987 155

 O(plfy oe/fy
9It 91t
1.00 . . . . . . . _---- O(Nlmm
I 1.00. . . . . . . .

0.50 0.50
2SOU ~-,o
I .
~
. 5!~'°1
, ~

0.0( 0 10 20 30 0.00
I I ! I I ! ,~ ~ : I ! I

-1 0 +I -I 0+1 -~ • 1 -1 0 .1
r=Bmm r=3Okmm
o(plfy 0¢ / fy
9It ~/t
. . . . O" Nlmm2 ) 1.00 . . . . . . .

I
1.00 .....
500 /

0.50
'x
0.50 2 S 0 ~
', ~.(%)
• ~
• , , , ~

0.00 0 10 20 30 0.00
! I I ~ I I

-I 0 +I - I 0+1 _ 1~ ;.~ _~ ; .4
r=Bmm r = 30./+ m m

o'@ / fy o'¢ 1 fy
91t Pit
_--

°"ot
0.0
l I i I I I
0 10 ,
20 30 0.00 . . . . . I_
-I
I I I
0 ÷1 -I
I I
0 +I
!

-1 0 ,1 -1 0 ÷1
r=Smm r = 30./+mm
~¢ / fy °¢1 fy
)It 9It
1.00

0.5(

0.0~ __--ii
iii -4 ~ +I-I
I

r = 8 mm
I
~÷I
__'x_
~
0 10 20 30 0.00 . . . . . . .
-
~ I !

0 +I -I
I

r = 30,/+ rn rn
!

0 .I
I~

Celt: before spring-back teft :before spring-bat k

right: after spring-back right: after spring-back

Fig 9 Circumferential stresses before and after spring, back for four grades of steel (t = 6 rnm)

156 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987

 For a strain-hardening material (Figure lib), the
maximum strain is increasing with the strain value ~ at the OSres / fy
end of the yield plateau. Then the maximum strain can be
obtained by linear interpolation between both following
values:
- steel without yield plateau:
1.(
i•,•'•'•,c
i:iiiiiiii-i
e,,~(%) = 33 ° ~ fiber
externat ° ~ o A
(r/t) °.~ (!5)
02
- elastic-perfect plastic material:

(16)
e ~ ( % ) = 4 0 ( r / t ) -o.~
r/f
For an elastic-perfect plastic material, the relative I ~ ~__
maximum bending moment of forming decreases when 5 t0
r/t increases but seems to be nearly independent on the
yield stress. Usually, one has:
° ~ ' ~ o ~ , -
,D
M~.~/M~ = 1.16 to 1.20 (17)

where the plastic moment of the section is:

.0
t2 e / e ~
M~ = f. -~- (18) $/o "~"

This increase of the bending moment that is required

for the forming, in respect to the plastic moment, results
from the von Mises plasticity criterion in the plane strain
state when computing the stresses in the corner dudng
the forming. With a strain hardening material the
maximum bending moment will depend on the strain
hardening modulus Ep and on the value of the strain epat
Fig 10 Maximum values of the circumferential residua
slresses uersus the relative radius of the corner
the end of the yield plateau.
When the material is elastic-perfect plastic, the relative
change of the radius of curvature during the spring-back

Cnax(%) * fy =235N/ram 2 E~ax(%) .~p :~e

• fy :355 N/ram~ • ~p=¢%
I

¢0 x f). =800 N/m~ ¢0 x% = 10%

30 30
~~ ~max (%)=¢0( r/ t) -0~S
\ \
20
•

max(%)=¢0(r/t)-0"85 20 ; ,o,
o
10

r/t r/f
: I I : ; ; ! : ; I =-

0 1 2 3 ¢ 5 0 1 2 3 ¢ 5

a. b.
Fig 11 Maximum strain.. (a) without strain-hardening; (b) with strain-hardening

CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987 157

increases with the material yield stress and with the
relative radius of curvature (Figure 12a). This change is
obtained approximately by following expresssion
,~r/r (~) = 0.0015 f, (1.3 + r / t ) '.°e
In order to simplify the computation, the 'equilibrium
coefficients' are computed at the level of the mid-depth of
the plate and the so obtained values are used when
considering any fibre. The resulting force in the comer
(19) is:

with f~ in N/mm ~. For a strain hardening material, the F(i) = ~ (i ).

rr
-E . t (r +
~_) (22)
spring-back depends on ~ strain. The value a r/r can be
obtained by linear interpolation between both following
limit cases: The residual stresses having been equilibrated can be
- steel without yield plateau: computed from the knowledge of the force F, by means of
the normal force and the bending moment. By using the
Ar/r (~) = 0.0023 f, (~.3 + r/t ) o.~ symbols in Figure 13 and by restricting to five values on
strain-hardening material: each fiat side, one obtains:
~,r/r (56) = 0.0015 f~ (1.3 + r/t ),.oe 2
1 YG (23)
Residual stresse~ in the whole profile creS (i) = ~z(i) - F(i) [ -~ + ~ ]
In the previous section no account is taken of elastic
spring-back of the longitudinal stresses that occur in the
corner during forming. These stresses are not in equil- res
ibrium with the centroid of the whole section, which can I Y~" Yl (24)
be composed of several comers. Therefore the stresses ~fl (0=~'(0 /-~+ 722 /
must be equilibrated. As the latter depend on the shape of
the section, it is not possible to give general equilibrium
equations, which would be valid for any shape. Such
equations were established for three common shapes (L,
~(O=F(O /-7+
I Yo. Y2
77~,2 ] (25)
U, C) and are given in reference(~; only the angle will be
considered hereafter.

Ar/r(%) At/r(%)
/ + fy = 235N/ram2
x
• :

/ x f~ : 800N/ramz

,/

x / o
A t / r ( V o ) = 0.0015fy (1.3 +
r )1.o6
T

~ )=0.0o2af, 1o.~
n0 ÷ J
÷

/ • ¢= / . %
P
v. A r/r(%)= 0.0015fy(1.3+ ~)' ,~ ~=10 %
P
r/t r/f
,~ ! I ; ." ~ I I I & ~" ~--

0 1 2 3 ~+ 5 0 1 2 3 ~, 5

a. b.

Fig 12 Variation of the radius of the comer due to spring-back: (a) without strain-hardening;
(b) with strain.hardening

158 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987

 t
a res(O 1 YO" YZ r+~
f~ = F(O [ - - ~ + l~,-------~I (26) ~u,,- - - , ~c _ ~ v'~ _ ~ (do - r - t) (39)

ares(o 1 Yo. Y~
f, = F(i) [ - - ~ + -!~,,~ l (27)
~ ~r 1 4
i.~. = c~t + ct3 + ct (-~- 2 dz + r + )2 + t(r + t)z ( --~-+-~- - -~ )
12
2.Vfff (r + t)3 p ] 2
+ - ~ t (r +-~ ) [ ' ~ (d~ - r - t) + - -
3,, t(r +--~) (40)
E~~5 ]
a r~r~es(O= F(O [--~1 + ...uo. (28)

with:
9 b.t.r (29)
Y' =Y" 10 ~

7 b-t.r U t- t %
92 = Y . - I0 X~- (30)

~3=~"
5
lO ~
b-t.r
(31)
, li mean fiber

Fig I3 Notations for the calculation of the residual

stresses of an angle
3 b-t-r
Y4 = Y . I0 M~- (32)
The numerical results demonstrate that the residual
stresses are nearly identical, though of opposite sign, on
the fibres located symmetrically to the mid-depth.
1 b-t-r Residual stresses on the outer and inner fibres of an
Y5 = Y . 10 V ~ (33) angle are represented in Figures 14 and 1.5 for three
values of the wall thinness b / t Figure 14 deals with the
following set of data: fy = 3 5 5 N / m m 2, t = 6 rmT¢ r/t = 1;
where: Figure 15 is concerned with the same data except r/t
33.
c=b-t-r
(34) In both figures, residual stresses in the comer are
shown to increase when the thinness b i t grows up and
when the radius r decreases. The reverse is observed for
that about the residual stresses in the fiat parts of the
walls. When r/t = 3 and b i t -----5, that being a limiting case
A=2ct+ ~-t(r+ ) (35) in practice, the sign of the residual stresses remains the
same across the wall width, while in the other cases a sign
reversal is observed in the zone located in the vicinity of
the free edges.
2~/~ (r + t)3- P The results can be presented somewhat differently, as
So -- 3~r t ( r +~) (36) shown in Figures 16 and 17. It can be easily observed
that:
- in the corner, the absolute value of the residual stresses
decreases when b / t decreases and r/t increases;
c2_Zt
2 + c t r + ~ c F + - ~ t (~rr +-~) --~ [(r + 0 J -rJ] - in the fiat parts, the absolute value of the residual
stresses first increases and then decreases, when b i t
2 ct +-~ t (r + ) (37) decreases and r/t increases;
- residual stresses are obviously larger for the material
with strain hardening.
y o = So + V ~ (d¢- r- t) (38) Last, the influence of the shape of the section on the
distribution and the amplitude of residual stresses is
emphasised in Figure 18. More especially, one can

CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS VoI. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987 159

 ~
Hlmm 2

f ~

I! " ' ; - ' ' "=' i

- ~ ~"~'~~ r / f =1
~1_ I I ! I I I- b/f=5
H21I I I I I I_~
-

~ . C~ o ~
t
. 0 ~ ~ o •~
~ ~ ~ ~ 0
0

H/mm?

~ -

:
-
r/'r = 1
b/f = 10
I I I _[~
/~ i II _-~ [ ~ - i
-
II;It
| I l L
~ I

i b ;i,llIll-
~ a
~ ~ ~
O

t~ ~ mm 2

r/f=1

I I I
r b/f= 20

~:~ E
~ O O
z ~ ~

external f,iber interna~ fiber

Fig 14 Longitudinal residual stresses in a cold-rolled angle (r/t = 1).

160 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS V01. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987

 Nlmm 2
i

..,,j~~ "

r/f: 3
b/L: 5

.x' g. ~
i ~ ~

N/mm2

~" ~ I~

-- ~---~~
i
r/f=3
b/f = 10
:! ! !I I"l ! ! I]l' ~ ] ] ] I I I 1-
: ,. :~ ~
~_~2~ ~ ~ ~ ~_~
" ~ ~
_ . ~ ~

Nim~ 2

2 ~ e ~

~ ~

r/t: 3
_ I •
bit : 20
-
_
_
,,"
I
1~
I ~

- I I ~
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~
~ ~~ ~
~ N
~
~
~
~ ~

exferna[ f;ber ;nferna[ f;ber

Fig 15 Longitudinal residual stresses in a cold-rolled angle (r/t = 3).

CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS VoL 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987 161

 ~ ~ a c°rner
face I
ce 5
~ ,
corner

External fiber : E xt'erna[

+
fiber:
-- corner
+ corner

.... fate 1 • -.-- face 1

× ..... face 5 x ..... face5

~z r e s l f y

blf:30
÷

az res If),

0.3 b/t= 30 0.3 "

2oi\
\\
0.2 0.2 "

0,1 0.1 '

10 2~,~. --
20 ~x "" *'"
30 r/~ rlt
, -- .-_

0.0 ~ I 0,0 I I I I ,~
t
,, S 1; 1 2 3 A- 5
bit:30 ~
bit = 30
,~.
20 "X 'x.. ~,
~.
"~.
20"- ~.
X .
•
~ ,
%. ~,. .~
-0,1 '
o.1 I ~o ~k ~ .. ~ "~
-~. ~.~
.
~ ~ •~.. "~
.
~ "~ ~. "~. ~ .
"~ ~
. . • ~ ~, ~0". ~.
~ ,-~. i ~* ~. "~ '~ ~. ~
• ~ ~ , ~ • -~ ~.
~ .~ ~ "~
. ~
~'~. ~. ~ ' ~ "
,~"
0,2 " -0.2 ff .~
~ ~"

F~g 16 Longitudinal residual stresses/n a cold.rolled Fig 17 Longitudinal residual stresses in a cold.rolled
angle (steel without strain, hardening, f, = 355 angle (steel with strain-hardening, f~ = 355 N / m m ~,
N/rnm2) f, = 515 N / m m ~, ~ = 4~, E, = 500 N/mm~).

162 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS VOI. 1 NO. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987

 ~ ° ~
Z ~-"

yietd sfrength : fy=355N/mm 2

-50
r a d i u s of fhe corner: r / f = 3
0

50

100
~o ,=, o o

Z I I ~

Nlmm 2
' 100 -

Fig 18 Longitudinal residual stresses for three types of profiles (exemal fibre)

CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS Vol. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987 163

observe the stress evolution in the corners when going
from an angle to a U section and then to a C section.
Conclusions
The method presented in this paper provides a better
knowledge, very empirical at present, of the effects of the
forming method on the structural characteristics of the
final product.
This theoretical proposal gives results which, on the
one hand, are of interest for the producers of cold-profiles,
for what regards especially the amplitude of the spring-
back and the required minimum ductility of the material. It
is also of importance, when studying the behaviour of
cold-profiles under loads.
Nurnedcal results show that the residual stresses due to
cold-forming are quite different from those observed and
measured in hot-rolled common sections.
164 CONSTRUCTION & BUILDING MATERIALS VoI. 1 No. 3 SEPTEMBER 1987
References
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