CURVILINEAR COORDINATES

1. TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES.
Let the rectangular coordinate ( x, y, z ) of any point be expressed as functions of
(u1 , u 2 , u3 ) so that

(a) x = x(u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) , y = y (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) , z = z (u1 , u 2 , u 3 )

Supposed that (a) can be solved for (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) in terms of x, y, z , that is,

(b) u1 = u1 ( x, y, z ) , u 2 = u 2 ( x, y , z ) , u 3 = u 3 ( x, y , z )

The functions in (a) and (b) are assumed to be single-valued and to have
continuous derivatives so that the correspondence between ( x, y, z )
and (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) is unique.

Given a point P with rectangular coordinates ( x, y, z ) we can, from (b) associate a

unique set of coordinates (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) called the curvilinear coordinates of P.

The sets of equations (a) and (b) defined a transformation of coordinates.

2. ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES.

The surfaces u1 = c1 , u 2 = c 2 , u 3 = c3 where c1 , c 2 , c3 are constants are called

coordinate surfaces and each pair of these surfaces intersect in curves called
coordinate curves or lines .

If the coordinate surfaces intersect at right angles the curvilinear coordinate

system is called orthogonal.

The u1 ,u 2 and u 3 coordinate curves for a curvilinear system are analogous to the
x, y and z coordinate axes of a rectangular system.
3. UNIT VECTOR IN CURVILINEAR SYSTEMS

Let r = xi + yj + zk be the position vector of a point P.

Then (a) can be written r = r (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) .

∂r
A tangent vector to the u1 curve at P (for which u 2 and u 3 are constant) is .
∂u1

∂r ∂r
Let e1 be a unit tangent vector in this direction. Thus, e1 =
∂u1 ∂u1
∂r
∂r ∂u ∂r
Also, let h1 = giving e1 = 1 or e1h1 =
∂u1 h1 ∂u1

Similarly, if e 2 and e 3 are unit tangent vector to the u 2 and u 3 curves also at P
respectively, then:

∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
= h2 e 2 and = h3e 3 where h2 = and h3 =
∂u 2 ∂u 3 ∂u 2 ∂u 3

The quantities h1 , h2 , h3 are called scale factors.

The unit vectors e1 , e 2 , e 3 are in the directions of increasing u1 , u 2 , u 3 , respectively.

4. Moreover, recall that ∇u1 is a vector at P normal to the surface u1 = c1 .

 A unit vector in this direction is given by E1 = ∇u1 ∇u1

Similarly, the unit vector E 2 = ∇u 2 ∇u 2 and E 3 = ∇u 3 ∇u 3 at P are normal to

the surface u 2 = c 2 and u 3 = c3 respectively.

5. The foregoing shows that at each point P of a curvilinear system there exists, in
general, two sets of unit vectors:

• e1 , e 2 , e 3 tangent to the coordinate curves and

• E1 , E 2 , E 3 normal to the coordinate surface

The sets become identical if and only if the curvilinear coordinate system is
orthogonal .

6. Both e1 , e 2 , e 3 and E1 , E 2 , E 3 are analogous to the i, j, k unit vectors in

rectangular coordinates . However, the two sets can change directions from point
to point.

7. This means that a vector A can be represented in terms of the unit base vectors
e1 , e 2 , e 3 or E1 , E 2 , E3 in the forms:

• A = A1e1 + A2e2 + A3e3

• A = a1E1 + a2 E2 + a3E3
 Where: A1 , A2 , A3 and a1 , a 2 , a3 are the respective components of A in each
system.

∂r ∂r ∂r
8. The sets , , and ∇u1 , ∇u 2 , ∇u 3 constitute reciprocal system of vectors.
∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
A can also be represented in terms of these base vectors which are called unitary
base vectors but are not unit vectors in general. In this case

∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
• A = C1 + C2 C3 = C1α1 + C2α 2 + C3α 3 where: α p =
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∂u p
p=1,2,3

• A = c1∇u1 + c 2 ∇u 2 + c3 ∇u 3 = c1 β1 + c 2 β 2 + c3 β 3 where: β p = ∇u p
p=1,2,3

Where:
C1 , C 2 , C3 are called the contra variant components of A
c1 , c 2 , c3 are called the covariant components of A

9. ARC LENGTH

From r = r (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) , we have

 ∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = du1 + du2 + du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3

dr = h1du1e1 + h2 du2e2 + h3du3e3

The differential arc length ds can be determined from ds 2 = dr ⋅ dr

ds 2 = ( h1du1e1 + h2 du2e 2 + h3du3e3 ) ( h1du1e1 + h2 du2e 2 + h3du3e3 )

ds 2 = ( h1du1 ) e1 e1 + ( h2 du2 ) e2 e 2 + ( h3du3 ) e3 e3
2 2 2

Since e1 , e 2 , e 3 are unit vectors, e1 ⋅ e1 = e 2 ⋅ e 2 = e3 ⋅ e3 = 1

ds 2 = h12 du12 + h22 du22 + h32 du32

Note: In orthogonal systems, e1 ⋅ e 2 = e 2 ⋅ e 3 = e 3 ⋅ e1 = 0

10. Along a u1 curve, u 2 and u 3 are constants so that dr = h1 du1e1

Then ds12 = h12 du12 or ds1 = h1du1 at point P

11. Along a u 2 curve, u1 and u 3 are constants so that dr = h2 du2e2

Then ds22 = h22 du22 or ds2 = h2 du2 at point P

12. Along a u 3 curve, u1 and u 2 are constants so that dr = h3du3e3

Then ds32 = h32 du32 or ds3 = h3du3 at point P

13. VOLUME ELEMENT for an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system

Recall: volume, V = A ( BxC ) = B ( CxA ) = C ( AxB )

dV = ( h1du1e1 ) ⋅ ( h 2 du2e2 ) x ( h 3du3e3 )

dV = h1h2 h3du1du2 du3

14. GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL in curvilinear coordinates

If Φ is a scalar function and A = A1e1 + A2 e 2 + A3 e 3 a vector function of

orthogonal curvilinear coordinates u1 , u 2 , u 3 then the following results are valid:
 1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ
• ∇Φ = grad Φ = e1 + e2 + e3
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u 2 h3 ∂u 3

 ∂
(h2 h3 A1 ) + ∂ (h3 h1 A2 ) + ∂ (h1h2 A3 )
1 
• ∇ ⋅ A = divA = 
h1 h2 h3  ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3 

h1e1 h2 e 2 h2 e 3
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
• ∇ × A = curl A =
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
h1 A1 h2 A2 h3 A3

• ∇ 2 Φ = Laplacian of Φ
1  ∂  h2 h3 ∂Φ  ∂  h3h1 ∂Φ  ∂  h1h2 ∂Φ  
∇2Φ =   +  +  
h1h2 h3  ∂u1  h1 ∂u1  ∂u2  h2 ∂u2  ∂u3  h3 ∂u3  

Notice that If h1 = h2 = h3 = 1 and e1 , e 2 , e 3 are replaced by i, j, k , these reduce to

the usual expression in rectangular coordinates where (u1 , u 2 , u 3 ) is replaced
by ( x, y, z )

SPECIAL ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

15. Cylindrical Coordinates, ( ρ , φ , z )

x = ρ cos φ , y = ρ sin φ , z=z

Where: ρ ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ φ < 2π , −∞ < z < ∞

hρ = 1 , hφ = ρ , hz = 1
16. Spherical Coordinates, (r ,θ , φ )

x = r sin θ cos φ , y = r sin θ sin φ , z = r cos θ

Where: r ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ φ < 2π , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
hr = 1 , hθ = r , hφ = r sin θ

17. Parabolic Cylindrical Coordinates, (u , v, z )

x=
2
(
1 2 2
u −v , ) y = uv , z=z

Where: −∞ < u < ∞ v ≥ 0 , −∞ < z < ∞

hu = hv = u 2 + v 2 , hz = 1

φ φ
In cylindrical coordinates, u = 2 ρ cos , v = 2 ρ sin , z=z
2 2
18. Paraboloidal Coordinates, (u , v, φ )

x = uv cos φ , y = uv sin φ ,
2
(u − v )
1 2 2
z=
Where: u ≥ 0 , v ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ φ < 2π
hu = hv = u 2 + v 2 , hφ = uv

Two sets of coordinate surfaces are obtained by revolving the parabolas under
Parabolic Cylindrical Coordinates about the x-axis then renaming the axis as z-axis.
The third set of coordinates are planes passing through this axis.

19. Elliptic Cylindrical Coordinates, (u , v, z )

 x = a cosh u cos v , y = a sinh u sin v , z=z

Where: u ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ v < 2π , −∞ < z < ∞

hu = hv = a sin h 2u + sin 2 v , hz = 1

Note: The traces are confocal ellipses and hyperbolas

20. Prolate Spheroidal Coordinates, (ε ,η , φ )

x = a sinh ε sin η cos φ , y = a sinh ε sin η sin φ , z = a cosh ε cosη

Where: ε ≥ 0 , 0 ≤ η ≤ π , 0 ≤ φ < 2π
 hε = hη = a sinh 2 ε + sin 2 η , hφ = a sinh ε sin η
Two sets of coordinate surfaces are obtained by revolving the curves under Elliptic
Cylindrical Coordinates about the x-axis then renaming the axis as z-axis. The third
set of coordinates are planes passing through this axis.

21. Oblate Spheroidal Coordinates, (ε ,η , φ )

x = a cosh ε cosη cos φ , y = a cosh ε cosη sin φ , z = a sinh ε sin η
π π
Where: ε ≥ 0 , − ≤η ≤ , 0 ≤ φ < 2π
2 2
hε = hη = a sinh 2 ε + sin 2 η , hφ = a cosh ε cosη
Two sets of coordinate surfaces are obtained by revolving the curves under Elliptic
Cylindrical Coordinates about the y-axis then renaming the axis as z-axis. The third
set of coordinates are planes passing through this axis.

22. Ellipsoidal coordinates, (λ , µ ,ν )

x2 y2 v2
+ + =1 , λ < c2 < b2 < a2
a 2 − λ b2 − λ c2 − λ

x2 y2 z2
+ + =1 , c 2 < µ < b2 < a 2
a 2 − µ b2 − µ c2 − µ

x2 y2 z2
+ + =1 , c 2 < b2 < v < a 2
a 2 − v b2 − v c2 − v

hλ =
1 ( µ − λ )( v − λ ) , hµ =
1 ( v − µ )( λ − µ )
2 (a 2
)(
−λ b −λ c −λ
2
)( 2
) 2 (a 2
)( )(
− µ b2 − µ c2 − µ )

hv =
1 ( λ − v )( µ − v )
2 (a 2
)( )(
− v b2 − v c2 − v )
23. Bipolar Coordinates, (u , v, z )

x 2 + ( y − a cot u ) = a 2 csc 2 u , ( x − a coth v ) + y 2 = a 2 csc h 2v , z = z

2 2

OR
a sinh v a sin u
x= , y= , z=z
cosh v − cos u cosh v − cos u
 Where: 0 ≤ u < 2π , −∞ < v < ∞ , −∞ < z < ∞
a
hu = hv = , hz = 1
cosh v − cos u

Note: if the curves shown are revolved about the y-axis then renaming the axis as
z-axis, a toroidal coordinate system is obtained.

Examples
1. Show that a cylindrical coordinate system is orthogonal.
Recall that in orthogonal systems, e1 ⋅ e 2 = e 2 ⋅ e 3 = e 3 ⋅ e1 = 0

The position vector in the rectangular coordinate system is given by

r = xi + yj + zk
The equations defining transformation between the rectangular coordinate system
and cylindrical coordinate system are:
x = ρ cos φ , y = ρ sin φ , and z = z
Substituting in r = xi + yj + zk :

r = ρ cos φ i + ρ sin φ j + zk thus r = r ( ρ , φ , z )

∂r ∂r ∂r
The tangent vectors to the ρ , φ and z curves are: , , and respectively
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
Thus,

∂r
= cos φ i (1) + sin φ j (1) + (0)k
∂ρ
= cos φ i + sin φ j

∂r
= ρ (− sin φ )(1)i + ρ (cos φ )(1) j + (0)k
∂φ
= − ρ sin φ i + ρ cos φ j
∂r
= (0)i + (0) j + (1)k
∂z
=k

Also
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂uρ ∂uφ ∂u z
eρ = , eφ = and e z =
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂uρ ∂uφ ∂u z

cos φ i + sin φ j cos φ i + sin φ j

e1 = e ρ = = = cos φ i + sin φ j
cos φ + sin φ
2 2 1

− ρ sin φ i + ρ sin φ j ρ (− sin φ i + cos φ j) ρ (− sin φ i + cos φ j)

e2 = eφ = = = = − sin φ i + cos φ j
( ρ cos φ ) 2 + ( ρ sin φ )2 ρ 2 cos 2 φ + ρ 2 sin 2 φ ρ 2 ( cos 2 φ + sin 2 φ )

k
e3 = e z = =k
12

e1 e2 = ( cos φ i + sin φ j ) ( − sin φ i + cos φ j ) = − sin φ cos φ + sin φ cos φ = 0

e1 e3 = ( cos φ i + sin φ j ) ( k ) = cos φ (0) + sin φ (0) + (0)(1) = 0
e2 e3 = ( − sin φ i + cos φ j ) ( k ) = − sin φ (0) + cos φ (0) + (0)(1) = 0
This proves that the cylindrical coordinate system is orthogonal
2. Represent the vector A = zi − 2 xj + yk in cylindrical coordinates

Recall that any vector can be represented in the form A = A1e1 + A2e2 + A3e3 using
the base unit vectors

Thus, in cylindrical coordinates,

A = Aρ e ρ + Aφ eφ + Az e z
In problem #1, it was shown that in the cylindrical coordinate system

e1 = e ρ = cos φ i + sin φ j eqn.1

e 2 = eφ = − sin φ i + cos φ j eqn.2
e3 = e z = k eqn.3

All that needs to be done then is to determine the components Aρ , Aφ , andAz

Solve eqns. 1 and 2 simultaneously so as to fully express the vectors i and j in
terms of e ρ and eφ .

e ρ = cos φ i + sin φ j eqn.1

eφ = − sin φ i + cos φ j eqn.2
From eqn.1
cos φ i = − sin φ j + e ρ
− sin φ j + e ρ
i= eqn. 1a, substitute in eqn. 2
cos φ
− sin φ j + e ρ
eφ = − sin φ + cos φ j
cos φ

sin 2 φ j − e ρ sin φ
eφ = + cos φ j
cos φ

sin 2 φ j − e ρ sin φ + cos 2 φ j

eφ =
cos φ
eφ cos φ = sin φ j − e ρ sin φ + cos 2 φ j
2

eφ cos φ = sin 2 φ j + cos 2 φ j − e ρ sin φ

eφ cos φ = ( sin 2 φ j + cos 2 φ j ) − e ρ sin φ
eφ cos φ = ( sin 2 φ + cos 2 φ ) j − e ρ sin φ
eφ cos φ = (1) j − e ρ sin φ
 j = e ρ sin φ + eφ cos φ , eqn.2a

back substitute eqn. 2a in eqn. 1a

− sin φ (e ρ sin φ + eφ cos φ ) + e ρ

i=
cos φ

− sin 2 φ e ρ − sin φ cos φ eφ + e ρ

i=
cos φ
(e ρ − sin φ e ρ ) − sin φ cos φ eφ
2

i=
cos φ
e ρ (1 − sin φ ) − sin φ cos φ eφ
2

i=
cos φ

e ρ cos 2 φ − sin φ cos φ eφ

i=
cos φ
e cos φ sin φ cos φ eφ
2

i= ρ −
cos φ cos φ
i = e ρ cos φ − eφ sin φ eqn. 1b

Back substitute i = e ρ cos φ − eφ sin φ , j = e ρ sin φ + eφ cos φ and e z = k together

with x = ρ cos φ , y = ρ sin φ , z = z in the vector A = zi − 2 xj + yk

A = z ( e ρ cos φ − eφ sin φ ) − 2 ( ρ cos φ ) ( e ρ sin φ + eφ cos φ ) + ( ρ sin φ ) ( e z )

A = e ρ z cos φ − zeφ sin φ − 2e ρ ρ cos φ sin φ − 2eφ ρ cos 2 φ + e z ρ sin φ
( )
A = ( e ρ z cos φ − 2e ρ ρ cos φ sin φ ) − zeφ sin φ + 2eφ ρ cos 2 φ + e z ρ sin φ
A = ( z cos φ − 2 ρ cos φ sin φ ) e ρ − ( z sin φ + 2 ρ cos 2 φ ) eφ + ρ sin φ e z
Where: Aρ = ( z cos φ − 2 ρ cos φ sin φ )
Aφ = − ( z sin φ + 2 ρ cos 2 φ )
Az = ρ sin φ

3. Find the square of the element of arc length in cylindrical coordinates and show
that the scale factors are hρ = 1 , hφ = ρ , hz = 1

Recall that the square of the element ds is given by:

ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 eqn. 1
Also, x = ρ cos φ , y = ρ sin φ , z = z from which

dx = ρ (− sin φ dφ ) + cos φ d ρ = − ρ sin φ dφ + cos φ d ρ

dy = ρ cos φ dφ + sin φ d ρ
dz = dz

Substituting dx,dy, and dz in eqn. 1

ds 2 = (− ρ sin φ dφ + cos φ d ρ )2 + ( ρ cos φ dφ + sin φ d ρ ) 2 + (dz ) 2

Expanding
ds 2 = (− ρ sin φ dφ ) 2 + 2(− ρ sin φ dφ )(cos φ d ρ ) + (cos φ d ρ ) 2 
+ ( ρ cos φ dφ ) 2 + 2( ρ cos φ dφ )(sin φ d ρ ) + (sin φ d ρ ) 2  + (dz ) 2

ds 2 = ρ 2 sin 2 φ dφ 2 − 2 ρ cos φ dφ sin φ d ρ + cos 2 φ d ρ 2

+ ρ 2 cos 2 φ dφ 2 + 2 ρ cos φ dφ sin φ d ρ + sin 2 φ d ρ 2 + (dz ) 2

ds 2 = ρ 2 sin 2 φ dφ 2 + cos 2 φ d ρ 2 + ρ 2 cos 2 φ dφ 2 + sin 2 φ d ρ 2 + dz 2

ds 2 = ( ρ 2 sin 2 φ dφ 2 + ρ 2 cos 2 φ dφ 2 ) + (cos 2 φ d ρ 2 + sin 2 φ d ρ 2 ) + dz 2

ds 2 = (sin 2 φ + cos 2 φ ) ρ 2 dφ 2 + (cos 2 φ + sin 2 φ )d ρ 2 + dz 2

ds 2 = (1) ρ 2 dφ 2 + (1)d ρ 2 + dz 2
ds 2 = ρ 2 dφ 2 + d ρ 2 + dz 2
ds 2 = ρ 2 dφ 2 + d ρ 2 + dz 2
ds 2 = d ρ 2 + ρ 2 dφ 2 + dz 2
ds 2 = (d ρ ) 2 + ρ 2 (dφ ) 2 + (dz ) 2 square of the element in cylindrical coordinates

The scale factors hρ , hφ , hz are the square roots of the coefficients of (d ρ ) 2 , (dφ )2 ,
and (dz ) 2 respectively

ds 2 = (d ρ ) 2 + ρ 2 (dφ ) 2 + (dz ) 2 = (h ρ ) 2 (d ρ ) 2 + (hφ ) 2 (dφ ) 2 + (hz )2 (dz )2

Thus,
hρ = 1 = 1
hφ = ρ 2 = ρ
hz = 1 = 1
4. Find the volume element dV in cylindrical coordinates

Recall that in any curvilinear coordinate system dV = h1h2 h3du1du2 du3

In Cylindrical coordinates, u1 = ρ , u2 = φ , u3 = z from which:

du1 = d ρ
du2 = dφ
du3 = dz

From problem #3, it was shown that:

h1 = hρ = 1
h2 = hφ = ρ
h3 = hz = 1

Therefore, dV = h1h2 h3du1du2 du3 = (1)( ρ )(1)(d ρ )(dφ )(dz )

dV = ( ρ )(d ρ )(dφ )(dz )

5. Express ∇ ⋅ A in cylindrical coordinates where A = zi − 2 xj + yk

Recall that the divergence of a vector A in any curvilinear coordinate system is:
1  ∂
(h2 h3 A1 ) + ∂ (h3 h1 A2 ) + ∂ (h1h2 A3 )

∇ ⋅ A = divA = 
h1 h2 h3  ∂u1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3 

In Cylindrical coordinates,
u1 = ρ
u2 = φ
u3 = z

∂u1 = ∂ρ
∂u2 = ∂φ
∂u3 = ∂z

h1 = hρ
h2 = hφ
h3 = hz

A1 = Aρ
A2 = Aφ
A3 = Az

Substituting in the div A

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ ⋅ A = divA =
1

(hρ )(hφ )(hz )  ∂ρ
( hφ hz Aρ ) +
∂φ
( hz hρ Aφ ) + ( hρ hφ Az ) 
∂z 

From Problem #2,

A = zi − 2 xj + yk = ( z cos φ − 2 ρ cos φ sin φ ) e ρ − ( z sin φ + 2 ρ cos 2 φ ) eφ + ρ sin φ e z
From which:
A1 = Aρ = ( z cos φ − 2 ρ cos φ sin φ )
( )
A2 = Aφ = − z sin φ + 2 ρ cos 2 φ = − z sin φ − 2 ρ cos 2 φ
A3 = Az = ρ sin φ

From problem #3, it was shown that:

h1 = hρ = 1
h2 = hφ = ρ
h3 = hz = 1

( h h A ) = ( ρ )(1)( z cos φ − 2ρ cos φ sin φ ) = ( ρ z cos φ − 2ρ cos φ sin φ )

φ z ρ
2

∂ ∂
Thus,
∂ρ
( h h A )=
φ z ρ
∂ρ
( ρ z cos φ − 2ρ cos φ sin φ ) = z cos φ − 2(2 ρ ) cos φ sin φ
2

∂
∂ρ
( hφ hz Aρ ) = z cos φ − 4 ρ cos φ sin φ

( h h A ) = (1)(1)(− z sin φ − 2ρ cos φ ) = (− z sin φ − 2ρ cos φ )

z ρ φ
2 2

∂ ∂
Thus,
∂φ
( hh A )=
z ρ φ
∂φ
( − z sin φ − 2 ρ cos φ ) = − z cos φ − 2 ρ (2 cos φ )(− sin φ )
2

∂
∂φ
( hz hρ Aφ ) = − z cos φ + 4ρ cos φ sin φ
( h h A ) = (1)( ρ )( ρ sin φ ) = ( ρ sin φ )
ρ φ z
2

∂ ∂
Thus, ( h h A ) = ( ρ sin φ ) = 0
ρ φ
2

∂z ∂z
z

Substituting values in:

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ ⋅ A = divA =
1

(hρ )(hφ )(hz )  ∂ρ
( hφ hz Aρ ) +
∂φ
( hz hρ Aφ ) + ( hρ hφ Az ) 
∂z 

1
∇ ⋅ A = divA = ( z cos φ − 4 ρ cos φ sin φ ) + ( − z cos φ + 4 ρ cos φ sin φ ) + ( 0 ) 
(1)( ρ )(1) 
1
∇ ⋅ A = divA = [ z cos φ − 4 ρ cos φ sin φ − z cos φ + 4 ρ cos φ sin φ ]
ρ

∇ ⋅ A = divA = 0