Name : Rezqa Gusrizal

NIM : 16178068

“Landasan Ilmu Pendidikan”

Introduction to Theory

Theory is a term about which volumes have been written by philosophers of science. In
short, theory as a set of related general statements used to explain particular facts. The related
general statements have variously been called axioms, theorems, assumptions, principles, or
laws. Which of these terms is used has to do with whether the general statements are self-evident
beliefs and logical deductions (assumptions, axioms, theorems) or whether they are
generalizations derived from results of scientific studies (principles, laws).

On the other hand, there are some functions of theory. First, the main function of the
theory is to lead to discovery of new facts. Because in each time a new fact is correctly predicted
by the theory, people do not get new information about the world but, in addition the theory
gains validity and credibility. Second, the function of theory is to summarize and interrelate a set
of disparate facts. It is much easier to remember a few general principles than whole list of facts.
And the last function of theory is to explain facts or observations. This is one way of explaining
the facts that have been gathered.

Moreover, there are some criteria the theories to be good categorized. In human learning,
someone must be able to tell a good theory from a bad theory. Thomas (1985) suggests six
criteria for doing that:

1. A good theory accurately reflects the facts of the real world

2. A good theory is stated in such a way that it is clear and understandable
3. A good theory is useful for predicting events in the future
4. A good theory is internally consistent
5. A good theory is based on as few unproven assumptions as possible
6. A good theory is testable
  The Domain of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior that

results from previous experience. Each part of definition mentions an attribute or characteristics
that an event must have in order to be considered as an instance of learning. Let’s consider each
part of the definition.

1. Learning is change in knowledge or behavior

2. The changes brought about by learning are relatively permanent
3. Learning results from previous experience

In addition, there are five cores issues different in learning theories. And also it is the
most important issues consider when deciding which theory to apply in any given situation.

Core Issue 1: What is learned according to the theory?

Core Issue 2 : What is the relative emphasis on environmental versus organismic factors
in learning?
Core Issue 3 : What is the source of motivation for learning?
Core Issue 4 : How does transfer occur?
Core Issue 5 : What are important variables in instruction?

 Brief Historical Background

1. The Behavioral Perspective

Behaviorism arose in the early twentieth century in reaction against structuralism and
functionalism, both of approaches to psychology that focused on the study of conscious
experience. There are many expert did research toward behavioral and it arose behaviorist
theorists. The one of theory comes from Edwin R. Guthrie’s (1886-1959). The best quoting from
him is “a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its reoccurrence
tend to be followed by that movement. He states that the “bond” or connection between the
stimulus and response is established all at once at full strength and is not strengthened by
practice.
 2. The Cognitive Perspective

Cognitivism arose out of negative reaction to behaviorism. Cognitive-developmental

theory was being developed at about the same time that Tolman was conducting experiments to
test his theory of purposive behaviorism. Jean Pigget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, was
using a radically different methodology in the development of his cognitive theory. He deals
with the development of human intelligence. His basic position is that as children attempt to
adapt to their environment, they develop increasingly affective reasoning processes that in turn
allow them to construct more adequate representations of the world.
 Classical and Operant Conditioning

I. Classical Conditioning

There are some components of classical conditioning using the original laboratory
situation in which the phenomenon was discovered by Ivan Pavlov. He was a
physiologist who won the Nobel prize for his work on the role of the glands in digestion.
The first component of classical conditioning is the unconditioned stimulus. This is a
stimulus that naturally elicits a response. The food in the dog’s mouth is the
unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s situation. Food placed in the mouth elicits the
response of salivation. Salivation to the food in the mouth is called the unconditioned
response. The connection between the unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned
response is reflexive or unlearned. The next component of classical conditioning is a
neutral one called the conditioned stimulus that does not originally elicit the
unconditioned response. Then, when the salivation occurs to the conditioned stimulus, it
is called the conditioned response.

On the other hand, Pavlov distinguished between two basic types of conditioning.
Appetitive conditioning involves an unconditioned stimulus that is positive or something
that the organism would ordinarily seek out, such as food, water or sexual stimulation.
The other is defense conditioning. It is negative that the organism tries to avoid, such as
electric shock or pin pricks.

Moreover, there are several aspects of classical conditioning that distinguish it from
other forms of learning. First, it occurs only in situations where there is already a strong
unconditioned stimulus-response connection. Second, the sequence of events to which a
learner is exposed does not depend upon what the learner does. Third, what indicates the
learning is a change in the effectiveness of the conditioned stimulus in eliciting the
response that previously occurred only the unconditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning occurs constantly in the classroom. Students and teachers

acquire emotional response to many stimuli in the school setting because these stimuli
 have systematically come just before stimuli that already elicit strong emotional
responses. For example, many students feel anxious at the sight of math problems,
probably because in the past they have experienced failure in working out math problems.

 Factors That Determine Classical Conditioning

Chance (1979) discusses a number of factors that need to be considered when

attempting to bring about classical conditioning.

- Pairing of Neutral and significant stimuli

- Interstimulus Interval
- Number of Stimulus Pairings
- Number of Times the Neutral Stimulus Occurs Alone
- Characteristics of the Learner
- Prior Experience with Neutral Stimuli
 The Core Issues
There are some core issues identified in classical conditioning, they are:
1. What is learned?
2. Emphasis on environmental versus organismic factors
3. Source of motivation
4. Transfer
5. Important variables in instruction

II. Operant Conditioning

Nowadays, largely as a result of the work of B. F. Skinner, we refer to instrumental

learning as operant conditioning and to consequences as reinforces and punishers. There are
some components of operant conditioning. The first component of this form of conditioning is an
emitted response called an operant response. The second component of operant conditioning is
the stimulus consequence in the environment brought about by the emitted response. In addition,
to the above components which are always present operant conditioning, there is also usually a
discriminative stimulus.
 There are some types of Conditioning Procedures, they are reinforcement and
punishment. Reinforcement, the strength or probability of response increased. There are two
kinds of reinforcement procedures: positive and negative. Then, punishment, in the procedure,
the strength or probability of a response is decreased. As with reinforcement, there are two kinds
of punishment. They are positive and negative punishment. There are some factors determining
operant conditioning. They are response-consequence interval, consequence characteristics,
schedule of reinforcement, characteristics of the learner and previous experience.

 Technologies Based on Operant Conditioning

There are two technologies behavior modification and programmed learning that have
been developed from basic operant conditioning research. Both of these applications have had
great impact on education.

- Behavior Modification
- Objections to Behavior Modification
- Programmed Instruction
 Relationships between classical and operant conditioning

The relationship between these two types of behavior, Hill (1981) suggests that we think
of operant conditioning as the process by which we learn the behaviors and skills needed to get
what we want in life. Thus, operant or instrumental conditioning permits us to learn the means
toward our goals.

 The Core Issues

There are some core issues in operant conditioning, they are:

- What is learned?
- Emphasis on environmental versus organismic factors
- Source of motivation
- Transfer
- Important variables