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 Chapter 9
Runway and Taxiway Lighting
).1 INSET LIGHTS
General
9.1.1 It is adyisablethat inset light fittings have a
minimum vertical projection above the surrounding sur-
face consistent with the required photometric charactens-
tics and a minimum bulk above the sunounding surface
consistent with pressntation of an easy slope in all
directions. They should be capable of withstanding the
greatest tile pressure and weight of the heaviest twe of
aircraft expected. Regard should also be paid to the speed
that aircraft may attain on that part of the movement area
in which inset lights are to be provided; the permissible
extent ofthe projection of a light fitting suitable for mark-
f\/ ing the centre line of a taxiway (other than a high speed
tum-off) would be greater than could be tolerated for a
runway inset light. Projections geater than 12 mm may
cause damage to the tires where high aircraft speeds and
high tire pressuresare present.
9. I .2 Snow removal proceduresare hamperedby inset
light fittings. It is not possibleto provideflush light fittings
that comply with the photometric requirernents.However, it
is possible to design lights that are compliant but have a
projectionsignificantlylessthan 12 mm.
Installation
9.1.3 Installation of shallow inset touchdown zone
lights and shallow inset runway centre line lights is
accomplished by drilling a hole into existing payement
slightly $eater in depth than the fitting. Sealantmaterial is
pouredinto the preparedhole, andthe fitting is installedby
meansof a jig or holding deviceto ensurccorect vertical
and lateral alignment. Slots or saw kerfs are provided in the
existing pavementto connectthe lights. Theseextend to the
runway edge,Wires or conduits are laid into the slots which
are then filled with sealantmaterial.
9-l
9.1.4 Installatior of deep inset touchdown zone and
centre line lights is best accomplished as part of pavement
construction. For touchdown zone lights, a properly sized
hole is left opsn during the initial paving to accommodate
the subsequentinstallation of the inset basesfor a barette.
A rigid conduit is placed below the pavementfrom the edge
of the runway and connectedto the inset bases.The inset
bases are held at the proper elevation and alignment by
means of a jig. The open area is then backfilled with con-
crete pavsment.Wire is &awn through the conduit into the
bases,connectionsare made to insulating transformers,and
the rernovabletop fitting containing the lamp is bolted onto
the inset base to complete the installation. Techniquesfor
installation of deepbase cansin existing concretepayement
are also available.
Measuritrg the temperature
of inset lights
ElIect of i$et lights on tircs
9.1.5 Tests have been mdetaken by a number of
States to measwe the temperature of inset lights and the
effect on tires both in contact witi and close to the lights.
Results have indicated that where the tire is in contact with
an inset light, temperatues of up to 160oC for a short
period of time (i.e. about 10 minutes)havenot causedany
significant damageto the tire. Also the radiant energyin the
light beam from inset lights can give rise to high tire
temperatues, but again, to date, it has not been found to
causeany significant detrimental effects on the tire.
9.1.6 One reasonthat the heat from inset liehts has
not beena problemis that the high temperatureon-rh. top
ofthe inset light is very localized,i.e- usuallyin the centre
ofthe top ofthe inset light. Thsre is generallya largetern-
pemture gmdient between the centle and the edge of an
inset light so that the total energy absorbedby the tire ftom
the inset lieht is relativelv small.
9-2
Difference betweenfield qnd laboratory tests
9.1.7 SeveralStateshave undertakenfield studiesto
investigate these efects. Additionally, laboratory-based
studies where the tests have been made in a draught-free,
heat test chamberhave been conducted.It is significant that
the laboratory temperaturemeasurementsare considerably
higherthan thoseexperiencedin the field. This fact is well
loown becausethe influence of any air moyement has a
considerablecooling effect on the object being investigated.
Recom ended tempersturc limits
9.1.8 Based on current knowledge,the two sets of
conditions under which measurementscan be made, field
and ]aboratory necessitatestipulating figules apFopriate to
each.The laboratory-basedmeasuremqttswill be repeatable
whereasthe field measwementswill be somewhatvariable.
In yiew of the limited howledge available concerning the
efects of very high ambient tempemtues combined with
strong solar radiation on tires, nmway surfaces,inset lights,
etc., it is suggestedthat for these areas,individual recom-
mendationsmay be required and possibty some operational
safeguardsmay be necessary.
Field conditions
9.1.9 For tests undertakenon installed inset lights, the
temperatue at the interface betweenthe aircraft tire and the
inset light shouldnot exceed160oCduring l0 minutesof
exposure, whether by conduction or radiation. The inset
light should be operated at full intensity for a sulfrcient
time prior to the measurementfor the light to reach a tem-
perature approximating thermal equilibrium. This time
would probably be at least two hou$. The measurement
shouldbe made using a thermocoupleplacedbetweenthe
surface of the tire and the part of the inset light which is
heated the most. For some designs of inset lights the
temperatureat the surface ofthe tire can be a maximum due
to ndiant energy in the light beam and therefore a seriesof
measurementsmay have to be made to ascertainthe most
critical position.
Labor.ttory con ditio ns
9.1.10 The following paragraphsprovide guidance
material on laboratory methods for assessingthe tempera-
tule of ins€t lights. They are intended to identifr any
potentialheat damagewhen a wheelis parkedover a light.
Tests should be undertaken in a &aught-fiee, heat test
Aerodrome Design Manual
chamberwhere the temperatureof the ambient air is 30'C.
Before the measurernentsare taken, the inset light should be
operated at full intensity for a sufficient length of time for
the light to reach a temperature approximating thermal
equilibrium.This time would probablybe at leasttwo hows.
9.l.ll For tests undertakenunder labomtory condi-
tions, it is suggestedtbat the temperature at the interface
between the inset light and the tire should be not mcre than
160"C during 10 minutes of exposure,whether by conduc-
tion or radiation.
9.1.12 For theseteststhe inset light shouldbe placed
in a box of the minimum dimensionshownin Fieure 9-1.
The box could be either:
a) concrete, with the inset light bonded into the con-
crete in the way recommendedby the manufacturer;
or
b) sancl-filled.
It should be noted that the sand-filled box will give rise to
the more onerous conditions for testins due to the low
thermal conductivity of the sand.
9.1.13 In most casesthe measuremsnt shouldbe taken
when the tire is directly on the inset light and the thermo-
couple lies betweer the tire and the hottest part ofthe inset
light. However, for some designs of inset lights, the
ternperatureat the surfaceofthe tire can be a maximum due
to rudiant eneryy in the light beam and therefore a seriesof
measurements should be made to ascertain the critical
position. The tire should be su{ficiantly loaded so that
during the test the contact between the tire and the inset
light is properly representativeof sen'ice conditions.
9.2 TAXIWAY EDGE LIGHTS _
.SEA OF BLUE' EFFECT
9-2-l At mmy aerodromes, the concentration of
taxiway edge lights in the operational area often results in
a confusing mass of blue lights commonly referred to as a
"seaofblue".Jn somecases,
this canresultin pilots finding
it difficult to correctlyidentirythe taxiwayboundaries- This
problem particularly occurs in complex taxiway layouts
with small radiuscurves.
'l\is
9.2.2 problem can be removed by the use of
taxiwaycentreline lights.therebyeliminatingrhe needto
 Pari 4. Yisual Aids
Chapter 9. Runwoy and Taxiway Lighting
L should
B should
Figure 9-1. A typical container used for the temperature measurementof inset lights
install edge lights in much of the taxiway system. Edge
lights are normally still installed on curved portions of
taxiways, at taxiway intqsections and at taxiway/runryay
intersections.
9.3 EXIT TAXIWAY LIGHTING
9.3.1 The Annex 14, Volume I specificationsfor
runway centre line lights and taxiway cenae line lights have
been amendedto include lateral tolerunces of 60 crn and
30 cm, respectively.This was doneto overcomeproblerns in
installing the lights along the centre line due to the prcsence
of a payementjoint, e.g. longitudinal constructionjoint of a
cement concrete runway or taxiway. Nevertheless, where
runway cenfe line lights and taxiway cenhe line lights are
located in Foximity, e.g. exit taxiways, there is a need to
enswethat the lights are separatedby at least 60 cm to avoid
merging of the signals. To this end, the specifications for
taxiway centre line lights on rapid exit taxiways and on
othsr exit taxiways have also befll amended.The purposeof
this section is to explain how nmway and taxiway centre
line markings and lights should be displayed/installed at
runway/taxiway intersections under different conditions to
J comply with the new requiements.
9-3
Insetlight
beat least3D
beat least2H
9.3.2 It is important to note that the specifications still
envisagethe display ofthe runway csntre line marking and
taxiway centre line marking along t}te csntre line of the
runway and taKiway, respectively. Where the lights are
located on the marking, care should be taksn to avoid
contamination during any repainting of the marking.
9.3.3 Of the four conditions illustrated in Figure 9-2,
condition a) is the simplest. Tte runway consistsof a flex-
ible pavanent (e.g. asphaltic concrete), and consequently
there is no difficulty in installing the runway centre line
lights along the c€nfreline ofthe runway or the exit taxiway
centre line lights on the exit taxiway centle line marking.
9.3.4 Condition b) representsa cemert concrete run-
way with a longitudinal joint along the nmv/ay centre line.
As a result, the runway centre line lights are offset by
60 cm. On the other hand there is no difficulty in locating
the exit taxiway centre line lights on the exit taxiway cenhe
line marking. It is significant to note that t}le runway centre
line lights are ofset on the opposite side to the exit
taxlway.
9.3.5 Condition c) represents a case where exit
taxiways are located on both sides of a runway which
consistsof a flexible pavement,e.g. asphaltic concrete.The
94 Aerodrome Design Manual

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Figure 9-2. Markitrg and lightitrg of runway/taxiway intersections

 Part 4. l/isual Aids
Chspter 9- Runway and,Tariwgt Lighting
nmn ay c€ntre line lights are located along tlle runway
centre line and the exit taxi$'ay centre line lights on the exit
taxiway centre line makings.
9.3.6 Condition d) ropres€ntsa case where exit taxi-
n ays are locatd on both sidesof a cement concreteruNvay.
The nmway cente line lights arc otrset by 60 crn due to the
pr€senceof a longitudinal joint along the rmway cente line.
.{.,
9-5
This in tum necessitatesthe otrsetting of the exit taxiv/ay
cenhe line lights on one sicleby 30 crn to maintain a 60-crn
separationbetween the nmway ce he line lights and exil
taxiway cente line lights. The exit taxiway centreline lights
on the other side are located on the exit taxiway cenfe line
marking. It is sigificant to note that the flmway cente line
lights should be otrset on the opposite sidc to the majority
of exit taxiways.
 Chapter10
SurfaceMovementGuidanceand Control Systems
IO,I GENERAL
"surface movement guidance and
10.1.1 The term
control (SMGC) system" stands for a system of aids,
facilities and proceduresdesignedto meet the requirements
for guidance and control of surface tramc consistent with
the particular operational conditiqns at a particula! aero-
drome. All aerodromeshave some form of SMGC systern.
10.1.2 An SMCC system comprises an appropriate
combination of visual aids, non-visual aids, radiotelephony
communications, procedures, control and information
facilities. Systems range from the very sirnple at small
aerodromes with light tlamc opemting only in good
visibility to the complex at large and busy aerodromeswith
opemtionsin very low visibility conditions. The purpose of
this chapter is to identifo those visual aids which are used
in an SMGC system. For guidance on all other aspectsof
SMGC systems,readers are advised to refer to the Manual
of Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems
(SMGCS) (Doc 9476).
10. I .3 The main reason for providing an SMGC
system is to enable an aerodrome to cope safely with the
ground movemerrt demands placed on it under specified
operational conditions, The system should thelefore be
designed to prevent collisions between aircraft, between
aircraft and ground vehicles, betweenaircraft and obstacles,
between vehicles and obstaales and between vehicles. In
the sirnplest case,i.e, in good visibility conditions and with
light traffic, this objective may be achieved by a systernof
visual signs and a set of aerodxometraffic rules. In more
complex situations, particularly under poor visibility
conditions and/or healy traffic, a more elaborate system
will be required.
10.1.4 Basic SMGC systems,as describedin the
Manua! of Surface Moveuent Guidance and Control Sys-
tems (SMGCS), arc not always capable of providing the
necessarysupport to aircraft operationsin order to maintain
the required capacity and safety lwels, specifically under
low visibility conditions. An advanced surface movement
10-I
guidance and control system (A-SMGCS) is expected to
provide adequate capacity and safety in rclation to the
specific weather conditions, traffic density and aerodrome
layout through the use of modem technologies and a high
level of integration between the various firnctionalities.
Availability and developmentof new technologies,including
automation capabilities, makes it possible to increaseaero-
drome capacity in low visibility and on complex and high-
densify aerodromes.
10.1.5 SMGC systemswere developedon tlle basis of
the "see-and-be-seen"principle being adequateto maintain
sgparation between aircraft and/or vehicles on the move-
ment area.Progressiveinqeases in traffc levels, difficulties
in navigating on taxiways in complex asrodxomelayouts
"see-and-be-seen"principlc by low
and the erosion of the
visibility conditions are factors that can lead to incidsnts and
accidorts including nmway incusions. As indicated above,
to ad&ess theseFoblsms enhancementsto the basic SMGC
"ICAO OperationalRequirements
systemsare required. The
for Advanced Surface Movement Guidance And Conbol
Systems(A-SMGCS)", published as an Attachment to State
Letter SP 2011-98/47dated 12 June 1998, are intended to
stimulate and guide ftese enhancemsntsrn a progressrve
manner.
10.2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
10.2.1 The level of the SMGC systemthat is provided
at an aerodrome should be related to the operational
conditions under which it is intended that the system shall
opsrate. It is important to rccognize that a complex SMGC
system is not needed and is uneconomic at aerodromes
where yisibility, asrodrome layout complexity and traffic
densiry separately or in combination, do not at pressnt
cause problems for the gromd movement operations of
aircraft and vehicles. However, failure to provide an SMGC
system with a capacity Foperly matched to the operational
demands at an agrodrome will restrict the movement rute
and may affect safety.
I0-2
10.2-2 All SMGC systemshave four basicfunctions:
a) guidance, which consists of the facilities, infor-
mation and adyice that are necessary to proyide
continuous, unambiguous and reliable information
to pilots of aircraft and drivers of vehicles to keep
their aircrafi or yehicles on the surfaces and
assignedroutes intended for their use;
b) routing, which is the planning and assignmentof a
route to individual aircraft and vehicles to provide
safe, expeditions and efficient movement from the
current position to the intended position;
c) control, which is the application of measures to
prevent collisions and runway incu$ions thereby
ensuring safe, expeditious and efficient gound
movements; and
d) surveillance, which provides identification and
accuratepositional information on aircraft, vehicles
and other objects.
10.2.3 Guidanceand controlofthe many vehiclesthat
operate in stand areaspresent special problems in relation
to the level ofthe SMGC systemthat is required. Thesecan
be dealt with by using the concept that the role of any
particular stand changes with time. When an aircraft is
stationary on a stand with enginesnmning or an aircrafi is
moving on the stand or an aircraft is approachingthe stan4
therl the stand is part ofthe movement area and apFopriate
SMGC system provisions are required. If a stand is
occupied but the aAsraft engines are not running or if the
stand is yacant and not being approachedby an aircraft,
thefl the stand is not at that time part ofthe movement area,
and SMGC system provisions are not required,
10.2.4 The tendency in A-SMCGS implernentatioa is
towards a reduction in the yoice communications work-
load, an increasein the use of surface guidance aids and a
gleater reliance on avionics in the cockpit to help guide the
pilot to and from the runway. ATC surveillance of aircraft
and vehicles will make greater use of electronic aids, and
automation will play an increasingrole in the monitoring of
the dynamics of surface operations.
10.2.5 The "ICAO Operational Requirements for
A-SMGCS" should be consulted whenever a ne\ry
implementation of an SMGC system is planned, to enswe
compliance with the appropriate A-SMGCS concepts.The
parametersthat identit the necessarylevel of provision,
based on visibility conditions, trafrc density and aero-
&ome layout, are cl€arly set out in those Requirements.
Aerodrome Desisn Manual
Note.* A-SMGCS is a progressive enhancement of
existing SMGC systems,proyiding greater capabilities as
they becomejustifed by operational considerqtiotts. It k
not an alter otive systemthat rcquires decommissioningof
existing SMGC system implementations.
10.3 THE ROLE OF VISUAL AIDS
10.3.1 Visual aidshavea role in the guidance,routing
and control functions of SMCC systems. There are a
number of highJevel goals in the design of any systemthat
relate specifically but not always exclusively to the
provision of visual aids. These are:
a) an SMGC system should be able to accornmodate
all aircraft and authorized vehicles:
b) the guidancefunction should supportsafe operations
on the aerodrome considering the visibility con-
ditions, trafrc density and aero&ome layout;
c) pilots and vehicle drivsrs should be able to follow
their assignedroutes in a continuous, unambiguous
and reliableway;
d) visual aicls should be an integral componort of the
surface movement syslem; and
e) an SMGC system should be implemented in a
modular form to allow for system gowth as the
operational situation changes.
10.3.2 When visibility conditions permit a safe,
orderly and expeditious flow of authorized movements by
visual means, the guidance function of an SMGC system
will be based primarily on standardizedvisual aids using
markings, lighting and signs.When visibility conditions are
sufficient for pilots to taxi by visual referorce alone, but the
sole use ofconventional visual aids restricts the expeditious
flow of authorized movements, additional visual or non-
visual systems may be needed to suprport the guidance
function. Any additional visual aids that are developed
should be standardizedin accordancewith ICAO practices.
10.3.3 dnce a route has been assigned,then a pilot or
vehicle driver requires information to follow that route.
Visual aids provided for guidanceindicate where an aircraft
or vehicle can be safely manoeuwed.Selectively srvitchable
taxiway centre line lights and/or variable messagesigns are
possiblemeansof snabling routesto be uniquely des'ignated.
Pan 4. VisualAids
Chapter 10. Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems
10.3,4 Pilots and vehicledrivers alwaysrequiresome
form of routing and guidance information. At many aero-
dromesvisual aids will also be requiredto be part of the
control function. Surveillanceinformation is needed to
supportthis service.
10.3.5 The suweillancefunction of an SMGC system
depends on the use of sensorc to provide the necessary
identification and positional information related to all air-
craft and vehicles. In the most basic form, visual
surveillanceby AIC enablesthe correctvisual aids to be
activated by ATC personnelwithin the control tower. In the
more sophisticated systemsthat may be required at busy,
complex aerodromes and in low visibility conditions,
surveillance derived from senso6 such as radar, satellite-
basednavigationsystems,inductiye loops or lasel micro-
wave and infrared detectorsmay be used as an input to the
routing, guidance and control functions. The sensorsmay
be used singly or the data from a number of different
sensorsmay be fused to provide an optimized identification
and location solution throughout the movement area. The
performancerequirements for the surveillance function are
at tleir most demandingwhen the information is to be used
as an input to the control function to maintain separation
standardsbetween aircraft.
10.4 VISUAL AID COMPONENTS OF
AN SMGC SYSTEM
Visual aids for guidance
10.4.1 The following aids are used to provide the
guidance function. The circumstances under which each
one is applied are described in the relevant "Application"
paragraphsin Annex 14, Volume I, Chaptsr 5.
R nway centre line marking
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Tiuiway cenm line marking
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Runway-holding posit ion malkin g
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Intermediate holding position marking
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Aircraf stand markings
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Guidance material: Chapter 2 of this manual.
10-3
Srgzs
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, Volumel, Chapter5.
Guidancematerial:ChapterI I of this manual.
hsual aids for denoting resticted use areas
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter7.
Runway edge lights (nighl
Related6pecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Taxiway edge lights (night)
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Guidancematerial:Chapter9 of this manual.
Runway centre line lights
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Taxiway certre line lights
Related specification: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5.
Guidancematerial:Paragraphs10.4.7to 10.4.9of this
manual.
Interrnediote holding position lights
Related specification: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5.
Guidancematerial:Paragraph10.4.13of this manual.
Stopbd6
Related specification: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5.
Guidancematerial: Paragraphs10.4.10to 10.4.17of
this manual.
Runway guad lights
Related specification: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5.
Guidancematerial: Paragraphs10.4.18to 10.4.26 of
this manual.
hsual parking/docking guidance systems
Related specification: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5.
Guidancematerial:Chapter12 ofthis manual.
Motitoring system
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter8,
Guidance material: Aerodrome Design Maw)al, PaI15.
Visual aids for routing
'
10.4.2 The selectiveswitching of the lighting aids
provided for guidancecan indicate specific fixed routes that
have been issued for aircraft or vehicle use if required by
operational circumstances.Where fixed routes arg in use,
the same visual aids will be operated for all movements
whilst the opentional conditions that require such routes
 104
pffsist. At aerodromeswhere the routing varies frequently
according to operational needs, selectiye switching of the
lighting aids canbe usedto clearly indicatethe issuedroute
for particular movements, To achieve these flexible capa-
bilities, it is necessaryfor the lighting aids to be selectable
in segmsntsthat are small eaough to meet the objective of
clearly indicating the correct route. It is also important that
the switching can be done in a timely and accuratemanner,
since two closely spaced aircraft may have different
assignedroutes. In situations whqe it is desired to reduce
the workload of AIC, the route switching may be carried
out with the aid of a computer-basedsystem once the route
to be issued has besn verified by the controller.
Visual aids for control
10.4.3 At all aerodromes,visual aids provide guidance
information to pilots and veh'icledrivers, Routing indication
is closely related to the guidancefi.mction, and as described
aboye, at many aerodromesrouting information will be
conveyed by the selective switching of the visual aids. In
Factice, all SMGC syste-msprovide routing and guidance
information through the use of visual aids.
10.4.4 The extent of any control tiat is applied by an
SMGC system dependson the requirements at each aero-
drome. Where practicable, the main means of exercising
confol of moyements should be throueh the use of visual
aids.
10.4.5 To achievetiis functionality,the visual aids
designedfor an SMGC system may need to be augmente4
but the basic characteristicsof the aids remain unchanged.
The main augmentations that may be introduced are
increasedleyels of computer-addedcontrol of the aids and
switchingofthe lighting in somecasesdown to the level of
individual light units.
10.4.6 The visual aids that may be usedto provide a
control function are the following:
Signalling lamps
Relatedspecifications:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5;
Annex 2, AppendixA.
Sutface markings
Related specifications: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5,
Guidance material: Chapter 2 of this manual.
Srbzs
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter5.
Guidancematerial;Chapter11 ofthis manual.
Aerodrome Desim Manual
Intermediate holding position lights
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Guidancematerial:Paragraph10.4.13of this manual.
Stop bars
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Guidancematerial: Paragraphs10.4.10to 10.4.17of
this manual,
Runway gua/d lights
Relatedspecification:Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5.
Cuidancematerial: Paragraphs10.4.18to 10.4.26of
this manual.
Selectiyelyswitchable taxiway centre line lights
Guidance material: Paragraphs 10.4.2 and. 10.4.7 to
10.4.9of this manual.
Road-holding position lights
R€lated specifications: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5.
Guidance material: Paragraphs 10.4.27 to 10.4.30 of
this manual.
Mottitoring system
Related specification: Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 8.
Guidance material: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 5.
Taxiway centre litre lights
10.4-7 The most positive means of providing taxiing
guidanceis through taxiway centreline lighting. When these
lights are also selectively operated,positive control of the
routes of taxiing airoaft is provided. Taxiway centre line
lighting is particularly effective and often the only meansof
providing guidanceand conhol in poor visibility conditions.
Proyided the lights are ofadequate intensity, the methodcan
also be efective for day operations.
10.4.8 Where taxiway centre line lights are installed
specifically as a component of an A-SMGCS, it may be
considered necessary, following a specific study, to use
high-intensity taxiway csntre line lights in accordancewith
the recommendationsof Annex 14, Volume L This enhance-
ment is likely to be requiredifthe A-SMGCSguidanceand
control function is to be applied through visual aids in
bright day or very low visibility conditions.
10.4.9 In practice,guidanceis providedby switching
on only the taxiway centre line lighting on the route to be
followed to the aircraft's destination. Multiple routes may
be lighted to allow more than one aircraft to taxi at the
sametime. For greater safety,it is desirablethat the system
Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 10. SurfaceMovementGuidanceand Control Systems
be so designedelectricallyor mechanicallythat it is physi-
cally possibleto light only one route througha junction at
one time. To exercisecontrol, such lighting systemsare
also equippedwith stopbars at junctions,which operatein
conjunction with the centre line lights and further indicate
to the oossing aircraft when it should stop and when it may
proceed.
Stop bars
10.4.10 The use of stop bars is an effectivemeansof
controlling ground movements of aircraft and vehicles on
the manoeuwing area and will reduce the number of
incidents and accidentsdue to runway incursions. The pro-
vision of stop bals requires their control, either manually or
automatically, by air tmffic services.
10.4.11 Annex 14, VolumeI, specifies,as a Standard,
that a stop bar shall be provided at every runway-holding
position serving a runway when it is intended that the
runway will be used in runway visual range conditions less
than a value of 550 m, exceptwhere:
a) other appropriate aids and proceduresare available
to assist in preventing inadvertent incursions of
aircraft and vehicles onto the runway: or
b) operational procedures exist to limit, in runway
visual range conditions less than a value of 550 m,
the number of:
1) aircraft on the manoeuwing area to one at a
time; and
2) vehicles on the manoeuwing areato the esssntial
minimum.
Note.* A runway-holding position is delined as a
designated position intended to protect a runway, qn
obstacle limitation surface, or an ILS/MLS critical/se sitive
area at which taxiing ailcraft and.vehicles shall stop and
hold, unless otherwise authorized by the aerodromecontrol
tower
10.4.12 Annex 14. VolumeI. also recommendsthat a
stop bar should be provided at an intermediate holding
position when it is desired to supplement markings with
lights and to Fovide traffic control by visual means.
10.4.13 At an intermediateholding position where
there is no need for a stop-and-gosignal, it is recommended
that intermediate holding position lights be Fovid€d. In
10-5
runway visualrangeconditionslessthan a value of 550 m,
this provision shall apply as a Standard.
Not4- An intemediate holding position is defned as a
designate.dpositio intended for traffc control at which
tatiing aircraft and vehiclesshall sap and hold until further
cleared to proceed, when so instructed by the aerodrome
control tower
10.4.14 The specificationsfor stop bals include a
provision for the suppression of the taxiway centre line
lights for a distance of 90 m beyond an activated stop bar
in the direction that is intended for an aircraft to proceed.
When the stop bar is suppressedthese inter-linked taxiway
centre lina lights shall be simultaneously illuminated.
10.4.15 An aircraft that is stationary at a stop bar may
require at least 30 secondsto move the 90 m coveredby the
interlocked taxiway centre line lights. hematule reselection
of the stop bar after the issue of a clearancemay, particu-
larly in low visibility conditions, result in the pilot having
less than the required segmentof lighting guidance.
10.4.16 Stop bars shall consist of unidirectionalin-
pavement lights spaced at intervals of 3 m aqoss the
taxiway showing red in the direction of the appoach to the
runway holding position or the intermediate holding
position.
10.4.17 Where stopbars are installedspecificallyas a
componentof an A-SMGCS, it may be considsrednecess-
ary, following a specific study, to use high-intensity stop
bars in accordancewith the recommendationsofAnnex 14,
VolumeI.
Elevated and itr-pavementrlnway guard lights
10.4.18 The provision of runway guard lights is an
effective way of increasing the conspicuity of the location
of the runway-holding position in visibility conditions
above as well as below a runway visual range of 1 200 m.
There are two standard configurations of runway guard
lights, elevated and in-pavemsnt lights, as illustrated in
Annex 14, VolumeI, Figure 5-26.
. 10.4.19 Annex 14, VolumeI, specifies,as a Standard,
that runway guard lights, Configuration A, shall be
provided at each taxiway/runway intersection associated
with a runway intended for use in:
a) runway visual range conditions less than a value of
550m where a stop bar is not installed;and
10-6
b) runway visual mnge conditions of values between
550m and 1200 m where the traffic densiW is
healry.
10.4.20 Annex 14, Volume I, recommendsthat runway
guard lights, Configuration A, should be Fovided at each
taxiway/runway inte$ection associated with a runway
irt€nded for use in:
a) runway visual range conditions less than a value of
550 m where a stop bar is installed;and
b) runway visual range conditions of values between
550m and 1200 m where the traffc density is
medium or light.
10.4.21 Armex 14, Volume I, also recommendsthat
runway guard lights, Configuration A or Configuration B
or both, should be provided at each taxiway/runway inter-
section where enhancedconspicuity of the taxiway/runway
intsrsection is needed, such as on a wide-throat taxiway,
except that Configuration B should not be collocated with
a stop bai.
1O.4.22 As the number of operations continues to
increaseat many airpofis around the world, the opportunity
for runway incursions also increasss.Therefore, it is further
recommendedto provide runway guard lights to improvs
the conspicuity of the location of the runway-holding
position during the day and in good visibility conditions as
well.
10.4.23 Runway guard lights, ConfigurationA, shall
consistof two pairs of elevatedflashing-yellowlights, and
runway guard lights, Configuration B, shall consist of in-
pavement flashing-yellow lights spacedat intervals of 3 m
aqoss the taxiway. The light beam shall be unidirectional
in the direction of the approach to the runway holding
posltron.
10-4.24 Wherc runway guard lights are intended for
use during the day, it is reconnnendedthat high-intensity
runway guardlights be used,in accordance with Alnex 14,
VolumeI.
10.4.25 Where runway guard lights are installed
specificallyas a componentof an A-SMGCS, it may be
considered necessary following a specific study, to use
high-intensity runway guard lights in accordancewith the
recornmendations of Annex 14. VolumeI.
10-4.26 T\e installation of runway guard lights,
Configuration A, has been found useful to inqease the con-
Aerodrome Design Manual
spicuity of stop bars installed at runway-holding positions
associatedwith precision approachrunways.
Road-holditrgpositlon lights
10.4.27 Road-holdingposition lights shall be usedto
control vehicular traffic at runway/road intersections.These
lights should also be used at taxiway/road intersections.
10.428 Road-holdingposition lights should be located
opposite the point at which it is desired the vehicles stop.
10.4.29 Road-holdingpositionlights shouldconsistof
red and green signals or flashing-red lights to indicate to
hold and to Foceed, respectively.
10.4.30 Wherea road-holdingpositionlight is used,it
shouldbe controlledas part oftbe SMGC system.
IO,5 IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
10.5.1 The detaileddesignof an SMGC systsmwill
be dependent on the opemtional requirements and the
particular constraintsof each aerodrome.The systernarchi-
tectue will be specific to each situation. Nevertheless,
users of the systsm on any movement area should always
have the same, standardizedinformation pr€sentedfor the
same fimction. An example of a systern architecture com-
pllng with the A-SMGCS conceptsand suitable for use at
a complex aerodrome having a high movement rate is
shownin Figure l0-1. The way in which the visual aidsare
integmted into such a system is illustrated. The inter-
relation between the various iterns of equipment neededto
realize the system and provide the four basic functions of
guidance,routing, control and surveillanceis also shown.
In particular, it can be seen that the lighting aids and all
other parts of the system ate interdependsnt.
10.5.2 The selective switching of lighting is an
impodant capability in the implernentationof an A-SMGCS.
The "ICAO Opoational Requirements for A-SMGCS"
assumethe continuing use of this technique as a means of
selectively indicating routes, providing dedicatedguidance
and assistingtl.reconnol function. The selectioncan be done
manually in responseto visual observationfrom the aontrol
tower. In some cases,suweillance sensorscan be used to
assist the manual operation. In other cas€s a degree.of
automationmay be infoduc€d, as for examplein the caseof
the reactivation of a stop bar after a fixed time interval. The
cqntrol of stop bars through the use of position sensorscan
Part 4. Visual Aids
Chspter 10. Surface Movement Guidarce and Contol Systems
be i ustratedby the following example. It should be noted
that the example given assumescertain Arc procedures.
Different procedues require apFopriate system designs to
be developed.
10.5.3 Stop bars locations are provided with three
aircraft position sensorsas shown in Figure 10-2. Various
tlpes of position senso6, or a control signal ftom the
A-SMC.CS,can be used:position sensorl, locatedacross
the taxiway and 70 m before the stop bar; position sensor
2, located acrossthe taxiway and immediately after the stop
bar; and position sensor 3, located across the runway and
about 120 m beyond the threshold. When an aircraft is
cleared to taxi for take-off, the pilot taxies following the
taxiway centre line lights which remain on only up to the
stop bar at the ronway-holding positiou. When the aircraft
crossesposition sensor 1 (see Figure 10-2), a light appears
on a special control board in the conbol tower. This advises
A-SMGS
functions
ISurueillance Icuidance
ElRouting IControl
Figure 10-1. An exarnpleof A-SMGCS systemarchitecture
10-7
the controller that an aircraft is nearing the stop bar and that
the pilot is expecting clearance to enter the runway. To
permit the aircraft to qoss the stop bar (see Figule 10-3),
the conholler not only issues a clearance through radio-
telephony but also switches off the stop bar by pressing a
button. This automatically illuminates that part of the
taxiway centr€ line lighting beyond the stop bar. When the
aircraft crossesposition sensor2 (seeFigure lG4), the stop
bar is autoinatically switched on again to protect the
runway. When the aircraft commencesthe take-off run and
crossesposition sensor 3 (see Figue 10-5), that podion of
taxiway cenfie line lighting betwe€n the stop ba{ and
position sensor3 is automatically switched off, In the event
an aircraft crossesthe stop bar without authorization from
the conkoller, position sensor 2 serves as a safety barrier
(see Figure 10-6) and the system alefis the controller both
visually, tbrough a light on the conffol board, and by
soundins an alam.
10-8
10.5.4 By referenceto Figure 10-1, an examplemay
be given of the way in which selective switching of the
taxiway centreline lighting can be implementedand used
to facilitate aircraft movements.
10.5.5 All SMGCS implementationsuse some form
of surveillance. In the most basic form, air traffic service
personnel carry out the necessarysurveillance using visual
obserrr'ationtechniques.However, as can be seen from
Figure 10-1, this function can be reliably provided by the
fusion of data ftom a number of different types of sensors.
The selection of senson that are most appropriate to any
particular implementation architecture is part of the system
designprocess.
10.5.6 In a similar way, by using sensor-derived
surveillanceand other data, the selectionand issue of a
designatedtaxi route can also be implemented using
computer-based systems.The outputfrom suchsystemscan
thenbe usedto selectivelycontrolthe outputof the taxiway
centueline lighting. In this way, a pilot can be provided
with a visual indication of the designated rcute together
with the visual information necessaryto guide the aircraft
along that route.
10.5.7 Adjacent blocks of lighting aheadof the aircraft
are selectedsimultaneouslyto indicate the designatedroute.
The size of the conftol blocks varies. Depending on the
topography of the taxiway system and the SMGC architec-
ture, a block may be as little as one light. At the other
extreme, it may be as large as the complete route from the
aircraft stand to the runway-holding position.
10.5.8 The systemis so designedthat the length of
taxiway cente line lighting available to the pilot is always
such that the speedat which the aircraft can be taxied is not
deDendenton the extent of the route that is in view.
AerodromeDesisn Manual
10.5.9 At taxiway intersections,only one route is
illuminated at any time.
10.5.10 Once the surveillancesystem has detected
that an aircraft has passed through a block, the lighting
behind that aircraft is switched off in accordancewith the
relevantsystemprotocol.
10.5.1| To proride guidanceand controlby selective
switching of stop bars and taKiway cente line lights, the
following desigl features should be incorporated in the
system:
a) a taxiway route should be terminated by a stop bar;
b) control circuits should be so arranged that when a
stop bar is illuminated, the appropriate section of
taxiway cenhe line lights beyondit is extinguished
and deactivated;
c) the systemshouldbe so designedthat a display of
the taxiway layout and lighting system should be
provided on a conftol panel capable of indicating
the sections of cente line lights and stop bars
which are activated;
d) if necessary,a control shouldbe provided, permitting
air traffic contollers to override the system at their
discretion and to deactivatea route which crossesan
operationalrunway;
e) system faults or incorect operation of the system
should be indicated by a visual monitor on the
control panel.
10.5.12 It is to be anticipatedthat new SMGC systems
will employ increasedlevels of automation in accordance
with the "ICAO Operational Requirementsfor A-SMGCS".
Part 4. Yisual Aids
Chaptel 10. Sarface Movement Guidance qnd Control Systems 10-9

Greenlightson

Stopbaron Conirolboard

o' 3,) Taxiway

CATlll

Position 1a
sensor
Waming

O
<.o,)
Stopbar aO
tlr o Position
sensor
2O
Position
sensor
3O
Greenlightsoft

t--': I
! o _c___e_
*r;
l_ |
Position 3
sensor

Figure I0-2. Control of stop bar through position sensors -

Aircraft approachitrg the stop bar

byATC
Aircraftcleared
Green
lighbon

o."'
(a tr)
Stopbar ofi Controlboard
\'< CATlll Waming
Taxiway Position 1O
sensor O
t)
' a Stopbar Oa
Position
sensor
2O
Position
sensor3 O
a Greenlightson
a

t--l I
1-r -'-t- -.;-- - -
l-
Position
sensor
3

Figure 1G.3. Control of stop bar through position s€trsors-

Aircraft crossing the stop bar
10-t0 Aerodrome Design Manual

Green
lightson

Stopbaron Conkolboard
Position a
sensor CATlll Waming
a':
Posilion
sensor
1O O
Runway-holding
posfl0n Stopbar aO
Position
Position 2o
sensor
sensor2 Position
sensor
3O
Green
lightson

_.._ai;__
|
Posilion
sensor

Figure lG4. Control of stop bar thmugh position sensors -

Aircraft crossitrg position sensor 2

Green
lightson

Stopbaron Confd board

3,) Taxiway
CAflll Waming

<ro.,) Position
sensor1 a O
Stopbar aO
tro
Position
sensor
2O
Position
sensor
3a
Greenlightsoff

Position
sensor
3

Figurc 1G5, Control of stop bar through position sensors -

Aircraft crossing position sensor 3 and another aircraft approachitg the stop bar
Psn 4. YisualAids
Chapter 10. Surface Movement Guidance and Control Estems lLll

Penetration
of safetyarea
Greenlightson

O.tt'
(a tr)
Controlboard
Stopbaron

sensor
Posilion 1a
Stopbar ao
Runway-holding ).,t
Position Position 2a
sensor
o sensor
3O
Position Position
sensor 2
Greenlightsofi

!--l I
tt-o -o---o- *l_-_i - -
|
Position 3
sensor

Figure 1G6, Control of stop bar ttrrough position sensors-

Aircraft crossingthe stop bar without clearatrce
 Chapter 11
Signs
11.1 GENERAL
ll.l.1 The achievementof safe and efEcientaircraft
taxiing and ground movement at aercdromes requires the
provision of a system of signs for the use of pilots and
vehicle drivers on the movement arca.
11.1.2 Pilots and vehicle drivers use the signs to
identify their position on the movement area, By relatiDg
this data to ground map iqformation available in the cockpit
or in the vehicle, they can ensure that they are on their
assigned route at all times. They can also, as requircd,
report their position to ATC.
11.1.3 At somelocations,the signsconveymandatory
instructioN related to that particular position, thus confib-
uting to the safety of operations.
11,1.4 SigDs at inte$e{tiotrs expedite movements by
indicating the layout of the taxiways at that position.
Provided that the sign is seen in suffrcient time, pilots and
vehicle drivers can then easily identify the exit ftom the
intersection that corespoods to their assignedroute.
11.1.5 All signs are classified as either mandatory or
information signs.
11.1.6 A manclatorysign shall be provided to identify
a location beyond which a vehicle or taxiing aircraft shall
not proceedunless authorizedby the air traffic managemetrt
seryice.
11.1.7 An informatioD sign shall be provided where
there is an op€rationalne€d to indicate, by a sign, a specific
location, or routing (direction or destination) information,
or to provide other information relevaDtto the safe and
efEcient movement of aircraft and vehicles.
11.2 DESIGN
11.2.1 The system of signs specifiedin Annex 14,
Votume I, Chapter 5, 5.4 and Appendix 4, me€ts a number
of desien criteria.
11-1
11.2.2 All signs conform to a colour code that clearly
indicates the functiol of each sign. Mandatory signs usered
and white, and information signs use yellow and black. The
choice of colou$ was influenced by colour conventions in
other modes of tmnsport where colou$ have specific and
]vell-utrdentood meanings. It was also influenced by the
need to use pairs of colours which, in combination, provide
sigDs ttrat are legible in the widest possible range of
conditions. Contrastratios betwe€nthe elemeDtsof the sigD
are a major factor in determinhg the legibility of a sign.
11-2.3 T"hereare four basic attributes related to the
design of signs:
a) conspicuity;
b) legibility;
c) comprehensibility; aod
d) credibility.
LL-2-4 Each of these attibutes is importatrt. To me€t
the operational requirenents, all signs must be readily seen
in the complex aerodrcmeenyimnment, and the inscdption
ou tlle sigtr face must be easy to read. The messagebeing
conveyed by the sign Dust be rcadily understoodby pilots
and yehicle drivers, and it must also provide information
that is clearly corlert.
11.2.5 The overall size, colou and luminance of a
sign determine the level of conspicuity. The size, font and
layout of the inscriptions logether with the luminance
contrastbetwe€n the inscription and the sign face determine
the legibility of the signs.
11.2.6 Full compliance with the criteria in Anaex 14,
Volume I, Appendix 4, concerning the sign face size is
necessaryto maximize the conspicuity of the signs and to
etrsure that the sign chamcle$ are legrble. The design
criteria require a sign face that is always twice the height of
the inscription. The width is determined by the ovemll
11-2
length of the inscriptiou to which must be added a border
of at least 0.5 times the inscriptiol height at either end of
the sign, For signs containing only oDe designator, the
lateral border width is required to be equal to the inscdp-
tion height. This ensuresthat a sign face of suitable size is
provided in all situations. The rcquirements of Annex 14,
Volume I, Appendix 4, pamgaph 11, should be met for
mandatory signs.
11.2.7 The font size chosendependson the maximum
range at which the inscription is requircd to be legible. For
an aircraft taxi speedof 30 kt and assuming a reading time
of 10 seconds,plus a small allowance for an initial search
time to locate the sign, the required font height is at least
30 cm, A font size of 40 cm is applied to enhancethe sign
performance especially in locations where the level of
safety is of particular importance. The font to be used for
signs is specified in detail in Annex 14, Volume I,
Appendix 4.
11.2.8 The luminance of the signs is specified to
maximize the useful range of the signs in reducedvisibility
conditions.
11.2.9 The position of signs and the location of the
yarious elemerts of the sigtr messages&ongly influence the
comFehensibility of the sigtr system. The layout of the
signs, particularly for applications at complex intersections
where several sign elements are collocated, is specifically
designedto enswe the spe€dy and accuate assimilation of
the information displayed. The iDscriptiotrs specified are
chosen to ensure that the information is easily understood
by all users.An example of a complex sign layout is given
in Figure 11-1.
11.2.10 For operatiotrsthat take place in low yisibility
or at night, the illumination of the sign face is an important
design paramoter.The sign luminances that are specified in
Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 4, have been found to me€t
the opentional criteria in these circumstances.Two sets of
luminatrces arc given. The higher luminances are only
essential during operations in runway visual range con-
ditions less than a value of 800 m. At uight iB good
visibility cooditions, the luminance of signs can be reduced
as indicated provided that sign conspicuity and legibility
criteria are maintained.
11.2.11 To maximizelegibility, it is importantthat the
equipment is designed to have a uniform luminance over
the complete sigD face. Similarly, the spe{ified lumioance
ratios betwe€n the colours of the sign should always be
comDlied with.
Aerodrome Desien Manual
11.3 VARIABLE MESSAGE SIGNS
11.3.1 CoDventioml si$s displayiDg a fixed message
show the same information at all times irrespective of the
operational circumstances.This can result in situations that
are at least illogical and which could cause operational
prcblems. For example, a pilot taxiitrg for departue in
VMC will be exp€ctedto pass a mandatory Category I, tr,
m or joint IVIII holding position sign without obtaining
clearance from ATC. This procedure is followed on the
basis that the sign is not applicable at the time whetr the
maroeuwe takes place. The potential for any misunder-
standingcould be removedif the sign information were ouly
visible when the information being displayed is applicable.
Selectiveuse of taxiways as part of a full surfacemovement
guidance and control system or as a meaDsof maiDtaiDing
sepamtions between yery large aircraft on close parallel
taxiways are othor examplesof the needfor more fleibility
in the way in which sign iaformation is displayed. It is
recommerded in Auuex 14, Volume I, 5.4.1.2, that variable
messagesigns be provided to meet the operational needs
describedabove.
11.3.2 Therefore, a variable messagesign should be
provided when:
a) the instuctioo or information displayed on the sigD
is rclevant only dudng a certain period of time; and/
ot
b) there is a need for variable pre-determined infor-
mation to be displayed on the sign to meet the
rcquirements of surface movement guidance and
cotrtol systeDs.
11.3.3 Variable message sigus can be designed to
provide high bdghhess without glarc and facilitate the
selective display of informatiotr. Tecbtrologiesthat could be
used include fibre optic or light emitting diodes. The use of
such te.cbnologiesto create the sign message enhances
range performance compared with that obtained by using
tansilluminated sigDs. The luminaDce of a fibre optic or
light emitting diode light point can be approximately
10 000 cdlmz comparedwith the value of 300 cd/m2, which
is the highest value normally used for transilluninated
signs.
11.3.4 The following guidelines should be applied to
the design of any variable messagesign to be used on an
aerodromemoYementarea:
a) the sign should have a blark face wheq not in use.
A pilot must not see an image or "ghost'' of the
message;
Pati 4. VisualAids
Chapter 11. Signs
b) the sign should not presenta messagethat could
lead to an unsafeaction by a pilot in the event of
failure of the sign;
c) the sign should have a short responsetime, i.e. the
time required for the rnessageto change should be
not greaterthan five seconds;
d) different lurninance levels will be required for day/
night operationsand in good/poorvisibilities;
e) care should be taken to ensue that the field of view
of the sign is sufficient over the full rangeof viewing
anglesthat are rcquired for taxiway signs; and
Example of a complex sign layout
I t-3
f) the sign should only include colour and inscription
elementsthat conform to the basic conyentions that
are to be followed in the design of mandatory and
informationsiens.
11.4 MANDATORY INSTRUCTION SIGNS
11.4.1 A mandatory instruction sign ldentifies a
location on the movement areathat a pilot or vehicle driver
should not pass without specific authorization by AIC.
Mandatory insbuction signs are therefore an important
element of the safety provisions on movement areas.
11-4 Aerodrome Design Manual

11.4-2 Ma\datory instuuction signs shall always be
located on each side of the taxiway or the runway, This
enablespilots to have an uninlerupted view of the signs at
all times. It also ensuresearly acquisition of the signs when
they are located close to an intersection that can be
approachedfrom more than one direction.
11.4.3 Mandatory instuction signs include runway
designation signs, Category I, II or III holding position
signs, runway-holding position signs, road-holding position
signs and NO ENTRY signs. Examples of such signs are
shownin Figure l1-2.
11.4.4 A mandatory instuction sign shall always be
provided at a taxiway/runway intersection or a runway/
runway inte$ection on each side of the runway-holding
position. Thus Annex 14, Volume I, specifies that:
a) a pattem "A" runway-holding position marking
shall be supplemented at a taxiway/runway inier-
section or a runway/runway intersection with a
runway designation sign; and
b) a pattem "B' runway-holding position rnarking
shall be supplementedwith a Category I, II or III
holding position sign.
11.4.5 As a coDsequence. where a single rurway-
holding position is provided at an intersection of a taxiway
and a precision approach Category I, II or Itr runway,

LEFTSIDE RIGHTSIDE

LOCATI
ON/RU
NWAYDESIGNATION RUNWAYDESIGNATION/LOCATION

RUNWAY.HOLDING
POSITION RUNWAY
DESIGNATION/
II HOLDING
CATEGORY POSITION

LOCATION/RUNWAY
DESIGNATION RUNWAY
DESIGNATION/LOCATION

NO ENTRY

Figure 11-2. Mandatory instruction signs

Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 11. Signs
the runway-holding position marking shall always be
supplemented with a runway designationsign. Where two
or three runway-holdingpositionsarc provided at such an
intersection,the runway-holdingposition marking closest
to the runway shall be supplementedwith a runway desig-
nation sign, and the markings farthest from the runway
shall be supplemented with a CategoryI, II or trI holding
positionsign.as appropriare.
11.4.6 Examplesof sign positionsat taxiway/runway
iltersectionsare shownin Figure 11-3.
Note, A runway-holding position is defined as a
designated position intended to protect ct runway, an
obstacle limitation surface, or an ILS/MIS criticausensitive
area at which texii g aircrajl and yehicles shall stop and
hold, unlessotherwise authorized by the aerodromecontrol
tower
11.4.7 A mnway-holdingposition shall be established
on a tariway if the location or alignment of the taxiway is
such that a taxiing aircmft or vehicle can infringe an
obstaclelimitation surfaceor interferc with the operationsof
radio navigation aids. At such runway-holdingpositions,
Annex 14, Volume I, specifies that a pattem "A" runway-
holding position marking shall be supplemented with a
runway-holdingpositionsign (the "B2" sign in Figure 1l-2)
on eachsideof the runway-holding posirion.
11.4.8 Location signs should be associatedwith a
runway designation sign wherever it is important to ensure
that there can be no possible ambiguity in the autho zation
process.Without exactknowledgeof location,it is possible
for pilots taxiing at an aerodromethat has multiple runway/
taxiway intersectionsto misinterpret an authorization issued
for another aircraft as being applicable to their movement
and mistakenly manoeuvre onto the runway. Thus,
Annex 14, Volurne 1, recommendsthat a runway desig-
nation sign at a taxiway/runway intersection should be
supplementedwith a location sign in the outboard (farthest
from the taxiway) position,as appropdate.
11.4.9 A NO ENTRY sign shall always be provided
when enty into arl area is prohibited.
11.4.10 For road-holdingpositionswherea road enters
a runway, the provisionsof Annex 14, Volume I, 5.4.7,
shouldbe applied.An exampleof a road-holdingposition
sign is shown iII Figure 11-4. Since thesesigns are to be
used by aerodrome pe$orurel, it is important that the
inscriptions on the sign face are in a language that is
comDrehensibleto all road users at that location,
11-5
11.5 INFORMATION SIGNS
11.5.1 Information signs enable pilots and vehicle
ddve6 to continuouslymonitor their positionon the move-
ment alea. These signs are intended to be an aid to the safe
and efficient navigation of all aircraft and vehicles.
11.5.2 Informationsignsshallinclude:dircctionsigns,
locationsigN, destinationsigns,runway exit signs,runway
vacatedsignsand intersectiontake-off signs.
11.5.3 Examplesof information signs are shown in
Figure l1-5. Sign systemsdisplaying a combination of
location and direction infomation arc the most commonly
used.In Figure 11-5,four examplesare given of this type
of application. The two simplest examples arc altemative
ways of indicating prior to a position, where only two
taxiwaysintersect,the designationof the taxiway on which
the aircraft or vehicle is currently located and the desig-
nation of the crossing taxiway. From this information and
reference to an aerodrome map, pilots and vehicle drivers
can uniquely identify their exact location and the direction
tha[ they must take at the junction to rcmain on their
assignedrcute.
11.5.4 It is only for this simplestof taxiway layouts
that the option of placing the location iDformation at the
end of the sign array is permitted. At all other, more
complex intersectionsthe position of the location sign and
the associateddhection signs must corespond to the
convention that the sign layout should directly reflect the
intersection geometry. A1l taxiways requiring a turn to the
left mustbe indicatedby a signinscriptionplacedto the left
of the location sign, and all tums to the ght must be
indicatedby a sign inscription placed to the dght of the
location sign. In addition,the order in which the crossing
taxiway irformation is displacedftom the location sign is
determined by the magnitude of the tum required to enter
that designatedtaxiway. Thus taxiways that require the
smallest change of direction are placed closest to the
location sign and those requiring the greatestchange of
directionare placedfurthestftom the location sign.
11.5.5 During the developmeltof the signagesystem,
it was demonstated that by using the sign layout adopted
in the standarddescribedabove,pilots neededless time to
read and interpret the information than with any other
layout. Furthermore, they did not make the mistakes in
interFeting the taxiway configuation that occured when
testingother sign layouts.
11.5.6 The clear differentiationbetweenlocationsigns
and all other information signs that is secured by the
11-6 Aerodrome D esi sn Manual

NON.INSTRUMENT,
NON-PRECISION,
TAKE.OFF
RUNWAYS

PRECISION
APPROACH
RUNWAYS

CATEGORY
I

CATEGORY
II

CATEGORY
III
@
EFtifiI'irffi @fltr
Note.- Distance X is establishedin accordance with Annex 14, VolameI, Chapter 3, Table 3-2. Distance Y is esmblished
at the edge of the ILS/MLS citicaUsensitiye area.

Figure 11-3. Examples of sign positions at laxiway/runway inters€ctions

 Part 4. Visual Aid.s
Chapter 11. Signs
reversal of the yellodblack colour combination is also an
imponant elemeot of the sysiem. Location signs are an
essentialelement of the signageat taxitvay int€rsections,but
they also hayg an important function wherever it is necess-
ary to uriquely identify a posirion on the movement area,
For example, a suitably sited locatior sign can expedite
position reporting when an aircraft is manoeuvring off the
runway.
11.5.7 Where information is displayed to a pilot on
the runway, location information is omitted ftom the sign
systom. Only direction information is displayed in this
situation.
11.5.8 Where it is necessaryto provide lntermediate
holding positions on a taxiway at locations other than a
runway/taxiway intersection, the location signs should con-
sist of the taxiway designator supplementedby a number.
11.5.9 An exampleof the way in which designating
letters are assigned to a taxiway system is shown in Fig-
ure 11-6. In this figure, taxiways A, C and D ar9 typical
taxiways that may require the designation of intermediate
holding positions to facilitate ground moyement operations.
11.6 SIGN LOCATION
\-
11.6.1 Signs have to be readily seen by pilots and
vehicle drivers as they manoeuvretheir aircrafl/vehicles on
the movement area. This is best achieved when the signs
can be read when pilots are following the guidance that is
derived from their view of the taxiway aheadof the aircraft.
Signs should therefore be placed as close to the edge of the
pavement as is practicable.
Figure 1l-4, Road-holding position sign
-7
11.6.2 When choosing the location of a sign, the
provisions of Annex 14, Volume I, 5.4, shall be followed.
The laxiway environment is such that the guidanceon siting
must be followed if damagedue to impact with ergine pods
or propellers or as a result of jet blast effects is to be
avoided.
] 11' SIGN EVALUATION
G€n€ral
11.7.1 The physical characteristicsof taxiway signs are
determinedby the operational requirementsrcflected in the
provisions of Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 4. The colous
used in any sign should conform to the sp€cificationsgiven
in Annex 14, VolumeI, Appendix l, Figures1.2 to 1.4.
11.7.2 To achieyethe specified luminanceperformance
for lighted signs, it is generally found that transilluminated
signs best meet the requfuements.The uniformity of the
illumination influenc€s the legibility of a sign. Unevenly lit
signs are difficult to read and are therefore not acceptablein
a taxiway signagesystem.
11.7.3 Before a sign is installed, it should be
demonstated that the rcquircments of Annex 14, Volume I,
Appendix 4, are met by the sign design. It is importart that
both luminance and colour specifications are fully complied
with. To demonstrate this compliance, it is necessary to
carry out testson a sign that fully representsthe size, colour,
inscription layout and lighting system that will be used in
service.
11.7.4 T\e dimensions and location of the reference
gdd points usedfor testing sign luminance should always be
11-8 AerodromeD esign M anual

LEFTSIDE RIGHTSIDE

eC lil C+
DIRECTIO
N/LOCATION/D
IRECTION

?
D €c-) EAPRON
LOCATION/D
IRECTION DESTINATION

l
/^\
'I

LOCATI
ON/RUNWAYVACATED RUNWAYVACATE
D/LOCATION

RUNWAY
RG2
EXIT
r EG 2 z RUNWAY
EXIT

tr
LOCATION
ECB B7.C+
DIRECTION/LOCATIO
N/DIRECTION/D
IRECTION

C Dec r\E DAC+ E S

DIRECTION/DIRECTIO
N/DIRECTIO
N/LOCATION/D
IRECTION/D
IRECTIO
N/DIRECTIO
N

?2500m 2500m)
INTERSECTION
TAKE-OFF

Figure 11-5. Information signs

Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 11- Signs
strictly in accordancewith the specifications of Annex 14,
Volume I, Appendix 4, Figure 4.1. Relaxation of the test
specificationsin terms of grid size or grid point location is
not an acceptablemeansof making a specific sign compliant
with the requirements.
11.7.5 When a sign is tested for compliaace, all
parametersshould be evaluatedincluding font size, inscrip-
tion location, the size of the borders around the inscription
and the overall dimensionsof the sign face,
1l.7.6 Taxi guidancesignsshallbe frangiblebut shall
also be able to withstand significant wind velocities. For
design purposes, a wind speed of at least 60 n/s can be
used. In some places, such as any location that is close to
Figure 11-6. Assignment of letteN to taxiways
I1-9
the point on a runway where large aircraft are rotated
during the take-off run, higher design wind speed values
may be apFopriate. However, at some locations in the
movement area,signs may be exposedto wind velocities of
up to 90 m/s causedby jet blast.
11.7.7 Structural members supporting a sign face
should not -constitute part of thc sign face dimensions.
When the structureofthe design overlapsthe sign-face,the
dimensions of the face should be adjusted accordingly to
ensue that the correct area of sign face is provided.
11.7.8 The rear of the sign should be marked in a
single conspicuouscolour except where signs are mounted
back-to-back.
11-10
11.7.9 Examples of tpical signs that comply with
are shownin Figure 11-7.
thesespecificatioDs
Evaluation procedures
11.7.10 To evaluatethe physicalcharacteristicsof a
sign, the fotlowing proceduresshould be applied:
a) assessthe category of operation for which the sign
is to be used;
b) measure the height and width of the sign face,
excluding the holder frame ivhere applicable;
c) measurethe height of all characte$;
d) measure the stroke width of each character and
ensurethat the shoke width is cotrsisientaround the
chamcte$, particularly those that contain curved
components;
e) measurethe width of each characte4
f) measure the space arcund the characten, top,
bottom, right and left;
g) measurethe border width where applicable;
h) measurethe spacebetwe€nwords where applicable;
i) where two t,?es of signs are in oDe unit (e.g.
taxiway mandaory and information signs), measure
the separationbetween the signs; and
j) compare the measured dimensions and spacings
with the recommendations given in Annex 14,
Volume I, Appendix 4.
11.7.11 To evaluate the photometric performarce of a
sign, the following proceduresshould be applied:
a) evaluatethe photometric performanceof the sign in
a darkenedenvironment;
b) mark out the grid on the sign face as shown in
Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 4, Figure 4.1
(exclude any framework). Ensule that the rows/
columns of grid points are correcdy aligned parallel
to both the top and left edge of the sign face;
c) at an apFopriate nnge ftom dle sign, measurethe
luminance and colour coordinatesat each applicable
grid point emudng that the area used for each iDdi-
Aerodrome Design Manuol
yidual measurementdoes oot exce€dthat prcscdbed
by a circle of 3 cm in diameter cented on the gdd
point. For externally lit signs, ensure that the
measuement is taken fiom behind the lisht source:
d) calculate the avemge luminance level for each
colour and compare the yalues with the minimum
values recommended in Annex 14. Volume I.
Appendix 4;
e) ensure that uniforDity of luminance has been
achieved by calculating the ratio between the
maximum and minimum luminance values for each
colour and comparing it lvith the maximum recom-
mended ratio in Alrnex 14, Volume I, Appendix 4;
f) for a mandatory (red and white) sign, confirm that
the maximum and mioimum ratios between the
average red lumioance and the average white
luminance are within the recoDmeDded range
specified in Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 4;
g) assessthe ratios of adjacent luminance levels in the
vertical and horizontal planes and compare them
with the rccommended maximum latio giveo in
Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 4 (assessthe ratio
between adjacetrt points of the same colour only);
and
h) calculate the average of the colour coordinates for
each colour and confirm that the values are
within the bouadaries rccommendedin Annex 14.
Volume I, Apperdix 1.
Note.- Signs of different lengths may have different
photonetric perfo mance s.
Det€rmining the width of a sign face
11.7.12 The examplesin Tables11-1and 11-2prcvide
guidance on how to determine the width of a sign face.
Note.- The width of the spsce betuveencheracter
groups or charqcter groups and symbolsshould be equnl to
the average heigltt oJ the letter used:
l,etter heigttt Average letter width
lwn) (mm)
400 280
300 210
2W 140
 Pa 4- Visual Aids
Chapter11. Signs 1 11- l

Figure 11-7. Examplesof typical sign designs

Corr.
 \r
11-12 AerodromeDesign Moval

ThbleU-1. I$cription: A CAI m

0etter height4(x)nm)

Item widih (mm)

YaH 200
2 274
characterspace 76
7' 274
charactergroupspaca . 280
c 274
characterspace 50
A 340
characiorspace
T 244
charactergroupspace 280
l 440
YaH 200

Toial width 2 2

Trble U-a Inscription:APRON-)

oetter h€ight300'mn)

Item Width(mm)

Y2H 150,.
A 5
characterspace 57
P 205
characterspace 71
R 205
characterspace 57
o 214
characlerspace 71
N 205
charactergroupspace 210
.? 300
Y2H '150

\ )
 Chapter 12
Visual Parking and
Docking GuidanceSystems
12,1 INTRODUCTION
Precise positioning of aircraft
In many casesaircraft are requied to park in a prescribed
position to ensurc the required clearancefrom other aircraft.
Prccise positioning of aircraft is pa{icularly required when
special passenger loading facilities connect the terminal
building to the aircraft. Also, where fixed servicing instal-
lations are provided for refuelling, electric ground power,
water, ground communication lines, compressedair, and so
on, accuratepositioning of aicraft is of impotance for their
safe and efiicient operation. A system based on markings
and inset lights and used for the positioning of aircraft at
terminals not equipped with passengerboarding bridges is
known as an apron parking guidance system. At terminals
equipped with passengerboarding bridges, a more sophisti-
cated system is neededfor the docking of aircraft. Such a
system is known as a visual docking guidance system. The
operational requirements of the docking guidance system
are included in Appendix l, and those of the parking
guidance system in Appendix 2.
12.2 AIRCRAFT STAND MANOEUVRING
GUIDANCE LIGHTS
In 2.3.1, it was mentionedthat for manoeuvringaircraft
under poor visibility conditions, closely spaced lights
similar to the taxiway cente line lights are leeded on
aircraft standsin addition to markings. These lights, which
are called aircraft stand manoeuvring guidance lights,
should be omnidirectional so that they are visible to a pilot
approaching along a taxiway at a dght angle to the stand
centre line. Low-intensity taxiway lights emitting yellow
light are normally used. An intensity of approximately
60 cd of yellow light is neededto supportoperationsdown
to a visibility equivalent to an RVR of 50 m. The surface
12-1
temperatureof the light fittings must be sufficiently low so
as not to affect aircraft tires coming in contact with them.
The lights are normally spacedat 15 m intervals.
12.3 VISUAL DOCKING
GUIDANCE SYSTEM
12.3.1 While aircmft stand manoeu\,'drgguidance
lights will provide adequateguidance to initiate the tum on
and take up a position on the cenbe line, they are not
necessadly sufficient to achieve the azimuth accuracy
necessary for nose-in stands equipped with passenger
boarding bridges. Fulthermore, to stop the aircraft at the
coEect positiol, stopping guidance is essential.Visual
docking guidance systems are therefore installed at
terminalsequippedwith passengerboardingbridges.
12.3.2 The Annex 14, VolumeI specificationsfor the
visual docking guidance system conform to the operational
requirements in Appendix l. Care should be exercised
when choosing such a system. The basic features of a few
types of visual docking guidancesystemswhich have been
found to satisfy most, if not all, of the operational require-
ments and specifications are oudined in the following
paragraphs.
Systems using graphical display
based on aircraft position s€nsors
12.3.3 A visual docking guidancesystemwhich uses
a, graphical display and laser-basedsensorsto provide
azimuth guidance, distance-to-go and stoppirg position
information detailedin Figure 12-1.This systemconsists
is
of a real-time LED (light emitting diode) display unit, a
control unit and a laser scanningunit all housedin the same
cabinet. The cabinet is attachedto the terminal building or
other support close to the extensiol of the aircraft stand
12-2 Aerodrome Desizn Mqnual

, _ )

Visual
docking
guidance
systemcabinet

Pilotinformation Operator's
informalion

@E

ffi,IEE
l dentification
failed

Closingreteinformation,.
azimuthguidance and
identification.

E
procedure
Docking

Figure 12-1. A visual dmking guidance system using a graphical display and taseFbased sensors
to provide azinuth guidance, distance-to-go and stopping position information

rl
Paft 4. VisualAids
Chapter 12. Visual Parking and Docking Guidance Systems
centreline. The system also includesan operatorcontrol
panel comprising an alphanumeric display screen and an
emergencystop push-button. The opemtor control panel is
mounted at apron level.
12.3.4 T\e display unit incorporates three different
indicators for alphanumeric,azimuth and distance-to-go
information, all of which are clearly visible from both pilot
positions in the aircraft. The display comprises an array of
LED indicatorc, yellow and red indicator boards, each
housing a processorboard connectedin ssriesto the control
unit via a ribbon cable.A serialcommunicationprotocolis
used for the communication between the confol unit and
the LED-modules. The upper two rows are used for
alphanumeric information, the third row for azimuth
information and the central vertical bar for distance-to-so
information.
12.3.5 The alphanumericdisplay, shown in yellow,
will present information such as abbreviations for aircraft
type, airport code and flight number. Special text infor-
mation for guidance is also displayed to the pilot in the
docking phase. The azimuth guidance indicator, displayed
as a red arrow, gives information to the pilot on ho\M to
direct the course of the aircraft. A yellow vertical arrow
shows the actual position of the aircraft in relation to the
aircraft stand centre line. The system supports multiple
convergentcenhe lines as well as curved centre lines. The
distance-to-go indicator, shown in yellow, comprises
32 horizontal elementswhich will display as a vertical bar
that symbolizes the centre line. Each horizontal element
rcpresentsa distance of 0.5 m.
12.3.6 By using anti-reflectivematerialin the display
window and dark colowed LED-boards, together with auto-
matic adjustment of the LED light intensity, the displayed
information is legible in all light conditions.
12.3.7 T\e laser scanningunit is housedin the lower
part of the display unit cabinet. The unit, based on thrce-
dimensional technology, comprisesa laser range finder and
scarmingmirrors. The unit also incorporates a fixed mirror
for use during self-testingofthe system,
12.3.8 Three-dimensionalprofiles for selected
aircraft using specific parameteff for the geometry of the
aircraft are programmed into the visual docking guidance
system.During the docking procedure,the laser equipment
measuresthe correspondingpararnetersof the approaching
airqaft.
12.3.9 T\e docking procedure, as illustrated in Fig-
ue 12-l- can be activatedbv:
12-3
a) the operator of the visual docking guidance system
who will select the aircraft type from the operator
control panel;
b) remote selection of aircraft type by a gate manage-
ment system,which will have to be confirmedby
the operatorofthe visual docking guidancesystem
at the operator control panel; or
c) automatic selection of aircraft tlpe by a gate
managementsystem based on informatidrr from the
flight information display system (FIDS).
12.3.10 Before any docking procedure can be
activated, a self-test will be performed by the system. The
correct position of a perrnanent test object located in a
lnown positionwill be checked.A failed testwill result in
an error messageon the LED display. If the self-test is
successful, the aircraft type will be showa on the LED
display unit as well as on the operator control panel.
Floating arrows on the azimuth and distance-to-go will
indicate that the system is ready for operation. The laser
scanning unit is now activated, and the opsrator control
panel will indicate the aircraft tlpe and the status of the
laser scanning unit as "ACTIVE".
12.3.11 When the aircraft is detectedby the laser
rangefinder, usually more than 50 m before the stop
position, the distance-to-goLED display will be activated.
The azimuth display, the yellow anow, will indicate the
lateral position of the aircraft urith resp€ct to the aircraft
stand centre line, and a red flashing arrow will indicate the
direction of any required course adjustment. The operator
"TRACKING".
conhol panel will show
12.3.12 During the approachof the aircraft towards
the stop position, the aircraft type will be verified by the
system by comparing captued data to those programmed
for the selected aircraft. If aircraft tlpe vetification is not
establishedwithin 12 m from the stop position, the LED
*STOP/ID FAIL". If the captued
display unit will show
data will verifu the aircraft type, the operator control panel
will show "IDENTIFIED".
12.3.13 When the aircraft is within a specified
distance(12 m or 16 m) from the stop position,the height
of the distance-to-goindicator will gradually decrease(the
hqrizontal elementsof the yellow bar will be switched off
one by one) as thc aircmft approachesthe stop position.
When the airqaft has reached the stop position, the
"STOP" together with
alphanumeric display will indicate
two red stop symbols. When no movement of the aircraft
can be detectedafter a prcset time period, the alphanumeric
"STOP" to "OK" or "TOO FAR',
displaywill changefrom
t2-4
as the case may be. This will also be indicated on the
operator control panel. After an additional preset time
period, the statuson the operator control panel will change
to "PARKBD".
12.3.14 Another visual docking guidancesystemthat
usesa graphical display ofthe pattern ofinterference fringes
formed by optical gratings (Moird technique) to provide
azimuth guidanceand a laser radar to provide distance-to-go
and stopping position information is detailed in Figure 12-2.
This system consistsof a display urlit, a control unit and a
laser radar unit all housed in an aluminium enclosure-The
enclosure is attached to the terminal building or other
support close to the extension of the aircraft stand cante
line. The system also includes an operator control panel
comprising a display terminal and an emergency stop
button. The operatorcontrol panel is normally located in the
passengerboarding bridge or at ground level.
12.3.15 The display unit incorporatesthree different
indicators for alphanumeric, azimuth and distance-to-go
information. The alphanumeric and distance-to.goindicator
will provide information to both the pilot and the co-pilot.
The azimuth indicator will provide guidance only to the
pilot. To provide azimutl information to the co-pilot, an
additional co-pilot azimuth guidance unit will be required.
12.3.16 The alphanumericindicator will display
horizontal text information, such as aircraft type, 'STOP",
failure codes, etc. It consists of four alphanumeric display
panels each of which is a 7 by 5 yellow fluorescent dot
matrix. Illumination is provided by a fluorescent tube.
12.3-1'7 The distance-to-go indicator provides infor-
mation basedon a laser range measulementtechnique. The
laser measuresthe distance to the aircraft, and the display
presents the measured distance relative to the parking
position in analogue and/or numeric format. Dstance
measuring is updated 10 times a second. Distance-to-go
information is provided over the last 15 m of aircraft
approach to the parking position in steps of 0.75 m. The
distance-to-goindicator consistsof three alphanumericdis-
play panels forming a vertical bar. Each display panel is a
7 by 5 yellow fluorescent dot matrix. Illumination is
provided by a fluorescent tube.
12.3.18 When the systemis activatedfor docking, a
distance sensor transmits lase! pulses in the vertical plane
to detect an approachingaircraft. Wlen the laser pulses hit
the aircraft, the pulses are reflected to th€ receivsr. Distance
measuring is performed 10 times per second.The systemis
able to detect m aircraft at more than 100 m distance.Data
on distancemeasuringis sent to the control unit, which will
process the data rclative to the parking position prior to
Aerodlome Design Manual
distance-to-go information being presented on the display
unit. The whole operation of collecting measuring data,
processing the data and showing the information on the
display unit takeslessthan 0.2 seconds.
12.3.19 The azimuthguidanceindicator,basedon the
Moire technique, provides the pilot with continuous ard
real-time azimuth guidanceinformation. The azimuth guid-
ance indicator consistsbf a front gating and a rear grating.
Light passesthrough the superimposedgatings and creates
a Moire arow pattem. Small relative rnovemsnts between
the gatings result in large changesin the pattem. Illumi-
nation is provided by compact fluorescent tubes. Reduced
illumination is applied during night to prevent operational
problerns causedby glare.
12.3.20 When approachingthe aircraft stand,the pilot
steers the airqaft in the diection indicated by the arow
pattem until the a[ow becomes a straight line. When the
azimuth guidance display shows a straight vertical black
line, the aircraft is establishedcorrectly on the centre line.
12.3.21 T\e control unit is based on an industrial
control computer. Aircraft data, such as length, wing span,
and distancesto nose, pilot's eyes, nose wheel, main
landing gear, and doors I and 2, for more than 500 dilferent
airqafr t)?es and series are stored in the computer. Eyent-
recording facilities may also be included in the control unit.
12-3-22 The visual guidance docking system can be
interfaced with an air?ort operations database(AODB) or
flight information display system (FIDS). It can thus
plo\.ide the ground crew with flight information, such as
the flight number, departue point and destination.
12.3.23 T}r.esystem aan be activated either automati-
cally or from the opemtor control panel. Manual activation
is caried out by selecting the incoming aircraft on the
operatorcontrol panel. Automatic activation canbe provided
by connecting the systemto the AODB/FIDS at the airport.
12-3.24 The system displays the airqaft type on the
alphanumeric indicator. This gives the pilot the opportunity
to halt the approach to its parking position if the aircraff
t'?e being processedin the system is incorrect.
12.3.25 Duing aircraft docking the system is being
monitored and if a fault or operational error is detected,the
alphanumeric indicator will display "STOP" and the enor
code and the operator control panel will display the error
message.
12-3-26 T\e emergencystop button is used when the
operator decidesthat the approachingairoaft is in jeopardy.
Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 12. Visual Parking and.Docking Guidance Systems 12-5

Sideviewof APIS++
systeminstallation

Display
uniifor
position
stopping
andcentreline
guidance
azimuth

Displayunit
Alphanumedcal
textrow

Closing
ratethermometef

il8ru
Co-pilot
azimuth
guidance
(optional)

n -7m '3m STOP

(Default guration)
confi

((K
guidance
Azimuth display

D))
Steerright
Oncentre
line

Figure 12-2. A visual docking guidancesystem using a graphical display (Moir6 technique) to provide
azimuth guidance and a laser radar to proyide distanc€-to-goand stopping position information
12-6
When the emergency stop is activated, the visual docking
guidance system will display azimuth guidance and
distance-to-go information, and the alphanumeric indicator
will display "STOP". After a preset time period, the alpha-
numeric indicator will display "ESTP" (emergency stop)
and "STOP" until the emergency stop button is released.
During the time the emergency stop is actiyated, all inter-
locks to other stand equipment are normally rcleased.
When the emergency stop button is released, the system
will revet to the status it had before the emergency stop
was activated.
Systems using lights alone
12.3.27 A visual dockingguidancesystemwhich uses
lights alone to provide guidance is described in Fig-
ures 12-3 and 12-4. The systemconsistsof two elements:
an azimuth guidance unit and a stopping position indicator.
The azimuth guidance unit is installed on the extension of
the stand centre line aheadof the aircraft (seeFigure 12-3).
The stopping position indicator is also installed on the
extension of the stand centre line. but it is not collocated
with the azimuth guidance unit (see Figure l2-4).
12.3.28 Tt'e azimuth guidance unit functions as
follows. If the stand centre line is taken as the origin, and
angles located to the left of the stand cente line are
consideredas negative and those to the right as positive, the
pilot getsthe fouowing five indications when facing the unit:
a) ftom -10'37'to -6'37'. the left beamis red and the
right beam green;
b) between -6'37' and -0'7'. the left beam which was
red throughout its height gradually tums green,
whereasthe right beam remains green;
Aerodrome Design Manuol
c) between-0'7'.and +0'7', the two beamsare green;
d) between+0'7' and +6037'.the left bearn remains
green, while the right beam which was green
thoughout its height gadually turns rcd;
e) between +6'37' and +10"37', the left beam is
completely green and the right beam is completely
rcd.
12.3.29 Frcm the above it follows that, if the pilot
seestwo green beams throughout their height, the atcraft
is on or close to the standcentre line. If the aircraft is to the
left of the stand centre line, the pilot will seethe left beam
partially or totally red, depending on the extent of devi-
atiol, and the right beam green. The pilot must then move
to the right in order to seeboth beams green. On the other
hand, if the aircraft is to the right of the stand centre line,
the pilot will seethe right beam partially or totally red and
the left beam green. The pilot must then move to the left to
seeboth beams green.
12.3.30 The stoppingposition indicatorof the system
uses green and red colours to indicate the Fecise stopping
positions.It is locatedin front of the pilot and abovethe
pilot's eye height as indicated in Figure l2-4. The unit
consists of an intemally illuminated horizontal slot with
thee stopping positions marked on it. Each stopping
position is identified by the type of aircraft to which it is
applicable, When the aircraft ente$ the stand, the entire
horizontal slot will appeargrean to the pilot. As the a cmft
moves forward along the stand centle line, the left-hand
portion of the slot becomesred and then the length of the
red sector gradually increases. The aircraft reaches the
stopping position when the interface of the red and green
sectors is in line with the stop mark (on the slot) for that
aircraft tvDe.
Part 4. Visuol Aids
Chapter 12. Visual Parking and Docking Guidance Systems l2-7

guidance
Azimuth unit

mEm mmF Fiveindications

t
Green Red

point
Stopping

/ '
/ /
L Slandcentre
line

Figure 12-3. The azimuth guidance unit ofa visual dmkhg guidancesystem using lights
123 Aerodrome Desigt Manuol

Sioppingpositionindicator
o
In position
3 Enlerir€intothesloplighlfield

Pilots

Terminal
ftontwall

I
I
I
h3 I
I tt
I , .
I
n 2l l n l

tl

plane
Verlicalappmach o
Figure 12-4. The stopping position indicator of a visual docking guidance system usitrg lights
 Chapter 13
Apron Floodlighting
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.1.1 The following material is providedin order to
give guidancein the applicationof Annex 14, Volume I,
5.3.21.
13.1.2 An apon is a defined area on a land aerodrome
intsnded to accommodateaircraft for the pupose of loading
and unloading passengers,mail.or cargo;refuelling parking
or maintsnanca. Aircraft would normally be expected to
move into these areasunder their own power or by towing,
and adequatelighting is necessaryto enable these tasks to
be performed safely and efficiently at night.
13.1.3 The part of the apron containing the aircraft
standsrequires a relatively high level of illuminance. The
size of each aircraft stand is largely determinedby the size
of the aircraft and by the amount of spac€ necessary to
manoeuvrethe aircraft safely into and out of this position.
r3.2 FUNCTIONS
13.2.1 The primary fimctions of apron floodlighting
are to:
a) assistthe pilot in taxiing the aircraft into and out of
the final parking position;
b) provide lighting suitable for passengersto ernbark
and debark and for personnel to load and unload
cargo, refuel and perform other apron servica func-
tions; and
c) maintain airport security.
Aircraft taxiing
13.2.2 T\e pilot mainly relies on apron floodlighting
when taxiing on the apron. Uniform illuminance ofthe pave-
I3-1
ment u,ithin the aircraff stand and elimihation of glare are
major requirements.On taxiways adjacentto aircraft stands,
a lower illuminance is desirablein order to provide a gradual
transition to the higher illuminance on the aircraft stands.
Apron service
13.2.3 Thesefunctions require uniform illuminance of
the aircraft stand area of 6 suffcient level to perform most
of the tasks. In case of unavoidable shadows, some tasks
may require supplementarylighting.
Airport s€curity
13.2.4 Illuminance should be sufrcient to detect the
presence of unauthorized persons on the apron and to
enable identification ofpersormel on or near airoafl stands.
I3.3 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
Choice of light source
13.3.1 Various light sorucescan be applied. The spec-
tral distribution of these lights shall be such that all colours
used for aircraft markings connectedwith routine servicings,
and for surface and obstruction makings, can be conectly
identified. Practicehas shown that incandescenthalogen, as
well as different high-pressue gas dischargelamps, is suit-
able for this purpose.Dischargelamps, by the nature ofthsir
spectral distsibution, will produce colour shifting. Therefore
it'is imperative to checkthe coloursproducedby thesel&mps
under daylight as well as artificial light to ensure corect
colour identification. Occasionally it may be advisable to
adjust the colour schemeused for surface and obstruction
markings. For economic reasons high-pressure sodium or
high-pressuremercury halide lamps are recornrnended.

Illuminance
13-3.2 Ao ayerageilluminanceofnot lessthan 20lux
is neededfor colour perception and is consideredthe mini-
mum lequirernent fqr the tasks to be carried out on the
aircraft stands-In order to provide optimum visibility, it is
essextial that illuminance on the aircraft stand be uniform
within a ratio of 4 to I (averageto minimum). ln this con-
nection the averagevertical illuminance at a height of 2 m
should not be less than 20 lux in relevart directions.
13.3.3 To maintain acceptable visibility conditions,
the average horizontal illuminance on the apron, except
where ssrvice functions are taking place, should not be less
than 50 per csnt of the average horizontal illuminance of
the aircraft standg within a uniformity ratio of 4 to I
(averageto minimum) in this area,
13.3.4 It is recognized that some yisual tasks require
additional supplementary lighting, e.g. portable lighting.
However, the use of vehicle headlights for purposes other
than guidance during driving should be avoided.
13.3.5 For secu.ity reasons,additional illuminance
greaterthan lhat specifiedabovemay be required.
13.3.6 The area between the airqafi stands and the
apron trimit (sewice equipnrent,parhng area, service roads)
should be illuminated to an averagehorizontal illuminance
of l0 lux. Ifthe higher-mountedfloodlights do not light this
areaadequately,then glare-freelighting ofthe sheet-lighting
type could be used. Some examples of illuminance on
aprcnsare presentedin Figuresl3-1,l3-2,l3-3 and 13-4.
Glare
13.3.7 Direct lamplight ftom the floodlights shall be
avoided h the direction of a control tower and landing
aAcraft- Aiming of floodlights should be, as far as prac-
ticable, in the directions away from a control tovr'er or
landing aircraft. Direct light above the horizontal plane
through a floodlight should be restricted to the minimum
(seeFigures13-5 and 13-6).
13.3.8 To minr'mize direct and indirect glare:
a) the mounting height of the floodlights should be at
least two times the maximutr aircraft eye height of
pilots of aircraft regularly using the airport (see
Figure 13-6);
b) lhe lo€ation and height of the masts should be such
that inconvenienceto ground persormeldue to glae
is keDt to a minimum.
Aerodrome Design Manual
In order to meet theserequirements,floodlights will have to
be aimed carefully, grving due consideration to their light
distribution. Light distribution may have to be adaptedby
the use of screens.
Emergency lighting
13.3.9 To cover the possibility of a power failue, it is
recommendedtlat provision be made for sufficient illumi-
nation to be available to ensurepassengersafety (see also
13.4.3).
13.4 DESIGN CRITERIA
Lighting aspects
13.4.1 In addition to the desigl criteria derived from
the performancerequiremenls,the following aspectsshould
be consideredin designing an apron floodlighting syston:
a) the height ofthe apron floodlighting mastsshould be
in accordancewith the releyant obstacle clearance
requirsments as shown in Arnex 14, Volume I,
Chapter 4;
b) obstructions in the vielv of control tower persomel
should be avoided. In this respect special attention
should be paid to the location and the height of the
floodlighting towers; and
c) the arangement and aiming of flootllights should
be such that aircraft statds receive light trom differ-
ent directions to minimize shadows. Better results
are obtained by ruriform illuminance of the total
area than by directing individual floodlights at the
airdaft (seeFigues 13-7 and t3-8).
Physical $peits
13.4.2 Dudng the design stage of an airport, due
considerationshould be given to the physical as?ectsof the
afon in order to proyide efficient apron floodlighting. The
ultimate choice of the location and height of the floodlights
dependsupon:
a) dimensions of apron(s);
b) arargement of aircrafl stands;
Pat 4. I/isual Aids
Chapter 13. Apron Floodlighting t3-3

tr'igure13-1. Typical isolur curvcsfor horizontal illuminancc @rample A)

1i4 Aerodrome Design Manual

;l
__Y_ > _ _ _ _ _ _ f_

Figwe 13-2. Typical average vertical illumiuance at 2 m heigbt (Example A)

Pat 4. Visual Aids
Chopter 13. Apron Floodlighting t3-5

a':- -

lux

Taxiway
Ehav=
12lux

0 l0 20 30 40 50m

Figure 13-3. Typical isolux curves for horizontal illuminance (Exrmple B)

j3-6 Aercdrome Design Maaual

Figure 13-4. Typlcrl lyenge vertical illumirarce at 2 m height (Exrmple B)

 Pqtt 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 13- Apron Floodlighting 13-7

t-

Figurc !3-5. Aiming to avoid glare

{-.

f igure l},6. Mounting height to avoid glrre

t-
13-E Aerodrome Design Manual

Figure 13-7. lypical floodlight arrangement and aiming for parallel parking

Figurc l3-8. [pical floodlight arrangement and air4ing for nose.in parking
Port 4. Yisual Aids
Chapter 13. Apron Floodlighting
c) taxiway arangement and traffic scheme;
d) adjacent areas and buildings, especially control
to$,e(s); and
e) location and status of runway(s) and helicopter
landing areas.
Note.- Guidance material concenfug the dimensions
of apron and parlcing standswill befound in the Aero&orne
Design Manual, Doc 9157, Psn 2.
Electrical aspects
13.4.3 If discharge lamps are used, a three-phase
electrical supply system should be utilized to avoid strobo-
I3-9
scopic effects. If high-pressure discharge lamps are used,
emergency lighting car be rranged by either halogen
incandescsntlamps or by sp€cial circuitry of some of the
high-pressuredischargelamps.
Maintenance aspccts
13.4.4 The lighting system should be so designedthat
maintenanceexpensecan be h€ld to a reasonable lue. If
accessto lights is difficull it is most econonical to change
lanps on a group rcplacement basis. Since the cost of
replacing lamps in high-momted ligltts can be significant,
longJife lamps should be used. Where possible, the lights
should be so placed that they will be easily accessible\rith-
out using special equipment. Tall poles could be equipped
with polestepsor raising and lowering dwices for sewicing.
 Chapter 14
Marking and Lighting of Obstacles
14.I CENERAL
Operational requirements
14.1.1 The safetyof flying at low levels undervisual
flight rules (VFR) dependssignificantly on the pilot being
able to see any obstruction that constitutes an obstacle to
flight in sufficienttime to carry out an evasivemanoeuwe
in an unhurried and controlled manner.The most demanding
circumstancesoccur whell flights take place in a visibility
close to the limiting value for that class of operation.
Obstacles carmot be seen at ranges in excess of the
prevailing visibility and will often be seen at lesserranges.
The shortfall in obstaclerange performanceis what consti-
tutes the flight hazard. In practical terms, flight safety
considerationsrequire the conspicuity of obstacles to be
erhanced so that their visual range is at least the sarneas the
prevailing visibility in marginal weather conditions.
14.1-2 At night, similar considerationsarise. Pilots
have the same need to see obstacles in sufficient time to
carry out any necessaryevasrvemanoeuvre.
14.1.3 In all circumstances, pilots shouldbe able to
determine the location and extent ofthe obstacle.By night,
this alwaysrequires the application ofmeasues to delineate
the obstacle in some detail. By day, enhancernentof the
cues that enab'lethe obstacle to be located easily is impor-
tant, but in many circumstances cue enhancemelts to
delineate the extsnt of the obstruction are not esssntial. In
the <laytime,if the pilot can see the obstacle, then in many
circumstances the size and shape can also be readily
appreciated.
14.1.4 In one State,it is assumedthat pilots of airqaft
travelling at 165 kt or less should be able to seeobstuction
lights in sufrcient time to avoid the struchre by at least
600 m horizontally under all conditions of operation. Pilots
operating between 165 kt and 250 kt should be able to see
the obstruction lights at 1.9 kn, unless the weather
deterioratesto 1.5 km yisibiliiy at night during which time
t4-1
2 000 cd would be required to see the lights at the same
distance. A higher intensity with geater visibility at night
can generate an annofng signal to local residents. In
addition, aircraft in these speed mnges can normally be
expected to operate under instrument flight rules (IFR) at
night when the yisibility is 1.5 km.
14.1.5 In anotherState,the rationalefor the identifi-
cation of the required obstacle light intensity is based on
the assumptionthat lights should have a range equal to the
lowest visibility in which a pilot can fly under \4R, i.e.
3.7km.
Types of obstacles
14.1.6 Obstaclescan be oeated in both the aerodrome
and en-route environmentsby a rcnge of structures;some of
the most common are fansmission masts, pylons, bridges,
cooling towers, cornrnunicationmasts and cables. All such
obstacles are within the purview of Annex 14, Volume I,
although those specifications are specifically published in
relation to aerodromeoperations.
Implemetrtation
14.1.7 Many obstaclesare consideredby residentsto
have a negatiye visual impact on the local environment.
Operational requirementsare thsrefore inevitably influorced
by a conflict of interests in that pilots require enhancement
of the conspicuity of obstacles whilst environmentalists
requie that obstacles should be incouspicuous.The basic
requirement is therefore to make obstacles conspicuous
when viewed from aircraft without significantly increasing
the conspicuity of obstacleswhen viewed fiom the ground.
14.1.8 The methodof obstaclevisibility enhancement
chosenmust be capableofoperating-effectively at all times.
A high level of reliability and availability is therefore
required, impllng that the characteristicsofthe systemthat
is installed must be capable of being maintained over
prolonged periods.
14-2
14.2 CONSPICUITY ENIIANCEMINT
TECTINIQUES
14.2-l The techniquesrecommeadedin Annex 14,
Volume I, Chaptsr 6, for the enhancement of obstacle
conspicuity fall mainly into two categories, marking and
lighting. A third method in which the size of the obstacle
is increased by attaching additional structural matsrial is
also used in some applications.An exampleof this latter
method is tlrc placing afspftercs a( ilkrvals alotg ca6les.
The marking of surfacesof obstacleswith large altemating
areas of contrasting colour chosen to produce bands or
squaresof high or low reflectance is a requirement that is
particularly applied to obstacles such as buildings, masts
and towe$. Wlen first applied to the structue, such
colouring media can be effectiye in making the obstacle
conspicuous by day over a wide range of viewing con-
ditions. However, the cost and difficulty of maintaining the
initial charucteristics of this solution are significant.
Furthermore, at night the system must be supplementedby
a lighting installation.
14.2.2 Lighting systemsthat are opemtionally effective
are extensively used. These systems provide pilots with
adequate information on the location and extent of the
objects to which they are applied. Experience has shown
that, at night, steady lights of an appropriate colour and
intensity meet operational requirements in a manner that
satisfiesboth pilots and local residents.
14.2.3 The recommendedpracticesfor enhancingthe
conspicuity of obstacleshave a number of practical diffi-
culties associatedwith them. As already mentioned, the
enhancamentof contrast through use of paint, or similar
colouring materials, is only effective for day flying and
must alvr'aysbe supplernentedby lighting at night. Appli-
cation and maintenancecosts are high, and these probl€ms
axe exacerbated by access issues, particularly on tall
structures.
14.2.4 Whilst pattems of steady red lights can be
provided that adequately indicate obstacles to pilots at
night, by day the intensityof the lights has to be substan-
tially increased to produca the same rarge performance.
Signals having these high levels of output can, in practice,
only be provided by the use of white flashing lights. Lights
of this type are used extensively in some States.The size
and weight of the equipment for this type of lighting make
it imFacticable to apply this solution to some obstacles.
Furthermore,the signal characteristicsof flashing lights are
not acceptableto some local residents in daytime and are
strcngly objected to in many locations at night, even if the
intensity levels are reduced.Theseadverseconditions cause
Aerodrome Design Manual
particular difficulties away fiom urban en!,rionmsntswhsre
ambisntlight levels are generallylow.
r43 MARKING
14.3,1 The circumstances in which an obstacleshould
be marked and techniques for the application of markings
are desctrbedit Anlex 14, Volsfie I, Chaper 6. rhe rccA-
niques that are used arc those that ovefall provide the best
enhancementof the conspicuity of objects, although they
are not effective in some circumstances.
14.3.2 lt an object is vielved against a sky back-
ground, the greatestmnge will be achieved if the object is
black. In overcast conditions, objects that are coloured
orange can have a visual range which almost match€sthat
obtained with black. In sunny conditions,when fllng dowrl
sun, black, orange or white surfacesall produce similar and
useful visual ranges. When flying up sun, the contrast
associatedwith orangeis reducedbut that of white indeases.
Thus, for identical objects an orangeand white paint schsme
is generally as efective as black Furthermore,when viewed
against a complex terrestrial background the orange and
white colour scherneprovides significant operationalcontact
range berrefits.
14.3.3 By day, it is theoreticallypossibleto match or
exceedthe range of coloured objects with a suitably speci-
fied light. To achieve operationally significant range
benefits in all daytime weather conditions requires the use
of irtensities tiat are not practical in some applications.
This is particularly aue for small structureswhere the size
and weight of the light units makes such solutions
impracticable.
14.3.4 The visual raage of a tall, slender lattice
structue, such as a radio or television mast, is a complex
function-of the reflectance of the sfuctual membels, their
area and spacing, the sky conditions, the direction of the
sun, the direction from which the mast is viewed, as well as
the hansmissivity of the atmosphereand the background
against which it is seen,When the visual range of the mast
is low, the structural members of the tower can be resolved
by a pilot evsn when viewing the object at the limit of
visibility. On.the other hmd, when the visual range is great,
the structural memberc cannot be resolved and the mast
must be considered as a large object having low contrast
with the background.In this case,the contrastis determined
from tlte averagebrightness of the ovaall area of the mast,
the structural mernbersand backgroundwithin the envelope
of the mast,
Paft 4. Visual Ai^
Chapter 14. Mafting snd Lighting of Obstacles 1+i

14.4 LIGHTINGCHARACTERISTICS 14.4.4 Obstaclelighting should be visible at all angles

14.4.1 The characteristics of obstacle lighting are
specified in Annex 14, Volume I, Table 6-3 and Appendix 6.
Depending on the particular application low-, medium- or
high-intensity lights are required. In some circumstances,a
combination of light types is used.
14.4.2 Obstacle lights emit either white or red light
except for one application where blue light may be used,
Some types of lights provide a steady signal, other tlpes
have a flashing chamcteristic. Whfle a flashing light is
used, the repetition rate is specified. This varies between
types of lights.
14-4.3 To Fovide pilots with the optimal signal, the
repetition rate should be approximately 90 flashesper min-
ute. Rates between 60 and 120 flashes psr minute are
generally assessedby pilots as providing the necessary
conspicuoussignal. These rutes ensurethat contact can be
maintained with the lights after initial acquisition. Lower
fiequencies result in there being an undesirably long
interval between signals. This makes the lights difticult to
locate and retain in the instantaneousfield of view of the
pilot. Design considerationsmay result in t}le use ofrepeti-
tion rates that are less than the optimum values, but such
lights are still found to be operationally effective.
Conversely, frequencies higler than these values can be
almoying to any obsewer.
of azimuth. Achievement of this characteristicnecessitates
the use of multiple fittings in applications such as cooling
towers. The vertical beam spreadspecified ensuresthat suf-
ficient lights can be seen by pilots to identiry the location
and extent of any object that is an obstacle to the safe
navigation of aircraft.
'The
14.4.5 intensities specifiedin Annex 14, Volume I,
Table 6-3, have beenchosento give an adequatevisual range
in the most demandingconditions in which it is intendedthe
lights shall be used. The relafionship betweenintensity and
visual range for a number of circumstancesis shown in
Table 14-1. The intsnsities shown cover the full range of
high, medium and low intensities used in the provision of
obstaclelighting.
14.4.6 The operational benefits of high-intensity
lighting in day conditions ale illustrated in Figure 1,1-1.
Rangeperformancedata for lights of200 000 cd, 20 000 cd
and 2 000 cd are preserrtedfor a range of meteorological
conditions.
'14.4.7
To be of operational borefit, a light must
produce a visual range in excess of the range of the unlit
object on which it is located- The unlit range of the object
may be equal to the meteorological visibility. By defrnition,
it can never be greater and in practice it will often be less.
For specification and design purposes, it can be assumed

Table l4-1. Relatiooship betweeniotetrsity atrd visual ratrge

me Meteorological Distance Inlensity

period visibility(km) (km) (cd)
Day 1.6 200 000 *250/0
2.2 100 000 r 25%
1.6 20 000 r 250/"
---
Day 4.8 4.8 200 000 r 25%
4.3 100000 i 25%
2.9 20 000 r. 250/0
Twilighi 1.6 1.6to 20 000 x 250/0
2.4
Twilight 4.8 2.9 to 20 000 I 25%

Night 1.6 1:9 2 000 t 25%

1.8 1 500 i 25%
1.0 32 * 25o/.
Night 4.8 4.9 2 0OOx 25o/o
4.7 1 500 r 25%
1.4 32 t 25ok
144
that the requirement is such that the rcnge ofthe light must
be greater than the range of the unlit obstacle.
14.4.8 High-intensitylights (200 000 cd) Foduce the
required range enhancement over the full spread of
opemtionallysignificantdistances.At all the rangesabove
approximately 6 km, the visual range ofhigh-intensity lights
tends to be lessthan the meteorological(obstacle)range, but
at thesed'istancesno enhancemsntofthe naturally occurring
visual cues is gorerally necessary,
14.4.9 Environmental problerns with the use of
obstaclelighting have been identified. The scale of the
problem is dependent on the location of the obstacle.
Certain areasare more sensitive to environmental concems.
These areas include suburbs, national parks, valleys and
locations where lights are placed on buildings ofhistoric or
architectual significance. The light chamcteristicswhich in
combination can produce the subjective difslence betvveen
environmentally objectionable and environmentally accept-
able solutionsinclude:
a) colour;
b) intensityin the directionofthe viewer;
c) flash characteristics;and
d) lighting configuration on the structure.
The snvironmental acceptability of yarious colours of lights
is another issue. It is generally agreed that aviation red
obstacle lights are less objectionable at ground level than
fl ashing-whiteobstaclelights.
14.4.10 The intensity of the light in the direction of
the viewer is a major determinant of the snvironmental
acceptability of flashing-white lights at night. The amount
of ground illumination is determined by several factors
including:
a) beampattem;
b) height of the light fixture above the ground;
c) distance from the obstacleto the observer;
d) meteorologicalvisibility conditions;and
aiming adjustmentson the light fixture.
14.4.11 As canbe seerfiom Figure l4-1, low-intsnsity
lights provide no operationalbenefit by day. Except in very
Aerodrome DesiPn Man al
low visibilities, where VFR operations do not take place,
low-intensity lights have iange chaBcteristics that are
infsrior to the meteorclogical range.
14.4.12 Medium-intensitylighting (20 000 cd) can
produce small beneficial range snhancementsin poor to
medium visibility conditions. In these circumstances,this
tlpe oflighting can be regarded as having a range perform-
ance that equatesto th-evisibility of a painted object. This
equivalence makes medium-intensity lighting a useful
altemative to marking the object. The flashing character-
istic of this lighting is beneficial in that it enhancesthe
conspicuity of the obstacleby drawing the pilot's aftention
to the location of the obstacle.
14.4.13 The painting of markings on any structue is
an expensive and potentially hazardous activity. To be
operationally effective, the markings must always be main-
tainedto a high standard.This is alsoan expensiverequire-
ment to comply with. The use of medium-intensity lighting
in these circumslances often has clear cost-benefits, In
addition, the light units are less expensive,smaller,oflower
weight and uselesspower than the altemative high-intensity
light unit6, There are many structureswhere it is impracti-
cableto fit high-inlensitylighls.
14.4.14 In dalime conditionswherean obstaclemust
be made conspicuous at short and medium ranges, but
where the naturally occurring visual range of the object is
sufficient at long range, medium-intensity lights offer a
viable altemative to marking.
14.4.15 Thereare four t,?es of low-intensitylighting
specified, all for use in twilight and night conditions,
although the inte-nsitiesspecified for the Type C and D
lights are sufficient to make them clearly visible by day at
the shod ranges which they are used. For example, the
Type D "follow me" vehiclelights will normallybe usedat
ranges less than 100 m. There are two low-intensity lights,
Type A and Type B, specified for the marking of fixed
obstacles.Type A is normally used singly or in a pattem
wher-only night lighting is required. The operational
effectiveness of this light, particularly on and around
aerodromes,has been demonstratedby many years of use.
'fhe
14.4.16 low-intensity light, Type B, was
developedfor use with the medium-intensity light, Type A,
in a dual lighting system that provides implementation
options in terms of practicability and environmental
concerns.
14.4.17 ln environments where the pressnceof other
lighting noticeably affects the conspicuity of the
 Part 4. Visual Ai.ds
Clupter 14. Morking s.td Lightit g of Obttacles t4-5

lolv-inlensity Ught Type A, consideration catr be given to
the use o{ the tow-inteusity tidlrt" TVpe B.
14.4.18 The following thlee types of medium-
inteDsity lights are specified in Annex 14, Volume I,
Table 6-3:
a) Type A - medium-intetrsity flashing-white light;
b) Type B - medium-intensity flashing-red light; and
c) Type C - medium-intensity fixed-red light.
14.4.19 Tbe Dedium-intetrsity light, Type A, is
designed for use in day, twilight and night conditious. In
the latler condition, the output of the light is adjusted to
10 per cent of the full intensity. An intensity of 20 000 cd
is oot required at night to make the light effective and if
used can result in operational difficulties causedby glare or
euviroameutal rcstrictious. This type of [ght can be used
alone to provide a waming signal by day and by night. The

ol lightgrealer
Range than

Range
ol lightlessthan
range
olobstacle

20000cd

ca F
zooo

Visual
range
oflarge (km)
unlitobslacles

Figurr 14-1. Comparisonof tbe typicrl dayrime rsnge of lights

and thc range of largc unlit obJectsfor thr€e vrlucs of htetrsitJ/
\..,
14-6
T)?e A light is installed where there is an operational need
to mark or light an obstacl€,wherc it is not practicableor
not necessaryto install high-intensity lighting and where
markings would be difficult to maintain. The Type A light
does not have the range performance of. high-intensity
lighting, but there are many applications where an environ-
mental study can show that it is not necessaryto install the
high-intensity equipment and that the mnge performanceof
the medium-intensity lighting is adequate.
14.4.20 The medium-intensitylight, Type B, was
developed specifically for use in dual lighting systems. It
has the same intensity (2 000 cd) as the medium-intensity
light, Type A, ard the night setting of high-intorsity lights,
Tlpes A and B, but becauseit emits red light it overcomes
the objection to the use of flashing-white lights at night
which occurs with other systems. Because it is medium
power and requires no intensity control, the cost of the
Tlpe B light makes the use of dual lighting systems
economicallyviable.
14.4.21 The medium-intensitylight, Type B, is used
in combination with high-intensity and low-intensity lights
to provide dual systems that fulfil a number of differsnt
requirements.
14.4-22 Tlre medium-intensity light, Type C, is
designed for night use. It is used particularly where
environmental issues prevent the use of white or flashing
light signals.This tlpe of light is an effective means of
lighting obstaclesin an urban environmsnt where the large
amount and colour of the lighting provides a difficult back-
ground for the obstaclelighting to be seen against.Red
lights of 2 000 cd meet this requirement.The continuous
natwe of tho signal is of particularbenefit in this twe of
snvironment by making it easier for a pilot to retain visual
contactwith the obstacleafter initial acquisition,
14.4.23 T\e high-intensity lights, Types A and B,
have sufficient intensity to meet the most demanding day-
time requirernents. The intensity settings for twilight and
night (backgroundluminancesof 50 to 500 cd/m" and less
than 50 cd/m/ respectively) provide appropriate lower
levels of output. When specifying these types of light, it is
necessarynot only to considerthe operationalrequirement
for high intensitiesbut also to considerthe size and weight
of th€ equipment. Whereas other t)?es of lighting have a
horizontalcoverageof 360 degrees,high-intensitylighting
usually consistsof units having a horizontalcoverageof
approximately 120 degrees. It is thereforc necessary to
install a number of units at each light position to obtain all-
round coverase.
Aerodrome Desisn Manual
I4.5 LOCATION OF LIGHTING
14.5.1 The lighting specified in Annex 14. Vol-
ume I, Chapter 6, 6.3, provides for a number of system
designs.This range of options is necessaryto deal with
the wide variety of operational systems in an appropriate
manner.
14.5.2 The patterir of lights to be used and the
location of the lights within the pattern is an important
design consideration. It is only through the correct choice
of pattem and light type within the pattem that an obstacle
lighting systerncan fulfil the operational need.
14.5.3 For small objects less than 45 m in height,
low-intensity lights are normally used. For more extensive
objects and for objects having heights greater than 45 m,
the use of medium-intensity lights is recommsnded. For
objects extending more than 150 m above the surounding
ground level, high-intsnsity obstaclelights will normally be
used to meet the operational requirsments.
14.5.4 In all cases,a light shouldbe installedas close
as is pmcticable to the highest point on any object regard-
lessof what other lights are provided.
14.5.5 For extensive objects such as a group of
buildings, obstacle lights should be positioned to dmvr'
attention to the location of all primary comers and edges.
When designrng systems for night use, it is particularly
importaDt to ensurethat the position and the extent of the
object can be rccognized by a pilot. Defining straight lines
and comers by an adequatepattem of lights is particularly
helpful.
14.5.6 An exampleof an obstaclelighting systemfor
an extensive object is given in Annex 14, Volume I, Chap-
tsr 6, Figure6-3. This figure shows how lighting can be
applied to delineate the objects that constitute the
obshuction.
14.5.7 Eachobstacleshouldbe the subjectofa design
study to identi8 the required layout for that particular
situation. The design should conform to the recommen-
dations given in Annex 14, Volume I, 6.3, which also
provides examples of obstacle lighting systems for tall
structues suih as masts and chimneys. In some instances,
thesecan extendto heightsin excessof 600 m. Heightsof
approximately 250 m are common for TV antennamasts.
The examples given in Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 6,
show how lighting can be selectedand applied to meet a
wide range of opemtional situations.
Pon 4. VisuolAi&
Chapter14. Markingand Lightingof Obstacles
14.5.8 In Annex 14,VolumeI, Appendix6, Figure6.1,
the location details are given for a medium-intensity lighting
system, This design can be adopted for obstaclessuch as
communication masts,If the mast has a height in excessof
150 m, consideration should be given to the use of high-
intensity lighting. For this case, marking is required if
high-intensity lighting is not used. The medium-intersity
lighting, Type A, is particularly useful on skeletal masts
where weight-carrying capacity is limited and whsre access
for maintenancepurposesis not easyto achieve.The design
of this layout follows a number of design guidelines. There
is a light at the highest point of the structure for all masts
45 m or greaterin height. Thsre are at least two lights in the
pattem for all mastsof 105m or greaterin height. The lights
in the pattem are equispaced and the spacebetween them
is never greaterthan 105 m. The lowest light is always at or
below 105m.
14.5.9 Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 6, Figue 6.2,
is an example of a dual lighting system suitable for night
use only. The pattern consists of altemating 2 000 cd
flashing-red and 32 cd fixed-red lights. The low-int€nsity
lights are interspersedbetween the medium-intensity units,
which are spacedin accordancewith the paramete$ given
in Annex 14, Volume I, 6.3.17.The flashing lights make
this layout conspicuous,but their repetition rate is low.
Once the pilot has locatedthe obstacle,the low-intensity
fixed lights pres€nta continuouspattemthat helpsthe pilot
to retain an awarenessof the obstacle. Without this feature.
experiencehas shown that it is possible for a pilot to have
only intemittent contact v/ith the obstacle due to the low
repetition rate of the flashing light signal. Continuity of
visual information is an important requirement that cannot
be met solely by lights having low repetition rates. An
obstaclelit as shownin Annex,14, Volume I, Appendix 6,
Figure 6.2, should be marked for daytime in conformity
with Annex 14, Volume I, Ciapter 6, 6.2.
14.5.10 Whsre a medium-intensitylighting system
using only fixed-red lights is required, the layout shown in
Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 6, Figure 6.3, should be
used. The light spacing is chosen to ensure that enough
ligbts are placed on the obstacle to make both the location
and the extent of the obstacle easy to determine. Oper-
ational experience has shorr that this configuration
provides the cues required by pilots without causing any
snvironmental problems.
14.5.11 The dual lighting system defined in
Annex 14,VolumeI, Appendix6, Figure6.4, usesa combi-
nation of medium-intensity and low-intsnsity lighting. For
daytime use, medium-intensity lights, Type A, must be
14-7
opemted. At night, medium-intensity lights, Tlpe B, are
used augmented by low-intensity lights, Type B. In
practice,this configuation resultsin a pafternof20 000 cd
flash'ing-white lights spacedat intervals of not more than
105 m for daytime use and a pattem of alternate flashing
2 000 cd and fixed 200 cd red lights at night with a spacing
half that used for dalime operations.This arrangernentis
therefore identical to that Fovided in Annex 14, Volume I,
Appendix 6, Figures 6.1 and 6.2 for daytime and for night
operations,respectively. Th€ lighting design is particularly
useful for objects less than 150 m in height where there is
a preference for flashing-white lights by day and flashing-
red lights at night.
14.5.12 Another dual lighting systernis defined in
Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 6, Figure 6.5. It uses
medium-intensity lights, Tlpe C (fixed-red), to proyide a
night capability identical to that provided in Amex 14,
Volume I, Appendix 6, Figure 6.3. By the addition of
medium-intsnsity lights, Type A, at alternatepositions on
the obstacle,a da1'timecapability using 20 000 cd flashing-
white lights is added.The key featuresof this dual lighting
system are the use of flashing-white lights by day and the
use of only fixed-red (2 000 cd) lights by night. This con-
figuation allows the use of medium-intsnsity flashing-white
lights by day, but is acceptableat night in locations where
both white lights and flashing signals are not acceptable.As
with other designsusing medium-intensity lights, Type A, it
is primarily intended for use on obstaclesless than 150 m
hich.
14.5.13 Where the waming information available
ftom high-intensity lighting must be plovided on tall struc-
tures, the design guidance given in Almex 14, Volume I,
Appordix 6, Figures 6.6 to 6.8, is used. More detailed
guidance on t}Ie installation of this type of lighting is given
in 14.6 below, while Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 6,
Figure 6.6, gives the basic configuration.In Annex 14,
Volume I, Appendix 6, Figwes 6.7 and 6.8, a dual lighting
system is defined that addressesthe need to light the
highest point on an obstruction in circumstancesvr'hercthe
upper part ofthe structwe is not suitable for the attachment
of high-intensity light units. This Foblem is overcome by
the use of medium-intensity lighting at that location. At
night, as shown in Annex 14, VolumeI, Appendix 6, Fig-
we 6.7, the lighting pattem consistsof a combinationof
fixed- and flashing-red lights; no white lights are used in
this layout. The lighting shown in Annex 14, Volume I,
Appendix 6, Figure 6.8, is similar to that in Figure 6.7, but
at night all units are medium-intensity fixed-red lights. The
layout shown in Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 6, Fig-
ure 6.8, is of particularusewhsre envionmentalissuesare
a major consideration.
 14-8
14.6 INSTALLATION OF HIGH-INTENSITY
OBSTACLE LIGHTING
14.6-1 High-intensitywhite obstaclelights are usedto
indicatethe presenceoftall structuesif their height above
the level of the sunoundinggroundexcaeds150m, and an
aeronautical study indicates such lights to be essential for
the recognition of the structure by day. Examples of such
tall structurgs are radio and television antenna toweff,
chimneysand cooling towers (seeFigures l4-2 nd l4-3).
When marking these structures,all lights are flashed simul-
taneously. High-intensity obstacle lights are also used on
the support shuctures of overhead transmission lines (see
Figure 14-4).In this use,the lightsare flashedin a specific,
vertical, codedsequencewhich is usednot only to identiry
both the towers and the presenceof transmission lines but
also to advise pilots that they are approaching a complex
obstacle,not an isolatedone.
14.6.2 The peakintensityofthe light beamsshouldbe
capable of angular adjustment over the range zero to eight
degrees above tlre horizontal. Normally lights should be
installed with the beam peak at zero degrees elevation.
Where terrain, nearby residential areas or other situations
dictate,it may be beneficialto elevatethe light beamsof
the lower units one or two degreesabove the horizontal.
The beam of light producedby units at the lower levels
should not reach the g'ound closer than 4.8 hn fiom the
structure in order to prevent annoyanceto local residents.
14.6.3 A relatively narrow vertical beam spnead is
required to provide full light intensity at possible collision
altitudeswith the obstacle.As little light as possibleshould
be visible at altitudes greatertian the height ofthe obstacle
and on the ground.
14.6.4 High-intensity flashing-white obstaclellights on
tall structures should have an effective intensity of, not less
than 200 000 cd. The intensity of the lights should decrease
automatically to 20 000 cd at twilight and 2 000 cd at night-
time through the use of photocells.
14.6.5 In the caseofa guyedtower or antennarvhqe
it is not possibleto locatea high-intensitylight on the top,
a light should be placed at the highest practical point and a
medium-intensity obstacle light mounted on the top. Any
medium-intensity flashing light should flash in unison with
the high-intensity lights installed on the structure. Dwing
the day, the medium-intensity white light identifies the top
of the structure once the pilot has made visual contact with
the high-intensity lighting.
14.6.6 Structwes supporting oveftead electrical
power fansmission lines require a unique, vertical, sequen-
Aerodrome Design Manual
tially flashing system to provide adequatewaming to pilots
of the presenceof both the towers and the wircs between
the towers. Marking systems consisting of paint and
medium:intensity red lights do not provide any indication
of the presenceof transmissionlines. A high-intensity
lighting system is therefore rccommended for this appli
cation. Synchronizedflashing ofthe lighting systemson the
supporting shuctures is-also recornmended.
14.6.7 High-intensity obstacle lights on towers
supporting overhead wires should have a da),time intensity
of not less than 100000 cd. The intensity of the lights
should decreaseto 20 000 cd at twilight and 2 000 cd at
night through the use of a photocell control.
14.6.8 Regardless of their height, the skuctures
supporting overhead wires must be marked at three levels.
The highest light level should be at the top of the suppot
structue. The actual mounting height may be chosen to
provide safe selice accessto the light. The lowest level
should be at the level of the lowest point in the catenary
between the two support sfuctues. If the base of the sup-
port structure is higher than the lowest point of the
catenary, the lowest level should be installed on the
adjacent terrain in a manngr that snsures unobstructed
viewing. The middle level shouldbe the midpointbetween
the top and bottom levels (seeFigue l4-4).
14.6.9 The numberof lights neededper level depends
on the outside diameter of the structue being lit. The
recommended numbeG to obtain prcper coverage ale as
follows:
Diameter Light unitsper level
6 m or less 3
6mto30m 4
30mto60m 6
more than 60 m 8
14.6.10 The middle level should flash first, the top
level flash second and the bottom level flash last. The
interval between the flashing of the top leyel and the
bottom level should be approximately twice the interval
between t}le middle level and the top level. The interval
between the end of one sequenceand the beginning of the
next should be about ten times the intsrval between the
middle level and the top leyel.
14.6.11 Two or more light units shouldbe installedat
each light level 8nd directed on a horizontal plane such as
to Fovide 180 degrees of coverage centred on the aans-
mission line. Where a catenary crossing is situated near a
Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 14. Marking and Lighting of Obstacles
Figure l4-2. High-intersity obstaclelights installed on a chimney
bend in a river, etc., the lights should be directed to provide
the most efective light coverageto wam pilots approaching
Aom either direction of the presance of the fansmission
lines.
14.6.12 High-intensity obstacle lights require a
poyr'erinput ofapproximately 200 W per light. Wire size on
the structure should be basedon 400 V/A averageinput per
light. Iftransforme6 must be used,they should be designed
to 600 V/A in order to prevent core satuation during peak
cu[snt demands.High-intensity obstacle lights are usually
operated at 240 V or 480 V to minimize wire and conduit
size,but voltagesaslow as 120V canbe used.Both 50 I{z
and 60 Hz svstemsare available.
14.6-13 High-tension overhead wires present a
significant hazard to low-flying aircraft. The span of the
wires is often very long. At some locationshigh-tension
14-9
wires cross a valley or river without intermediate
supports.This makeslighting ofthe mastswith low- and
medium- intensity lights ineffective. In this case,instal-
lation of the lights on the wires themselves should be
considered.
14.6.14 Thele are significant difficulties in mounting
low-inteNity obstacle lights on wires. If the voltage of the
current is considsrable, it is extremely difficult to use it
directly to energizeconventional lamps becauseof the insu-
lation and curent transformation problems that arise, The
post of providing a low-tensionpower source(110 V or
220y) to energlze such lamps can be considerable. The
device described below has been specifically developed
with a view to resolving these difficulties and to facilitate
the installationof obstaclelights complyingwith the speci-
fications given in Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 6, 6.3. The
system comprises;
14-10 Aerodrome Design Manual

Figure l4-3. A typical high-intensity obstaclelight unit

Pan 4- Visual Aids
Chapter 14. Marking and Lighting of Obstdcles
Figure l4-4. Locetion of high-intensity obstacle lights otr tow€rs
supporting oYerhead wlres
a) a light source;and
b) an auxiliary conductor to convey the necessary
electrical energy.
14.6.15 The light sourceconsistsofa dischargelamp
in a low-pressure neon gas atmosphercthat produces red
light. The lamp has a lifetime of several tens of thousands
of hours. The principle of energy derivation involves an
electrical source with low current and high tension; $e
lamp consistsofa long small diameterglasstube with.heli-
coidalwinding and two cold electrodes.The unit is housed
in a protective sleeve of toughenedglass with a diameter of
approximately 50 mm. The ends of the protecting tube are
hermetically sealed with metallic stoppers so that the
internal space can be filled with a special liquid to
eliminateradio parasiticemissions.The lamp itself is hung
on flexible mountings, with one side to the active line and
the other side to the auxiliary conductor.
14.6.16 The auxiliary conductor is a section of
metallic conducting wire insulated from the main wire and
intended to produce, by a capacitive efect, the electrical
energy necessaryto operate the lamp. The geometry of the
auxiliary conductor depends on the active line and its
voltage.The conductorconsistsof tubes4 m long madeof
high-grade aluminium; the number and configuration are
determined by the conditions of operation. The length of
the auxiliary wire is inversely proportional to the voltage of
l4-11
the main wire. The auxiliary corductor is suspendedby
glass insulators ofhiglr mechanical strength and aluminium
jaws to avoid any problem of electrical coupling with the
cables. The jaws are fitted for the exact diameter of the
electrical cables.The diameter range available is 16 mm to
34 mm; the operating voltage of this lamp is several
thousandvolts.
14.6.17 The system is shown in Figure l4-5. For
different voltagesthere are two configurations to respondto
the need for simplicity of assernbly and to avoid causing
additional disturbancesin the radio frequencies other than
those natwally emitted by high-tension cables. In this way
the objective of lighting the high-tension cablesthemselves
with low-intensity lights can be safely achieved.
14.7 MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE
14.17.1 High-intensity obstacle lights should be
monitored continuously through the use of an automatic
qlonitoring system or be checked visually once every
24 hows.
14.17.2 All componentsin dischargelighting equip-
ment, including the light source,should be designedfor
ease of maintenanceand to provide the specified pedorm-
ance for a period of at least one vear without maintenance.
14-12 Aerodtome Design Manual

no.'l
a)Cootiguration

b)Conflguralion
no.2

Figure 1,1-5. Instdlatior of obstacle lights ou high-tension wires

 Chapter 15
Frangibility of Visual Aids
r5.I WEAT IS FRANGIBILITY?
15.1.1 A frangible obj€ct is defrncd as atr object of
low nrassdesigned o brcak, distort or fcld on impact so
as to Fesetrt the Eidmum hazad to aircrafl
15.1.2 At airports, various visual atrd non-visual aids
for navigation are located near nurways, taxiways and
aprons, where they may prercnt a hazad to aircraft itr the
event of accidental impact during landing, take-off or
ground manoeuvdng. All such equipment and its supports
shall be ftangible and mounted as low as possible to ensure
that impact will not result in loss of cootrol of the aircmft.
This &atrgibility is achieved by using lightweight matedals
and break-away or failue mechanismswhich will enable
, the object to break, distort or yield under impact.
15.2 OBSTACLES TO BE MADE FRANGIBLE
15.2.1 All fixed objects, or parts thereof, that are
located on an area intended for the surface movement of
aircraft or that exlen{.atove a surface intended to protect
an aircraft in flight arc, by definition, obstacles.The fust
objective should be to sile objects so that they arc not
obstacles. Nevertheless, certain airport equipment and
installatioDs, becauseof their function, must inevitably be
located so that they are obstacles.All such equipment and
installations as well as their supports shall be of minimum
rnass and fraugible in order to enswe that impact will not
result in loss of control of the aircraff.
15.2.2 Annex 14, volume I, Chapter 8, specifies, as a
Standard,that the following areasmust be maintained free
of all but ftaugible equipment and installations required for
air oavigation:
a) that portion of the runway strip within:
l) 75 n of the runway centre line where the code
number is 3 or 4: or
15-1
2) 45 m of the ruaway centseline whcr" thc code
number is I or 2:
b) runway end safety arca;
c) clearway;
d) taxiway stip (or within the distances specificd in
Annex 14, Volume I, Table 3-1, coluon ll); and
e) the area within 240 m of the end of the stip and
within:
1) 60 m of the extendedcenae line where the code
number is 3 or 4: or
2) 45 m of the extendedcentre line where the code
number is 1 or 2
of a precision apprcachrunway Category I, tr or III.
15.2.3 Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 8, turther
recommendsthat any equipment or hstallation required for
air uavigation purposes which must be locahd in the
non-gradedportion of a runway saip should be regardedas
an obstacle and should be fiangible and rnounted as low as
possible.
15.2-4 ln addition to lhe areas detailed above, air
navigation equipmeut or iostallations that project above one
of the obstacle limitation surfaces speaified iD Annex 14,
Volume I, Chapter 4, should also be frangible.
15.2.5 Guidance on the frangible design of visual and
non-visual aids for navigation, including design criteria,
testiog procedures and acceptancecriteria, is given in the
Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 6 - Frangibility* .
* In preparatiotr.
15-2
15.3 VISUAL AIDS
GeDeral
15.3.1 Msual aids which, becauseof their particular
air navigation function, will have to be located in one ofthe
areasidentified above or, altematively, so that they penetrate
one ofthe obstaclelimitation surfaces,include elevatedrun-
wat taxiway and stoprvaylights; approachlighting systems;
visual approach slope indicator systems and signs and
marksrs,
Elevated runway edge,threshold, end, stopway
and taxiway edge lighting
15.3.2 The heightofthese lights shouldbe sufficiently
low to ensurepropeller and enginepod clearance.Wing flex
and strut compression under dynamic loads can bring the
engine pods of some aircmft to near ground level. Only a
small height can be tolemted and a maximum height of
36 cm is advo€ated.
15.3.3 These aids should be mounted on frangible
mormting devices. The desirable maximum height of light
units and frangible coupling is as indicated above. Units
exceeding this height limitation may require higher
breaking chamcteristics for the frangible mounting device,
but the frangibility should be such that, should a unit be hit
by an aircraff, the impact would result in minimum damage
to the airclaft.
15.3.4 In addition, all elevated lights installed on
runways where the code number is 3 or 4 should be capable
of withstanding a jet engine exhaust velocity of 300 kt;
lights on runways whsre the code number is I or 2 should
be capable of withstanding a lo\{{ velocity of 200 kt.
Elevatedtaxiway edgelights should be able to witbstand an
exlaust velocity of 200 kt.
Approach lighting system
15.3.5 Guidanceon the frangibility of approachlights
is more difiicult to develop because there is a greater
variation in their installation. Conditions surrounding
installations close to the threshold are different from those
near the beginning ofthe systsm; for example, lights within
90 m of the threshold or runway end are required to
withstand a 200-kt blast effect, whereas lights further out
only need to witlstand a 100-kt blast or the natural enyiron-
mental wind load. Also the terrain close to the threshold
Aerodrome DesiPn Manual
- can be expected to be near the same elevation as the
threshold, thus permitting the lights to be mounted on short
structwes. Farther from the threshold, support structuresof
considerable height may be required.
15.3,6 Annex 14, Volume I, specifies,as a Standad,
that elevatedapproachlights and thefusupporting structures
shall be frangible exceptthat, in that portion ofthe approach
lighting systernbeyond 300 m fiom 0re threshold:
a) whsre the height of a supporting skucture exceeds
12 m, the frangibility requirement shall apply to the
top 12 m only; and
b) where a supporting structue is sunounded by
non-frangible objects, only that part of the structure
that extends above the surounding objects shall be
frangible.
15.3.7 Elevated approach lights and th€ir supporting
structures shall be designed to withstand the static and
operationaVsurvival wind loads with a suitable factor of
safety,but breal! distort or yield readily when subjectedto
the sudden collision forces of a 3 00Gkg aircraft airbome
and travelling at 140 kn/h (75 kt). The structure shall not
wrap around the aircraft but shall crumple or collapse on
lmpact.
15.3.8 The fiangibility ofthe designshouldbe proven
either by means of full-scale tests or by computer evalu-
ation using an appropriate software code for shuctural
analysis.
15.3.9 Whereit is necessaryfor approachlights to be
installed in stopways, the lights should be inset in the sur-
face if the stopway is paved; if the stopway is not paved,
they should be either inset or elevated (in which casethey
should meet the critsria for frangibility agreed for lights
installed beyond the runway end).
Other aids
15.3.10 Tbese aids, for example, PAPI, T-VASIS,
signs and markers, should be of low massand located as far
as practicable from the edges of runways, taxiways and
aprons as is compatible with their ftrnction. Every effort
should be made to ensurc that the aids will retain their
struchrml integrity when subjected to the most severe
environmental conditions. However, when subjected to
aircraft impact in excess of the foregoing conditions, the
aids will break or distort in a manner which will cause
minimum or no damaeeto the aircraft.
 Par, 1. fisual Aids
Chapter 15. Frangibility of Yisual Aids . 15-3

15.3.11 WheninstaUingvisual aids in thg movement

area, caution should be tak€n to ensrtrethat the light
supportbasedo€snot protude abovegroundbut rather
t€rminatesbelow gromd as r€quired by envkcrnental
conditionsso as to caus€minimum or no damag€to.ihe
aircraftovemnming{rern- Howcver,the break-awayrnech-
anismshouldalwaysbe abovegroundlwel.

{-
 Chapter 16
Application of Approach and
Runway Lighting SyStems
16.T GENER.AL
16.l.l Many of the Standards and Reconrnended
Practices for approach and runway lighting in Amex 14,
Volume I, Chapter 5, have been developed to support the
safe and regular operation of aircraft landing in all weather
conditions. It is on the basis of the provision of these
lighting sysiEms that the operational requirements for
airoaft take-off and landing cues are defined.
16.1.2 Duing the 1940s and 1950s, the design
principles for the approach and runway lighting pattems in
use today were developed through research and a pro-
grarnrne of progressive in-seryice development and
evaluation. The main principle behind the design of the
lighting systemsis that they should enable pilots operating
at night or in any low visibility conditions to control their
aircraft in the samemanner as they would in clear weather
conditions by day.
16.2 LIGIITING SYSTEM DESIGN
16.2.1 The information displayed to pilots by the
approach and runway lighting is in the form of standard-
ized, easilyrecognizablepattemsof lights. Colour is used
in some elements of the system to reinforce the infor-
mation, but the main design goal is to presentthe pilot with
pattems that can be instinctively interyreted.
16.2,2 T\e coverage and the sensitivity of the cues
provided are carefully matched to the opemtions that the
lighting is designedto suppod.
16-2.3 The beam charucteristics of the lights within
each pattem are therefore.a key design parameter. High
intensilies are provided to support da),time operations in
low visibility conditiqns. In all other circumstances,
medium- or low-intensity lighting meets the operational
requirsment. In pnctice, the lightirlg specified for a given
t6-I
runway should be conpatible with lhe most demanding
operation normally conducted at that runway. Before
installing high-intensity lighting the designer and aero-
drome operator should asc€rtain that such a l€vel is
necessary.For example, night VFR operationsonly requir€
low- or medium-intensity lighting. As regards approach
lighting, this can often be provided using the abbrreviated
pattem options specified in Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5,
the simple approach lighting system.
16.2.4 High-intensity lighting requires the provision
of a rnulti-stage trilliancy control to enablethe light output
to be constantly matched to the prevailing operational
conditions (see Chapter 5). The use ofinappropriately high
intensifies will causeglare problems. If it can be shown that
only low-intensity lighting is required to support all the
operations planned for a particular runway, the cost-
benefits in terms of simplified control gear, types of light
fittings used and overall power consumption should always
be carefully considered. This should be don€ at the design
stage of any approach ard runway lighting installation.
16.2.5 Approach and runway lighting of increasing
complexity is specified to suppofi non-instumsnt, non-
precision operations as well as Category I, Category II and
Category III precision landing operations. The outer
portions of the high-intensity apFoach lighting systemsare
only essential operationally for Category I approaches.In
this t)?e of operation, the aircraft is at a distance of 900 m
or greater from the threshold at the decision height (DH). In
these circumstances,the distanceaheadofthe aircraft to the
furthest light that can be seen is generally small. In the
visibility conditions associated with non-instrument and
non-precision approaches, a short length of approach
lighting is sufficient. Initial contact with the approach
lighting is normally made in these circumstancesafter the
aircraft has descendedbelow the height of the prevailing
cloud base.The lighting is seenby the pilot at a significant
distance ahead of the aircraft, mther than just beyond the
cockpit cut-o{f as is the casein low visibility conditions. In
16-2
this type of operation, the approachlighting is an imporiant
aid to the pilot in establishingthe location and relative
orientation of the runway and approach centre line and in
supporting any subsequentcorrective manoeuwes that are
required to the aircraft flight path.
16.2.6 For take-of operations,the lighting that is
installed on the runn ay may need to have geater capability
than would be indicated from consideration ofthe approach
categorization alone. For example, a runway that does not
haye a non-visual guidance aid capability and, hence, may
only be equipped with a simple approach lighting system
will still require runway lighting that meets the high
specifications if, as is feasible, take-off operations are to
take place from that runway in low RVR conditions.
16.3 LIGHTING FOR NON-INSTRUMENT AND
NON-PRECISION A}PROACII RUNWAYS
Slmple approach lighttng syst€ms
16.3.1 The specifications for this system {e in
Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 5, 5.3.4 and AttachmentA,
Figure A-5. The patten consistsof a 420-m-long centreline
located on the extendedrunvr'aycentreline and a crossbarto
Fovide roll references at a distanc€ of 300 m from the
threshold. The pattem is designedto support non-precision
approaches,although it is advised lhat considention should
be given to the installation of precision approachCategoryI
lighting systemsfor this qpe of operation if it is desiredto
enhancethe guidanceand make the task of the pilot easier.
16.3.2 It is rccognizedthat it may be justified in some
locations to rcduce the length of the simple approach
lighting systemto a length that is Facticable. For example,
this action may be necessarywhere the tenain in the final
approacharea falls away steeply prior to the runway thresh-
old. Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5, 5.3.4.5,describesthe
options in detail.
16.3.3 There are also some circumstances whqe it is
not practicable to install any approach lighting. In these
circumstances, non-precisionoperationswill be limited by
day and by night to good visibility conditions. Operations
will only be conducted if it can be shown that in these
circumstancessufficient guidance is available from runway
edge, threshold and end lights or other visual aids,
16.3.4 It is recommendedthat a sirryle approach
lighting systemshouldalso be installedwherc practicable
Aerodrome Desisr Manual
to support non-instrument operations at night in good
visibility conditions if the code number is 3 or 4.
16.3.5 If additionalconspicuityis requiredto aid the
pilot in the task of locating and aligning with the runway or
if it is not practicable to install any approach lighting,
flashing runway threshold identification lights may be
provided (seeAnnex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5, 5.3.8).
Rutrway lighting
16.3.6 Runway edge lighting and the assosiated
runway threshold and runway end lights should be provided
if it is intended that the runway be used for night oper-
ations, The most practicable means of meeting all the
requirements,including that of ensuringthe visibility of the
lights at all angles of azimuth to aid circling approaches,
will be the use of low-intensity ornidirectional lighting.
16.4 LIGHTING FOR PRECISION APPROACH
RUNWAYS _ CATT,GORY I. II AND III
High-iutensity approach lighting
16.4.1 The specifications for this lighting are in
Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter5, 5.3.4.10to 5.3.4.39and
Attachmsnt A, Figure 4-6. The appropriate paragraphs
describe how the basic system is to be installed to support
CategoryI precision approaches.The 900 m length of the
systemprovides the necessaryalignment and roll cuesin the
lowest CategoryI conditionsof200 ft decisionheight and an
RVR of 550 m.
16.4.2 The altemative pattems shoum in Annex 14,
Volume I, Attachment A, Figue A-6, both proyide the cues
required for Category I operations. Systern A specifically
includes distance-from-thresholdcoding in the pattem and
provides particularly sfiong roli cues that can be beneficial
in the event of an aircraft being delivered by the non-visual
approach system at or near the permitted deviation bound-
aries for this type of approach, Systern B may in some
casesbe more practicableto install due to the shorter length
of the crossbar elements of the system. This pattern is
recommendqd to be augmented by sequenced flashing
lights to enhance the conspicuity of the centre line, as
shown in Attachment A, Figue ,4.-6.
16.4.3 Sequencedflashing lights are found to be
particularly beneficial when the lighting is being used in
medium or good visibility conditions since, in these
Part 4. l/isual Aids
Chaprer 16. Application of Approach and Runway Lighting Systems
circumstances, the chalacter of the signal enhances the
conspicuityofthe approachlighting pattern.This featureis
particularly evident in daytime conditions where the
meteorological visibility results in a low contrast view of
the $ound with few objects or other featues visible. At
night, the flashing lights can be of particular benefit in
locating the position of the runway in a visually cluttered
uban environment where many non-aviation lights are
Yisibleto the pilot.
16.4.4 The isocandelaspecificationin Annex 14, Vol-
ume I, Appendix 2, Figne 2.1, is used for all the steady
buming lights in the high-intensity approach lighting
system. The elevation setting angles should always be in
accordancewith the table given in the figure. These angles
vary from 5.5 de$ees near the runway threshold to
8 degees in the outermostpads ofthe pattem. Theseangles
must be maintainedat all times becausethey are an essential
part of the optimized design of the lighting system. They
enswe that the segmentof lighting seen by the pilot is as
large and as consistent as possible in all prevailing con-
ditions. Misalignments as small as 1 degreecan be detected,
and lager misalignmentscanresult in an incomplete pattem
being seenin low visibility conditions.
Supplemetrtaryhigh-intensity approach ligbting
16.4.5 Wherc the approachlighting is provided to
suppot Category II and III operations, the basic pattems
are supplementedby additional lights located in the area
between the runway theshold and the 300 m approach
lighting crossbar.
16.4.6 The practicaleffect ofthese additionalrequire-
ments is that the lighting in ihe 300 m prior to the thieshotd
is the same whichever ofthe two pattems (System A or B)
is used.The centreline in this inner sectionofthe approach
lighting consists of white barreftes. Red barettes are
installed on either side of this centre line pattem.
16,4,7 The paftem of supplementary red barettes
provides two important cues. The lateral position of the
barrettes indicates the boundaries of the offset permissible
for a Category II apgoach to be continued to a landing,
The secondcue is derivedfrom the longitudinalpositionof
the red barrettes. Sighting the red barettes indicates to the
pilot that the airqaft is 300 m or lessfrom the runway.Both
of these cues are important, particularly in suppo of the
decision-makingprocess associatedwith a Category II
approach and landing opemtion, becausethe time available
to make an assessment of the aircraft's position is short
once visual contactwith the lighting has beenmade.
163
16.4.8 It shouldbe notedthat for the SystemB lighting
pattem used in CategoryII and III conditions,flashing lights
arenot installed in the inner 300 m ofthe cenheline pattem.
This omission ensues that the inner 300 m ofthe SysternA
and B pattems, designatedto suppot Category II and III
operations,are identical.
High-intensity runway lightitrg
16.4.9 The specificationsfor high-intensityrunway
lighting are given in Annex 14, VolumeI, Chapter5, 5.3.9
to 5.3.11and Appendix 2, Figures2.3,2.4 artd2-Bro 2.10.
It consists of three systerns, i.e, runway edge lighting,
runway threshold and wing bar lighting and runway end
lighting. As with the runway lighting associatedwith non-
instrument and non-precision approaches,the basis of the
high-intensity runway lighting is patlems of lights defining
the limits of the runway. The edges show white light, the
threshold green and the stop end red. The high intensities
specified are necessaryto Fovide the pilot with a sufficient
view of the runway dimensions during the final approach,
flare and ground roll. The maintenanceof the correct beam
and setting anglesis cmcial to the proper functioning ofthe
system.
16.4.10 The intensity of the runway threshold and
runway end lights should matah that of the runway edge
lights. Light attenuation of apFoximately 80 psr cant
results from the use of filter material to Produce the
requisite colow for these lights. It is not, therefore, accept-
able to use the same light fitting for the runway edge lights
and the runway threshold and end lights. Light fittings
specifically designed for application at the runway thresh-
old and stop e-ndare availableand shouldalwaysbe used.
Provision of the specified intensity is particularly important
in low visibility conditions where, for instance,a clear
recognitionof the location of the geen thresholdlighting
bar is a significant cue to pilots. It indicates that the airqaft
hasreachedthe runway on which it is intendedto complete
the landing.
Supplementary high-intensity runway lighting
, 16.4.1I Supplementary high-intensityrunway lighting
is specifiedfor landing operationswhere the RVR is less
than 550 m and take-off operationswhere the RVR is
less than400 m. The specificationsare glven in Annex 14,
VolumeI, Chapter5,5.3.12 and 5.3.13and Appendix2,
Figues 2.5 to 2.7. It consistsof two systems,i.e. runway
centreline lighting and touchdownzone lighting.
16-4
16.4.12 The function of the centreline lighting is to
Fovide the pilot with lateral guidance during the flare and
landing ground roll or during a take-off. In normal circum-
stances,a pilot can maintain the track of the airqaft within
approximately I to 2 m of the runway centre line with the
aid of this lighting cue. The guidanceinformation from the
centre line is more sensitive than that provided from the
pilot's assessmentof the degee of asyrnmetrybetween the
runway edge lighting. In low visibility conditions, the use
of the centre line is also the best means of providing an
adequate segment of lighting for the pilot to use. The
geats! distances involved in viewing the runway edge
lighting together with the need for the pilot to look
immediately ahead of the aircraft during the ground roll
also contribute to the requirements for a well-lit runway
centre line.
16.4.13 The final 900 m of the runway centre line
lighting is colour-coded to assist pilots in their assessment
of the runway distance rernaining during landing or during
take-off.
16.4.14 The touchdownzone lighting consistsof two
areas of equi-spaced white barrettes on either side of the
centre line. The lights are installed in the runway surface
between the threshold and the position 900 m beyond the
threshold. The lateral separation of the two areas of
barrettes is the same as that for the supplementary red
barrettesin the approach area.
16.4.15 The touchdown zone lighting provides a
structwed texture on the runway surfaceat a position where
the pilot landing an aircraft needs to have strong cues to
support the flare manoeuwe and to assessthe track of the
aircraft, The lighting provides these cues during the flare
with a much greater sensitivity than is available from any
other lighting on the runway. Furthermore, the cues ate
closeto the field-of-view of the pilot. Sensitiveheight rate
cues are derived tom the paftem though the motion ofthe
touchdown zone lighting pattems that is apparent to the
pilot as the flare progresses.Cueshaving this sensitivity are
not ayailable fiom the motion of the runway edge lighting
in the field-of-view.
16.5 PATTERN VARIATIONS AND ADDITIONS
16.5,1 There are some situations in which the runway
lighting has to be augmentedwith additional pattems. For
example, where a displacedthreshold is in use, the lighting
pattems are still configured to conform to the standards,but
it is necessaryto take additional measuresto ensue that the
Aerodrome Desien Manual
correct guidanceis provided. Annex 14, Volume I, Fig-
ure 5-22, gives an exampleof suchprovisions.
16.5-2 It well-defined circumstances,such as a loca-
tion where the installation of the full lighting pattem is
impracticable, the overall length of the approach lighting
systemmay be abbreviate4 but this may impose opemtional
limitations.
16.6 REDUCTION OF LIGHTING PATTERNS
16.6.1 Extensive operational experience with the
lighting systems specified in Annex 14, Volume I, has
shown that the cues provided by the lights and the
operations conducted with them are well matched. Never-
theless, under specific circumstances, the Annex permits
the reduction of the number of lights that define certain
pattems within these lighting systems
16.6.2 As the level of all-weathacapabilitiesincreases
both within the airlines and at aerodromesin responselo
operationalneeds,a number of issuesneed to be kept under
review. For example, with an increasein the percentageof
landings that can be carried out altornatically, there is a
corresponding decrease in the essential use of approach
lighting systems.Th€ use of autopilot to control the aircraft
until the final stages of the apgoach with the pilot
completing the landing manually from a position where
flight path errors are small also means less reliance on
lighting to suppod significant manoewring of the aioaft at
low heights.
16.6.3 Appendix 4 describesthe proceduresto be used
for designing the lighting specified in Annex 14, Volume I,
Chapter5, as well as the availability of improved computer
prograrnmesfor the design and assessmentof lighting sys-
tems and lighting system psrformance that take account of
greaterlarowledge of fog chamcteristicsand how they affect
the operationalperformanceof lighting systerns.
16.6.4 A radical redesign of aero&ome lighting
systefls is not practicable. Wlat can be considered is to
what extent the lighting specified can be reduced without
adversely affecting the safety or regularity of operations.In
the original. design of lighting systems, considerable
ernphasiswas placed on the reliability of the guidance.To
ensure adequatelevels of availability at all times, a high
degreeof.redundancywas built into the lighting patternsso
that a failure of complete lighting circuits hopefully would
not hazard operations in any way. This over-provision of
lighting to achieve reliability was compounded when
Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 16. Application of Approach and Runway Lighting Systems
additionalpattemsof lights were addedto the basicdesigns
as operationsin low visibilities becamemore common-
place. Thesetrends have rcsultedin lighting systemsthat
could potentiallybe simplified without any significantloss
of guidance.Simulation trials have clearly demonsfated
that the numberoflights in the lighting pattemscanbe con-
siderablyreducedwithout adverselyaffecting operational
pertormance.
16.6.5 It can be seen from Annex. 14, Volume I,
Chapter 5, that in some clearly specified circumstances,
where there has been a demonstrableachievementof
specificmaintenanceobjectives,it would be acceptableto
reduce the number of lights that define certain pattems
within lighting systems.The level of serviceabilityto be
met beforethe numberof lights can be reducedis specified
in Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter9.
16.6.6 The achievementof the specifiedmaintenance
'appropdate
objectives should be demonstratedth.rough
monitoringand the keepingof recordson lighting pelfolm-
ance. Further guidance on this subject is contained in
Chapter17.
16.6.7 Where maintenancestandardssupportsuch a
reductionit is permissible:
a) for a precisionapproachCategoryI lighting system,
to reduce the number of lights in the approach
cente line so that eachlight positionconsistseither
of a singlelight sourceor, wherebanettesare used,
of four lights defining eachbanette;
b) for a precisionapproachCategoryII or III lighting
systein, to reduce the number of lights in the
approachcentreline in the innemost 300 m of the
cente line so that altematelight points consistof
either a single light or a barette of four lights.
Altematively, a four-light barette may be used at
eachlight position;
16-5
c) to use 60 m longitudinal spacing for side row
baraettes:
and
d) to use a runway cenhe line light spacingof 30 m
for operationsin RVR down to 350 m.
16,6.8 For a 3 000-m-long runway, these reduced
provisions will delete approximately120 lights ftom the
approach and mnway lighting systems. The differences
betweenthe two pattemsare illustated in Figures16-1 and
16-2.
16.7 SELECTION OF LIGHTING PATTERNS
16.7.1 The most demandingoperationalscenariowill
determine the required level of approach and runway
lighting to be provided by an aerodrome opemtor. For
example,a runway which is to be usedonly for non-insfu-
ment or non-precisionapproaches will be adequatelyserved
by the simpler lighting systems specified in Arurex14,
Volume I. In these circumstances,it is unnecessaryto
provide high-intensitylighting systems.
16.7.2 Where the specification of high-intensity
lighting systemsis clearlyjustified on operationalgrounds,
the option to use reduced lighting patterns should be
carefully considered.Use of these patternsis dependent
upon the provision of adequatelevels of performancein
terms of light output and the reliability of the electrical
systems.However, since the specificationsare written on
the assumptionthat suchlevels will be achievedin service,
it shouldbe possibleto take advantageof the more relaxed
provisiols for any new installation.
16.7.3 Whenever the provision of approach and
runway lighting is being considered,the need to provide
visual glide slope information should also be taken into
account, since this type of aid is the only means of
providing adequatevisual guidancein the vertical plane.
Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 10. Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems
be illustrated by the following example. It should be noted
that the example given assumesceftain Arc procedues.
Different proceduresrequire appropdate system designs to
be developed.
10.5.3 Stop bars locations are provided with three
aircraft position sensorsas shown in Figure l0-2. Various
tlpes of position sensols, or a conaol signal from the
A-SMGCS, can be used:position sensor1, locatedacross
the taxiway and 70 m before the stop ba{ position sensor
2, located acrossthe taxiway and immediately after the stop
bar; and position sensor 3, located across the runway and
about 120 m beyond the theshold. When an aircraft is
cleared to taxi for take-off, the pilot taxies following the
taxiway centre line lights which remain on only up to the
stop bar at the runway-holding position. When the aircraft
crossesposition sensorI (seeFigure 10-2),a light appears
on a sDecialcontrol board in the contol tower. This advises
A-SIVGS
functions
Isurveillance Icuidance
ERouting IControl
Figure 10-1. An exampleof A-SMGCS systemarchitecture
10-7
the contoller that an aircraft is nearing the stop bar and that
the pilot is expecting clearance to enter the runway. To
permit the aircraft to cross the stop bar (see Figue 10-3),
the conftoller not only issues a clearance through radio-
telephony but also s\tritchesoff the stop bar by Fessing a
button. This automatically illuminates that palt of the
taxiway centle line lighting beyond the stop bar. When the
aircraft crossesposition sensor2 (seeFigure 10-4), the stop
bar is autohatically switched on again to Fotect the
runway. When the aircraft commencesthe take-off run and
crossesposition sensor 3 (see Figure i0-5), that portion of
taxiway cenhe line lighting between the stop bar and
position sensor3 is automatically switched off. In the event
an aircraft crossesthe stop bar without authorization from
the conhollet position sensor 2 serves as a safety barrier
(see Figure 10-6) and the system alerts the controller both
visually, through a light on the control board, and by
sounding an alarm.
Part 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 11. Signs
b) the sign should not present a messagethat could
lead to an unsafe action by a pilot in the event of
failurc of the sign;
c) the sign shouldhave a shofi responsetime, i.e. the
time required for the rnessageto change should be
not greaterthan five seconds;
d) different luminance levels will be required for day/
night operationsand in good/poorvisibilities;
care should be taken to ensule that the field of view
of the sign is sufncient over the full Iange of viewing
anglesthat are required for taxiway signs; ard
Example of a complex sign layout
I 1-3
f) the sign should only include colour and inscription
elementsthat conform to the basic conventions that
are to be followed in the design of mandatory and
information sigrts.
11.4 MANDATORY INSTRUCTION SIGNS
ll.4.l A mandatory instruction sign identifies a
locationon lhe movementareathat a pilot or vehicledriver
should not pass without specific authorization by ATC.
Mandatory instruction signs are therefore an important
element of the safety provisions on movement areas.
11-4 Aerodrcme Desipn Manual

11.4.2 Mandatory instruction signs shall always be
located on each side of the taxiway or the runway. This
eDablespilots to have an unintemrpted view of the signs at
all times. It also ensuresearly acquisition of lhe signs when
they are located close to an intersection that can be
approachedfrom more than one direction.
11.4.3 Mandatory instruction signs include runway
designation signs, Category I, II or Itr holding position
signs, runway-holding position signs, road-holding position
signs and NO ENTRY signs. Examples of such signs are
shownin Figure 11-2.
11.4.4 A mandatory instuction sign shall always be
provided at a taxiway/runway intersection or a runway/
runway intersection on each side of the runway-holdiDg
position. Thus Annex 14, Volume I, specifies that:
a) a pattem "A" runway-holding position marking
shall be supplemented at a taxiway/runway inter-
section or a runway/runway intersection with a
runway designation sign; and
b) a patlem "B:' runway-holding position marking
shall be supplementedwith a Category I, tr or trI
holding position sign.
.
11.4.5 As a consequence,where a single runway-
holding position is Fovided at an intersection of a tadway
and a precision approach Category I, tr or III runway,

LEFTSIDE RIGHTSIDE

DESIGNATION
LOCATION/RUNWAY RUNWAY
DESIGNATION/LOCATION

POSITION
RUNWAY-HOLDING RUNWAY
DESIGNATION/
II HOLDINGPOSITION
CATEGORY

NWAYDESIGNATION
LOCATION/RU

NOENTRY

Figurt 11-2. Mandatory instruction signs

11-6 Aerodrome Desipn Manual

NON-INSTRUMENT,
NON-PRECISION,
TAKE-OFF
RUNWAYS

PRECISION
APPROACH
RUNWAYS

CATEGORY
I

CATEGORY
II
Mtffim

CATEGORY
III
froit wro a''il
Erft7fiI'ilffi 4gltr
Note.- Distance X is establishedin accordance with Annex 14, VolameI, Chapter 3, Table 3-2. Distance Y k established
at the ed,geof the IIS/MLS criticaUsensitive area.

Figure 11-3. Exampl€s of sign positions at taxiway/runway intersections

 Pan 4. VisualAids
Chtpter 11. Signs
reve$al of the yellodblack colour cornbination is also an
important element of the system. Location signs are an
essentialelement of the signageat taxiway intenections, but
they also have an impotant function wherever it is necess-
ary to uniquely identify a position on the movement area,
For example, a suitably sited location sign can expedite
position reporting when an aircraft is manoeuvring off the
runway.
11.5.7 Where information is displayedto a pilot on
the runway, location information is omitted from the sign
system. Only direction information is displayed in this
situation.
11.5.8 Where it is necessaryto provide intermediate
holding positions on a taxiway at locations other than a
runway/taxiway intersection, the location signs should con-
sist of the taxiway designator supplementedby a number,
11.5.9 An exampleof the way in which designating
letten are assigned to a taxiway system is shown in Fig-
ure ll-6. In this figure, taxiways A, C and D are typical
taxiways that may require the designation of intermediate
holding positions to facilitate ground movement operations.
11.6 SIGN LOCATION
\.
11.6.1 Signs have to be readily seen by pilots and
vehicle drivers as they manoeuvre their aircraft/yehicles on
the movement area. This is best achieyed when the signs
can be read when pilots are following the guidance that is
derived from their view of the taxiway aheadof the aircraft.
Signs should therefore be placed as close to the edge of the
Davementas is Dracticable.
Figure 11-4. Road-holding position sign
11-7
11.6.2 When choosing th€ location of a sign, the
provisions of Annex 14, Volume I, 5.4, shall be followed.
The taxiway elvironmert is such that the guidanceon siting
must be followed if damagedue to impact with engine pods
or prcpellers or as a result of jet blast effects is to be
avoided.
' lr.7 SIGN EVALUATION
General
11.7.1 The physical characteristicsof taxiway signs are
determined by the operational rcquirementsrcflected in the
provisions of Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix 4. The colours
used in any sign should coDform to the specifications givel
in Annex 14, VolumeI, Appendix 1, Figues 1.2 to 1.4.
11.7.2 To achieyethe specifiedluminance performance
for lighled signs, it is generally found that hansilluminated
signs best meet the requirements. The uniformity of the
illumination influences the legibility of a sign. Unevenly lit
signs are difficult to read and are therefore not acceptablein
a taxiway signagesystem.
11.7.3 Before a sign is installed, it should be
demonstratedthat the requirementsof Annex 14, Volume I,
Appendix 4, are met by the sign design. It is important that
both lurninanceand colour specifications are fully complied
with. To demonstrate'this compliance, it is necessary to
carry out testson a sign that firlly representsthe size, colour,
inscription layout and lighting system that will be used in
servrce.
ll.'1.4 T\e dimensions and location of the reference
grid points used for testing sign luminance should always be
11-8 Aerodrome D esign M anual

LEFTSIDE RIGHTSIDE

eCBC+
DIRECTION/LOCATION/DIRECTION

D:
D ec-) EAPRON
LOCATION/D
IRECTION DESTINATION

A
/^\
I

LOCATIONiRUNWAYVACATED RUNWAYVACATED/LOCATI
ON

'\G2 G2z
RUNWAY
EXIT RUNWAY
EXIT

E]
LOCATION
eCE Bv C+
DIRECTION/LOCATION/DIRECTION/DIRECTION

A Dec N E DZC+ Es
DIRECTION/DIRECTION/DIRECTION/LOCATION/DIRECTION/D
IRECTION/DIRECTION

?2500m 2500m)
INTERSECTION
TAKE.OFF

Figurc 11.5. Information signs

Part4. VisualAids
Chapter 11. Signs 1t-|1

. . . ,

':j:",

Figure 11.7. Examplesof typicrl sign designs

12-2 Aerodromz Desisn Manual

\-'

Pilotinformation Operator's
information l
EE

I
Latest
accepted
identification

EE
l dentification
failed
o I

ClosingrateinformatioQ,
azimuthguidance and \
identification.

E
E
procedure
Docking

Figurr l2-1, A visual docking guidalc€ system using a grsphical diEplay and laser-based sensors
to prcvide azimuth guidatrce, distance-tcgo and stopping position information
Pan 4. Visual Aids
Chapter 12, Visual Parking and Docking Guidance Systems I2-5

Sideviewof APIS++
systeminstallation

Display
unitfor
posilion
stopping
andcentreline
guidance
azimuth

Displayunit
Alphanumerical
texlrow

Closing
ratethermometer

tflil
n -7m
(Default
-3m SToP
configuration)

((K
guidance
Azimuth display

D))
Steerright Steerieft
Oncentreline

Figur€ 12-2, A visual docking guidance system using a graphical display (Moir6 t€chnique) to provide
azimuth guidance and a laser radar to provide distance-to-goand stopping position information
164 Aemdrcne DeslgnManual

l'lgorr 161, Approoch rnd fidr8y lighth& ftI pattenr

Pan 4. VisualAids
Clapter 16. Applicationof Approochand RunwajJ
Lighting Ststel.s 167

Flgor€16-2. Apgorch rnd ron*ay lightiq, r€ducedprttern

 Chapter18
Measurementof the Light Intensity of
SteadyBurning and FlashingLights
18,1 INTRODUCTION
18.t.1 Aeronautical ground lights, wilh the exception
of guidance sign luminaires, commonly provide a pojnt
source signal that is viewed by airdaft, eithd at great
disranc€s whilst proceeding to a ldding (€.g. approach
andrunway lights) or at relatively close distances fo'
manoeuraing guidance on the airfield (e.g. taxiway light
ing). In both instances, Annex 14, volume I, Appe,dix 2.
specifies these lights in t(ms of luminous intosity (can-
dela) through the use of isocndela diasams. For mmy
aeronauticai ground lights, mlour is also part of the
specifications. Annex 14, Volume I, Appendix l, makes
recomodations for colour measur€mentwhen evaluating
lidt. In addition, other applicable crireria are to be found
in the min body of the Annex.
18.1.2 W}len selecting lighls for instalarion on site,
c o m p h a n cqei r h r h es p e c i f i c a h o ni ns c, l L d i n sc o l o u r . p e c i -
fications, will have to be demonstrated.This nay be do'e
either though atleslation by an accredited laboiatory or
ftroultl a nanufacrutr having acdedited facilines and
18.1.3 Light intensity meBulement lechniques and
the required quality ofm€asurement and equipment (detec-
tos, soniomcter, ctc.) de well desqibed in other reference
souices-The purpose of this guidace natqial is to detail
critcria which are specific to aerodrome applications, such
as lhe disralceof medsuemml.lhe calcrlat.onofa!erzge
intosity, conformance to minimum and maximum values
within the main bearn, conformance to minimum values
within the outer isocandela boundaries, and tolerances. ln
the casc of lights that have a flashing chamcterisiic, a
desoiltion is siven in 18.3 of the method of catculating
effective intcnsiiy, which is defined as lhe intensity
equivalent to that of a steady bumjng light to produce the
same visual lange for tle eye.
I8.2 CR]TERJA
Distance ot measuremenr
18.2.1 The longestdimdsion ofth€ luminoussource
and the number of sourcesthat roy be used to qeate an
aeronautical ground lighr varies. To a€hieve a@uiate dd
repealableresulls.it rs recommmdedLhaLlhe disloce oi
m€asuremdt should not be less thd 100 times the apenure
of rhe light. T}?ically, this will be 20 m for a single lighr
source and not less thd l0 m for a multiple light source,
such as high-intens8 obstacle lights and visual approach
Measuremert set-up
Asi"g of lanps
18.2.2 Mesucmmts shouldbe taken with ih€ lamp
opqating at a level of luinous flux emission that is
representativeof the l€vel to be used in sflice. Thdefde,
prior to conducting measurements,the lamp should b€ aged
to at l€ast one per cent of the rated life published by the
manufachfe.. Fluorescot or other lamp O?es should be
referred to the lamp mmufacturcr to establish a
18.2.3 The light unit should be set up on the
goniometer in such a way that the reference axis will
ieplicar€ the alignment that will be usedwhen the fitting is
installed for usc. This requires the esrablishment of tle
mechmical centre of the urjt rathd thar the optical bem
centre. The optical beam centre may be designednot to be
l8-2
coincidenr with the nechanical cenhc for some b?es of
lights.ifthe light wit is set up on the basisoftie oplical
beam cenlre, then any specified horizontal toe-in dsle will
rot be verified, since the photometric cotrc of the bem
may nor nec€ssarily be the point of highest intflsity. For
turway and tdiway light units, tle ldzontal a,\1sruns
through the cotre of the ligii unlt and is pamllel io the
cfltre line. The venical ais runs through tle cenlre of the
lisht. The mmufacruier should be consulted for proper
placementud orimtation of the lamp within tle light unj!.
18.2.4 In thc c6c ofinset lights,the in sflice ouipui
my be affccted by thc mmnd in which the light unit is
iDsralled. Sone muufactucN may recommod in their
insruction maruak that the light unit should be irstalled at
some distance below the surrounding pavement to lower
the profile md thus avoid damage ftom snowploughs. If
this is the case, tlen the m€asurementto be made in the
laboratory should include som€ means of sinulating the
resulting obstirlstion of the lower parr of the bem by the
pavmot. Foi $e puQose of laboratory tcsting, the
pavnmt should be considered as a horizontal plane
18.2.5 Every attempt should be made 10 ensue that
the refermce uis is coFectly set up and does not
incorpomte a hdizontal offset o. a vertical eroi in the
height of thc filament location. ln the case of inset lighls,
the horizontal orientation is establishedby ihe syhmetry of
tle u.it. The ho.izontal and vedcal positioning of the iighl
u t should be set up wilhin an accuracy of +0-I degrees.
18.2.6 Thc neasu!€d lisht inidsihes should be
corected with r€spect to thc ratcd nominal luminous flux
of the lamp as s!€cified by the mmuf&iuEr For example,
a lighl unit may be fomd to prcduce an intensity of
l4000cd for a luminous flux of 2 800 lum€ns.If the
manufacturer publishes a rating of 2 400 lumens, the.r the
recorded intensity slould be corr€cted as follows for the
14 000 cd * (2 400/2800) : 12 000 cd
1 8 . 2 7 A l l e a s t 5 l i g h l u n n s .e a . h s L h l h e r r o w
lamp, should be iested. Tlere should be a c@sistency of
results demonshatingihal ihe light unit designpertbnnance
is repeatabiefor tle production line. A value such ,s 5 pcr
cdl intosity veiation betwed units may be chosen as a
meas@ o.lhe regured consstm.y.
Aerc.lrcne Desigt, Mahudt
Colour nee\ureneal
18-2.8 The colou emin€dby the light unit shouldbe
verified in accoldmce wjrh Annex 14, Volume I, Appen-
dix 1, 2.2.4, wl'en operaling at mted cunenr oi voltage. It
shotlld be within the chromaticity boudaries ofAmcx 14,
Appendix 1, Fisur€ l.l, fo thc honzontal dd venical
limits of the main bean (in the casc of elliplical or d.cular
isocandelacurves) or th€ limits ofthe diasonals ofth€ main
beam (in the case of rectansularisocandclacwet.
Furihennore, the colour should be checkedby measurement
at sinilar linits for th€ outermost isocand€la curve. This
lattd cleck is to ensurethat there is no unacceplablecolour
shift (e.s. red to yellow) at large angles of observatron.
Such colour shift ca! occui wjth sor€ twes of fi]td
naterial depcndingupon the design details ofthe light unii.
If ihe colour shift is outside the chronaticity boundary for
that colou, thc appropriate rc8ularory autno.iry should be
consulted for judsemmt of the acceptability of the anount
Note.- The abore-nentionetl check of colour cootdi
nates nay be qtended at the requdt of the apprcpnate
authority to cowr angles ou^i.le the outemost bocandela
cude- This nay be an idpoftatt preca ion fot light oils
that hare applicability ehere the aagle of obsen)atioh bt
the pilot can be ouxide the ahgles specifed in the ito-
catdeld didstun (e.g.stop bd6 at wide ruaway entrunces).
lsocrndelr diagram
18.2.9 Melsuenflt of confonmce to the isocandela
diagam involves a rumbcr of criteria. The fiBt st€p is to
obiain lhe intensities at spatiai points ovd the honzontal
and vertical rang€,r, as indicat€d by the gdd of the
appiicabl€ isocandetadiasan. For example, in the case of
m elevaied nrway edg€ light (Annex 14, Volume I,
App$dix 2, Flgure 2.10 refeis), the beam centre slall lave
d elevation mgle of 3.5 degrees. Furlhermore, a note
should be provided beneathlhe diagram stating a ho.izmtal
toe-in egle of 4.5 deSrees.lt is important to realize that
sone liglts lave a ro*in angle, ard t}at tiis is not
indicared on the diagram iiself, since the lattq servcs only
to illustrale the distrbution around a theor€tical beam
centre. W]'er€ the elevation or toe-in angle is designedinto
tle fiihng (e-9. inset flnway lights), lhe presoted data
should cleaily indicaie this fact.
18.2.10 For the givo exmple, the outer boundary
(5 per cent)has a rangeof+10 degees.lt is suggested
rhai
in ordd to verify th€ location of the main bem and to .\_
Pott 1. Visual Aids
Chdpter 18. Measlrenent of the Light Intehsitt of Steddy Bu inq an.l Flashing Lights
allow for laterrpplicrtion of tolermces,the actualmeasure-
ment be done with an extension of !t least 2 degees. Thus,
lhe horizontal rmge measurementswould be l0 + 2 + 4-5
= 16-5or 17 degreeslo I0 + 2 -4.5 = 7.5 or 8 degrees.In
the isocandela dia$am, the outer bounddy has an upper
verticai linit of 12 degees and the lower edge of the min
beam is zero degees. In oder to auow later applicillon ot
toleruces. it is suggested that tbe actual verncal
measuremeDtsbe done over a range of 12 + 2 = 14 degrees
and0-2=-2de$ees.
18.2.11 Althoughthe calculationof averageintensiry,
ar discussed below, is based upon values at one-degee
incremerrs, measuemetrts should be done at half-degee or
smaller incremeDts.This will enable proper assesrnent of
light DDits, the t5eoretical beam centre toe in anrvor
elevatioD angles of which aJe fractional numbers (e.s. 4.5
md 3.5 de$ees rcspectively), as well as the dsessnent of
the application of tolerances.
18.2.12 Annex 14,VolumeI, Appendix2, Figures2.Il
dd 2.21, indicate the Cdd points at wbich measEd inten
sines ee to be incorporated into a calculation of average
intensiry. ln the case of a runway edge ligh! tbe boundary
is eliptical in shape,and the lertinent poirts are to be foud
within the nain bean isocandela bomdary except tbr
borircntal and venical iimits. In the caseof taxiway centre
line lighi!, the bound.ry is r@tan8uld so that points along
fte boundary are included if tris boundarf is on a s.id line.
The avenge intensiry is calculated as the sum of dl the
intensity rneasuremenisof tbe identifled poitrts divided by
the number of nearuements.
18.2.13 In Figure 2.1I, the horizotrtallirnits of the
nain bean are at 16-5 degrees.Therefore, some g.id points
de rot included in the calculation of ave.age intensiry.
However, this figue is a typical illustration of nethod md
whether the measurementsat cerlain giid Fints de to be
ircluded in the calculation of average intensity depends
upon rhe nmount of loe'in. For exmple, a fraction ralue of
toe in (e.g. 4.5 degrees)*ill shifl the figure so that the
exremilies of the ellilse reach a line of the srid, md thus
these measurementsar these points would be included in
Mi imun and nNinun values
18.2.14 Ir is inrendedthar rhe bea,a shall have a
ceftain unjfomity without significdt low or high inten-
13-J
sities. Therefore, in accordmce with Annex 14, Volune l,
Chapter5, 5.3.1.12and 5.3.r.13,within and on the bound
arl of the maiDbeam. the individual inlensities te required
to be not les thu a minimlm which is htlf the avenge
irlensiry and not nore dnn a ntaxinun wnich is thee
tines the ninimum (one dd a half times the average).In
eff@t. a uiformily ratio such that the individual intensities
nre to be lith 150 per ceri of the average.For eial'ple, if
the neasured average intensiry is 240 cd, then the
minimum is 120 cd ald tbe I]uimun 360 cd.
Minimum 'alues fot outet isocandela boundarbs
I8.2.r5 It is also intended that the photometric
distribrltior should be continued in a unifom fashion
witlin the other isocddela boundades. Thus, withir the
areasdefined by the isocmdela boundaries. the irdividual
intensities should ,ot be less than rhe values iderrined at
18.2.16 In delermini.g conpliance with the xoain
bem averageintmsity al)d minimum intensity valoes with-
iD the outer boundaries,lhe gdd sbould be located such that
oDe point is coincident with the iDte6rction of the
honzontal and vertical dis defined in 18.2.3.
Onnidnecnonal lEht anits
18.2.17 I. tbe case of omidiectional light uoils,
measurementof intensiry should be nade fo. a Srid of otre
degre incEments vertically and thi.ty-degre increments
borizontalli For each vertical scan, the meaiued values
should me€t t}e mirimum rcquirement, ad tbe calculated
averageof these values should meet the minimum average
int€nsity value. The light unit should be insp@ted for the
presetrceof any iniemal supports or other sEuctures that
might cause an obstrnction of iight output. Where iheie is
a possibility of obstructior, the reduction of inEnsiry
wirhin the one degee should not be less than 75 per cett
. Not4- For small loir'iat.nsit' Lights,a phatonetrit
musurem?nt distance less thdn 20 n nay have to be useLl,
but it shauld hot be less than 3 m. The vliditi oJ My
measurcnents.dn be prcten by takiag neasLrem.nts at a
senes oJ increasins runges and compating the resultatt
ihtensity values. This should ehabLea rcrye to be estab-
ttth.d bpyond "hi.h lhp ,aLuldt?d thtphtiry rcna;n'
181
constant. mis runge cm be considered10 be the nininun
acceptable neasurenent runse for the tlpe of light being
18.2.18 All specifiedisocmdelavaluesar€mrnirnums.
Thus a light uit cu be mufacnled thar significantly
exceedstbe required specificd intaslty. There is no rnaxt-
mum limit specified for the output of any lighi. Assumjng
a requirement of 200 cd avcmse (e.9. Annex 14, Volume I,
Atpendix 2, Fisure 2.13), a light unit may be deernedto be
in confommce if its avdage inlensity just meets thrs
requirement or is significdtly in excessofthe requirement,
as lons as thcse lishts each have a tmiformiiy ratio of
+50per cent within the main bcm. If all available ligh!
units deemed to be in conformance with Arn€x 14, Vol-
umeI. are Fealed equally for prccurmot. Ihtre rs a
potmiial fo imbalanc€ of display fron one lighing system
to mothd of the same b"e. Fd example, jf we take the
aforementioned exanple, and d installafion is done with
light units jusr meeting th€ 200 cd averase requiiemmt, a
funler proflrement of units having a 600 cd avdase will
inrmediately createan imbalarc€ of display of 3 to I . If the
fomcr units ar€ rcpaired on the basis of occurrence of
Ailue to halfthe onginal output (do$n to 100 cd) and the
latter de still in tu]I opqating condilion, the imbalance can
be ofthe ordq of6 to l. Thus, ado&ome operatorsshould
be awee of the level of light output from ihe unjrs firsl
procured. This esiablishes a site standdd, dd tuture
procur€ment of new lighring systems or replacmot of
tighl unils should be of the sme level. Similar consider-
aiiors should apply in rclation to the intensiiy ratios
establishedbetweenrunway edgelights, runway centre line
lights and approachlights (1.0:0.5:2-0).
I8.3 FLASHING LICHTS
18.3.1 lt is genqally recogniz€dt}at when a light
signal cdsists of sepdate, short duration flashes,ihe maxi-
mlm intosity dwinS the flash€s cannotbe usedio estimaie
the detection range of the signal (as is donc for steady
bumins lights usins Allard's Law). Blondel and Rey found
that the threshold illumination for detection of an ahupt
n a , h ( a f l 6 h p . o d r c r l s a r e l zr v e l yc o n s u n ri l l u m r q d c e
throughout its duralion) is:
E=Eo
t
Aercdnne Desigt Mantul
wlere t is the thr€shold illuminance for a steadybuming
light, I is lhe fiash duration, and a is a constantequal 1{)0.2
when t is in seconds.
i8.3.2 Il is convenientto calibrareflashirg liehts in
teltr of their effective irtensity. A light of a given effec-
rive intensity Mll have tle same range performance as a
steady light having the same,umerical value. Thus,
I*Eo
E
where Ie is the efiective inimsity, md / is the insrantaneous
jntensity producing the illuminance -E.
For an abrupt flash of constant illuminuce:
14t
Q)
18.3.3 Th€ intensity of airpon ilashins lishts, how-
€ver, is not abrupt bul dses a.d falls sadually md may
vary appreciabiy during th€ flash. If ihe fl6h duranon rs
very short, or if the times of rise and fall of intflsity are
short in compdison to the flash durahon, only small
unceiainties woold be inf.oduced i. tle detemination of
flash duEtion by the Foduct of ihe peak intensity and ihe
flash duiation for the quantity 1*r- However, jn mny @ses,
sisnificdt cEors would be introduc€d, and some modifi-
cation of equafion (2) is recessary.
18.3.4 Many evaluati@s of flashing lights thqefore
me6uc the ou9ut in telm of cmdela*conds in ihe flash,
integFling ovq th€ penod of the flash, that is:
Candelaseco'^ = | tdl
wlere / is the instartaneous int€nsily and 12 tt does not
18.3.5 Wlen the specification for aircraft mti-
collision lights was being drafled, it was suggcsted that
equation (2) be modified so that:
Iu,
(1) k = o,i41 (3)
Pan 4. Yisual Aids
Chdptet 13. Meastetuent ofthe Light Intensitt of Steatly Burning ontl Flashing Lights
18.3.6 The meaningoftle integralL, and the trmes
rr and 12is illustratedjn Figure 18'1-
18.3.7 Raiher than using an arbitrary sei of iimits,
such as choosing for rr and t2 lhe times when /is 10 per
ccnt of the peak irtosity of fhc fl6h, it is rccomended
that limits be chosenwhich Foduce a value ofle that is a
mxinum who thc limits of /t and O are the times when
the instantareous int€nsity is equal to Ie. Since both the
instanancous intosiry -1and the times t are wlooM, thrs
leads to a piocess of iepeated calculations to ndimize 1e.
It is of imponance to rote tlat tbe hmes 4 and 12aie not
the rimes at rh€ €xac! beginnirg and at rhe exact ending of
the flash, but some perjod later ard before respectively in
ordq to mdimize Ie.
18.3.8 The calcuiation can be sinplified wherc the
fldh duEtion is a few milliseconds, in which ca€ the
value of (r, - 4) is suchthat [0.2 + rr- rr] tads towdds
0.2 secondsand the effective intasity is thm fomd liom
lu'
Ie ='c'2= s1 JIdt (4)
where
/d/ rsintegrated
overtheennre0ashcycle.
In lhis in$ance. 1p can be establishedby using an
inlegrating det€ctor to measuremd iecord the value of the
flasl in candelasecondiand multiplyng tnis value by 5.
18.3.9 The sieral from a flashi.g liglt may consistof
single flashes oflight, wth tle intflal betwem tle flashes
so gieat that each flash has little influoce on the €ffective
intasity of the subsequentfl6hes. lf the intosiry iequired
in a givo set of circunstuces to make a lighi visibl€ is
less than .1e,the flash may in tMt c6c be seo as a
conrinuousflash with two peaks. However, if the tbreshold
intensily is about equal to 1e, two separaiefl:shes wjll be
seen.Th€ maximum distance at which the lighr can be seen
will be determined by the efective intensity of a single
flash computed ovtr tle time interval rt to 12.
18.3.10 Lights canbe designated to producea number
of very slort flasbes in rapid successionso tlat the group
of flashesis seenas a singleflash.If, in a goup offlashes,
as shoM in Fisure l8-2, the paiods durins which the
instmianeous intensity of the light is below the effective
intmsity of the flash are of the order of 10 milliseconds or
less, re eye wjll peiceivelhis goup as a singleflash.
l8.3.ll The elTective irtosiry should thd be
computedby equation(5), cnoosingas iimes 4 and t, the
/8-J
first and the last times the instutmeous inlensity is 1e-
Note tlat 1e is tle effective intmsity ofthe goup dd not
t]rat of a single flash-
,,['"ut+ ,,]' w +,ol"rar
+n[nut
(5)
18.3.12- Expqiocc indicatesthat if the times chosen
for thc initial intcgation arc the times when the insta!-
tmeous i.tosity is about 20 per cot of the peak intosrt,
only one additional step is requiied ro obtai' the value for
the etrective intensiry which is within one or two per cent
of the maximum value. This is within the limits of accu.acy
with which the irlegral js eraluated by mens of a plani-
metd. Oftm a sinsle computalion is sufiicimt il insteadof
using as limits for the initial integation the times wh@ le
is 20 pq cert of ihe peak intensity, the tnnes used ar€ the
times who the instateeous intmsiry is equal to the
product of the peak intosiry and fte numbq of seconds
between th€ timer when the instdtdeous intmsity is
rouehly 5 p6 cmt ofthe p€ak intmsiry.
Trantinon to steadf bu ing deasu.edenl
18.3.13 For som€ lighb, the iirne duration offlash can
be sufrciently tong ihar fie er.or is not significani if ft€
flashing mechanisinis disabledand the intensity is m€asured
with lhe lighi operating ir th€ st€ady bumi.g mode- This
$orld be lhe case when lhe time dulanon of fiash is more
than 200 ms (0.2 $. Thus, runway gudd lights, certain
rotating a€rodrome beacons, medium-intmsiq, red incm-
descflt obstacle Ughts, e!c., may be mqsuied 6 steady
18.1.14 Fldhing lighi units, with the exceptionof
runway gudd lights, ee not specified in Anncx 14,
Volume I, by ncans of isocudela diagams. Therefore,
the m€asurcment of intensities involves a verification to
minimum requirem€ntsat specified spatial points and mini-
num vertical beam spreads. In addition, for capacitor
discha€elisht units:
a) res'rn8 sholld be corducred wilh rhc ru\imum
lensth and actual sizc of cable as would be used for
the most critical installationi
b) thc measuremeni should begin after at leair
l0 milutes of opcration;
184 AerodroneDe.signManual

J,o,
'
ol+!rll)

Inlegrated
areabelween
4 and/2
I s€conds)
{candela

Iime{sec)

Figur€l&r. lyplcrl neshltrgXghrihrr rtr.s $d f.lb gr.ddly

Lesslhan0.01seconds

Figure l8-2. Flashinglight productDgvery short fleshes

 Pan 4 vbual Aids
Chapter18. Measurenentofthe Lisht lttet8ity of SteadyBumitg and nthing LighE 18-7

c) the flash failure rate should not be more th6 1 in

lcroj and

d) the discharee can b€ somewhat mstable such that

the p€ak iDtensity is rot €x-acdyrepeatablefor €ach
flash. Thus, mduidat for a sequenceof short
individual flashB should b€ made by averaging
ovd at least 5 flashes to obtain an.average value
of @dela sc@ds and then multiplyine this result

f-
 Appendix I
The OperationalRequirementsof
Yisual Nose-inDockingGuidanceSystems
l. The system must Fovide positive visual lead"in
guidace ud whm in use must be visible to the pilot
tnroughou! the docking ma.oeuwe.
2. The guidanceprouded must be easily recognizable
and capableof beins i,terpret€d without ambiguity.
I Theremust be cotinuiry betwem the ;sual parking
suidmce and $e visual dockine guidance systds.
4. The displays must be readily conspicuousro a pilot
approaching the system resardl€ss of other distacrions in
5. Mounting of the unit above apron level should nor
be oihcal in relation 1othe pilot's vi€wing angle a tbe aii-
claft closes i, on the stand.
6. The system should p.ovide left/right suidance
utiiizins self evident signals which jnfom the pilot of the
position of the airdaft ir relati@ to the longitudinal guid
7. The guidance provided by the systen should be
suchlhat the piiot can acquire and mairtain the longjtudinal
ud stopping guidance without over-conaoiling.
8. The syslem should be capable of accomodating
variations in pilot eye leight including the eff€cts ofaiqaft
loading.
AI.]
9. The system for provjding tefthsht suidmce should
be aligned for use by ihe pilot o.cupfng the Ieft hand seat.
i0. The nte oflongirudinal closre jnfonnation should
be associatedwith, or incop@ated into, the system.
11. An unmistakable stop signal for each aooplae
t)"e, preferably deployed pmmtly without need fd
selccriveoptrarionbv gromd ps"otrel. "hould be a5s(i-
ated with the system. Tie method used to indicate the
stopping point should preferably not require pilots to tum
their heads and should be usable by boih pilorr.
12. The guidance provided siould not be affected by
extmal factors such as pavmat condiiion, weather dd
lightins conditions.
ll. The accuracy of the system should be adequate
for the t)"e of loading bridge with which it is to be used.
Associared rcq.ircne,ts fot dockine
14. Doclcing serviceability/uns@ice3biliryinfomation
shouldbe availabiea!d, in the latter case,the point where the
pilot should stop tle aircraft should be indicat€d.
15. The prcvisim of a humu safety monitor capable
of indicating to the pilot the need fo. e cmqgmcy srop
 Appendix 2
The OperationalRequirements
of Visual Parking GuidanceSystems
1. Tt'€ system must provide positive visual lead-in
suidance and when in us€ must be visjble b rhe pilot at all
2. The guiddce provided must be easily recosnizable
and capableof being inte.pr€ted withour ambiguiry.
3. Idertificalion ofthe stand should be cie3rly visible
to the pilot well b€fore the a€roplae has r€acheda position
in the parking procedurebeyond which it would be difficult
to changeits direction safely to proce€dto a diffomt sttud.
4- A uniform identificatim sign for airnaft stdds
should b€ incorpoated into the system-
5. Thd€ musi b€ a clear visual sienal associat€dwith
the systemto i.dicate tle sLartofthe final tum where a final
tum to ihe parking position is needed.
6. Positive suiddce is r€quired fo. final ali8nm€nt.
7. A positive stop sjgnal must be associatedwith the
fi .al alignm€nt guidance.
A2-1
8. The method used to indicate the precise stopping
point should preferably not rcquire pilots to tm their heads.
9- The syst€mshould be l@ated using the aircmft nose
wheel o suid€ li,e principle.
10. wts€ it is nec€ssaryto indicate ditrdmt stopping
pointr for difiqot aeroplanetwes, theseshould preferably
be displayed pemmfltly wirhout reliance on hmd inte.-
11. Cotinuous lead-out guidan@ may be requir€d
ftom the point whe.e the pilot takes control of the aircraft,
up to the point vhe.e lhe taxiway guidance cd be used.
12. In'pavement lighls should preferabiy be used to
supplement painted guide lines, tming points and stop
jndications. Selective opmtion should be provided whm
operaring and visibility coadino.s so require.
13. Therc should be a difference in colou DcLweq'
inset lights and taxiway centr€ lin€ lights.
 Appendix 3
Selection,Application and Removalof Paints
GENERAL
1. To ensu€ that runway dd taxiway narkings have
adequaleconspicuity and durability, cde must be exercised
in the seleclion and application of paint. Guidance on these
factois is provided in this appmdix Repainting opeiations
must be carefully safeguardedad coordinatedwiih air traf-
frc operations for th€ safety of aiMaft md of th€ painling
crews and equipment.
Sf,LECTION OF PA]NTS
lYpe of prinrs
2. Sevdal !?es ofpaints have bem d*eloped which
have been found acceptable for mdkinss on pav€nents.
Sone of these paints de classifi€d as oil bas€,rubbd bae,
acrylic or vinyl base,oleoresinousbase,and wats emulsion
base.Re€€ntly the bas€shave been modified in proportions
and diffnmt b?es of solvent combined to imprcve ceriain
chdactenstics of thse paints for easier application, bettq
storing and bedn pnioftance. Sincedryrng rime is rery
imporlant in the applicatior of pavmeni markngs on some
surfaces,lhes€paints rnay also be cl6sified by d.ying time
a) standard(conventional) dry - 7 minuts or longe.;
b) fast dry - berweo 2 and 7 minutes;
c) qurckdry beMeenl0 and 120seconds:ud
d) instant dry - less than 30 seconds.
3. Two twes of paints have been developed
specifically for dodrome markngs. One twe is d oil
(alkyd) bd€ paint, dd the other t)?e is a water emulsio
base paint. Both t)"es of paints de r€quired to meet
specified physical and pqfomdce tests. Both tlpes of
paints are avaitable i! whiie or yellow and rnay be used
alone or to bind retro-r€nective b@ds. A black oil base
paint is also used on some aero&omes with li8ht-coloured
At1
pavemmts a a boider around the narkings to improve the
co.tiast. A dry'rg lime of 30 minutes or less is usually
accatable before vehicle iraffic can be pemitted on the
n€w markings vithout the pdnt being picked up liom the
pavemen! adhering io thc tires, or transfding to new
locations on the pavemmt. The pmissible tire required
for th€ paint of the indicated tnichess to dry tlrough the
ftll coat may be up to two hours.
4. Othet O?€s of tratrc-mdking paints @y plove to
be suitlble for m&ome markngs, but the perfomdce of
ihese paints should be caretully evaluatedfor fte particular
ope.ating condihonsbefore they are used.l,i somelocabons,
paints wilh special qualities for applicatim or rcsistanc€to
urirusualfactors afiectins the life of the makings may be
required. Some condirions which nay requne sp€cial mes
of paints are very cold e6 whqe the tmpsatLres are
oftm not high flough for painting som€ abnomlly wet or
humid ar$s, areaswhere misro-organism or plants attack
the reguld pairt, and oiher unusual conditions. The lack of
avaiiability of aerodmme-narhng paints may mk€ it
desiiabl€ to use anoth€r t}?e of paint such a hidway
llaffic-lMkins paints altlough the performance and life of
the marhngs may be reduced-
lype of pavenedt
5. Both of the aero&ome inarking+ry€ paints de
usually suitabie for applicaiion on pavement surfaces of
portland cement conqeft (nsid), bituminous/asplaltic
cement cotcreie (flexible) and previously pairted deas of
lhese surfaces. The wato emulsio! base pairf may be
prefeFed for paved surfaces which have not fully cured,
especially asphalt,becauseof its betGr perfomance agains!
bleeding. Other rypes of painr may be satisfaclory for one
surface and not dother
Type of senice
6. Tpically markinss on runways md tdiways do
not fail ftom abrasive wed d do hishway markings.
A32
Instead,failure ofthrcshold,touchdom zone,and runway
centre llne markings is causedby robber deposiled during
the spin-up of the wleels of ianding aircraft. Failure of thc
other marhrgs, parlicularly side stripe markings, is
usuallycaxsedby lhe effecisof weatler and the accumu-
I a r i o r o l d i n . H m c e a b r a s i o rr e s i s l s r c ei s n o r a p r i m e
consideration in ihe selection of matenals to be used for
aerodromepavement markings. A more suitable choice of
meking materisls is a paint which is compatible with ihe
t)"e of pavemot, naintains good conspicuity and car be
readily applied at the proper thicloess. A wer-filn
t|ickness of 0.4mm has been found suitable for most
Coeflicietrt oI lrictior
7- Both stdddd aoodrome-mdking paints provide
good coefficienb of friction on either ponland c€mentcon-
qete or bituminous cement condete and nomaLly filmish
sood braking pedormance. If better anti-skid propsrdes for
tle marking areas are requned, as may be the case whm
ieflcctivc markings are to be p.ovidcd, calcined alumrmum
oxide and ogular glass in sizes which will p6s throush
sieves of 150 miclometre nl€sh and whec less thu 5 per
cent will be rerained by sieves with 45 micrometre mesh
were foud to be etrective. Th€ paint mufacturq's
instructions on thc amout of the additive to use and the
mixins proceduiesshould be followed.
Specilicatiotr of paints
8. The pdfonnmc€ of paints may vary apFeciably
with minor changes in composition. To flsure suitable
qualiry, specification by perfmdce of t€sts of desired
requiremdts is prefdable to specification by formulaiion.
Howevd, ihe tests must be cdefully chosento evaluate all
the qualities ssntial io provide acceptablemarkings, must
be pmctical to conduct and must ieliably distinguish
beiwem adequate and unsarisfactory performanc€. Tle
basic requirenents of the pigment are colour, opaqueness
ud lasting quality. Suspendingand distersi'g agents may
be used to plevent exccss settling and caking. The v€hicle
or base of the paint provides mny of ih€ characlsislics
desired in storase, mixing, application and adh€sion.Anti
skinning and antisettling agents may be included jn tle
vehicle- The solvdt or vamish detmines the dryjng tjme
and affects applicarlon, flexibili4,, adlesion, bleeding, skid
resr)lancea-d lrgmml \olune corcenra'.or For rone
t?es of paint, mjnimum or maximum amounts of certain
componentsof the solvents may need to be specified.
Aerodroft e Design ManuaI
SELtrCTION OF RETRO.REFLECTIVE
ELEMENT (CLASS BEADS)
Conditiom for usiDg
reflective markings
9. Refiective aerodrome markngs are used to
improve pcrfomance ofthe marhngs at night, especially in
condirionsvhen the mdkings may bc wct. Becaus€ofthc
additional cos-ts, some authorities may use reflective
mrkinss only for those aerodrones which can benefit ftom
the impoved perfornance. Aero&ones which operateonly
durins daylishr or are usedonly by aircraft without landing
or taiing lights would not need lo provide reflectorized
mrkrnss. Refl€ctive nmrkings may not be necessary on
runways wjth operafing runway centre line and ioucldosn
zone lights; however, tl'e reflective marhngs may be belp-
tul for night time opdations in cletrq visibilities when the
centre line and touchdoM zone lights are not dqgized.
Tests lave shoM ihat the reflecrivity of markings nay be
enhanced by factds in excessof 5 by the inclusionof slass
Specificatiotr of
glassbeads
10. The prinmry chamcteristics of rctro-reflechve
beadsro be considqed in sel€ction for aqodrome ndkings
aie composition, index of iefiaction, gradation ud inper-
fections. Gl6s b€adswhich arc lead-fie€, ucoate4 with a
reftactiv€ index of 1.9 oi geater, hav€ siz€ gradation
betweo 0.4 od 1.3 nrm diameler and have iess than 33 per
cmt imperfections have been found best for aerodrome
markngs. Class beadswilh a r€fiactiv€ ind€x of 1.5, while
not as efrcimt as bads with a nighs iefiactive index, de
ben€ficial in inceaing the r€flectivity of mdkings, and
they m also less pMe Lo mechdical dMase in some
circumstaoces.Th@fore, in cqtain circunstancesmarkings
containing glass beads with a iefizctive index of 1.5 and
markings containing glass beads with a ieft&tive index of
1.9 or gearer may prove equally efrcient afte. a certain
11. Bepause of the limited ah4ion of runway and
taxiway markirgs, the pre-mix of beadsin the paint is no1
very effective. The method of applying the beadsby drop-
ping them direcily onto the fiesh, wet paint Fovides better
perfomance. The beadsnust be droppedimediately onto
lhe fieshly applied paint, especially for instdt dry painl to
obtain propd adhesionof the beads-
Pan 4. fisual Aids
Appen.lix 3. Selectioa, Applicatiot and Renoyal o.fPaints
APPLICAIION OF PAINTS
ceneral
12. Before cohmencing the work, all materials and
cquipment for tne work, including that necessary for
popcrly cledinsthe existingsurfaccs,shoxldbe approved
by the ensineer in charse of the pmjeci.
Pavebent surfice preparation
13. The pavment surface should be cleded properly
b€fo.€ initial painting and before repainting. The surfaceto
be painled should be dry md ftee ftom dirt, src6e, oil,
laitance, loose bber deposits, or other foreign maieilal
which would rcduce the bond between the paint and the
14. Cold (nomal inpmiure) paints should not be
appli€d whd tle suface temperatureis less than 5'C. The
weathq should not be foggy or windl The hot-spray or
heated-paintmetbod in which the paint is hearedb 50'C or
more for application may be used at lows ambierli
15. The followins procedues should be used for the
ireatmdt of surfaces:
a\ Neta' paeene (i"clvdins resutaced pavedeit),
Adequate curing time befoie painting should be
allowed to prevent peelins ard blistering. A 30-day
cuins pdod is reconrmended before oil bas€
paintsde applied.
1) Po dnd cedent concrcte. The suface should
be cleaned of €uring roterial using sand-
blasting or hish-piessurewater An acid-etching
solution may be neededto countq the le&hing
ol alkali and carbonaresalrs and ro impro\e
adhesionto srnooth, gldsy agg.egarepartjcles.
A linseed oil solution may b€ u$ed to obtain
better adiesion.
2) Asphsttic concrcte. Some combination base
paints may be applied 24lours after placement
of bituminous pavemmt. A primer coat nay be
used to reduc€ bleeding of these sLrfaces
€specially whe, curing time is reduced. A
pnner coal olreguld makng parnlar approxi-
mately 50 per cot ofth€ normal thicloess may
be appliedLonN pavemenl.The mdhngs are
then to be repainted soon after the 4phalt ha
A3-3
cured. A special primer coat, especially for use
in installations with sqious .sphali bleeding
problems and less bleediesisiancepaints, is
aluminium paint with a wet painr thicloess of
apFoximately 0.5 mm.
b) Otd parenent (iN na.lrtas). Exishng narkngs
wbicl' are no longer applicable should be rmoved
using lhe proceduresdesnibcd in peagraphs 20 to
23 and the sufaccs cleded.
c\ Repai,tirs oes eristiag marirng$. The tirc ndks
and rubber deposits should be renoved ftom the
existing mdkings by usng lflsodium phosphateor
other cleaning solutions dd smbbing and rinsing
with low-pressure water. Ciean thcse ndk'ngs of
dy foreign material which may causepoor adhesion
to the existing paint.
Note. Do not use solutio6 with norc than I ot 2 per
cnt soap or .letettents because*te6ite insing ndy be
required to renow the soapjiln.
trquipnent for paitrting
16. Painting equipment should include as a mmrnum
a mechdical narktr, surfac€-cleaning apparatus dd
auxiliary hand-paintins equipmmt- The ftechanical marker
sbodd be an atomizing spiay-twe suitable for the t)"e of
painl io be used.It should produce a uriform film thickness
of the specified covmge and provide clear-cut edses
without Mning, spattdng or ovnspny. It should propqty
apply t}'e glass beads if th€ mdkings de to be made
Proceduresfor applicatioD
17. Aftq the pavmot has cured ad€quatelyand the
sufaces arc suitably tr€ated and cleaned for tle rype of
paint to be used, ou ine the markings to be applied.
18. Before th€ paint is applied, the layouts of mdking
areas, the conditio. of th€ surface, the equipment and
materials to be used, and spplication pr@eduresshould be
approv€d by the engineer ir chdse of the project.
19. A painting procedme similar to the following
a) Armng€ \'r'ith air tratrc contol for safety piocedures
and conrnunications to protect aircaaft, painting
caewsand equipmert, ad wet painted surfees.
A3-4
M i \ h e p a n r r n a c c o r d a n cwe. h r h e m d u f a c -
A p ! l ) l h ep a i r rq r h r h em c r l a r Br u c h r n eu n i f o n n l
ar 'he .ovtra8e -aLe spccrficd w;thoL,trunr'ir.
spattering or overspraing. A coveraseIate of 2.25
ro 2.5 squac mmes per lire ro providea *er pailt
thickness of approxim$ely 0.4 mm has bed found
Ensure that the edges of tle markngs do not vary
lior d sbdignrl.ne morerhzn 2 mn in l5 rm dd
rharrhe rolomcc for re dimensionsis l5 ptr cenL.
e) ll rhe makrngs ae ro be rndde rero{enecrive.
apply the slass beads(sphereo unifomly to the wet
parnLal rhe speflfred rare. Mlf mechanicaldi.-
pmse'r. ar rhe D.oDertimc md Fessure for good
adhesion.ApplicationEtes of0.7 to 1.2kg per litie
of paint have been found satisfactory.
0 As soon as the paint has dtcd €nough to
accornmodatepedestriantratrc, inspect the marked
areas for covdase, appearance,unifomity, dimen-
sions and defects. Also check the unmarked areas
for spills, splashesor drippings of paint.
c) If there ar€ uncovered areas,lhin spots, discolour-
arions,lal oftolerance"or del-eclsir appeetrce.
touch up those areasfor suilable uif{)miiy.
l') Protet the newly painted surfacesuntil sufficiently
&y to accommodatellaiic-
RJ]MO\AL OF PAIN"IED MARKINC:
20. When mikins pattems are changed, physical
are4 or operating proceduresare modified, or the ihickness
of the laym of paint becomesexcessive,ensting markings
may need to be rernoved. Obscuation of existing markings
by paintins is nor advised excepr as a temporary measure
becauscthe surface laya of pairt will wed away or erode
and the lower lay€rs wrll becone visible ad may be
confusing.
Mechanicalremoval
2i. Sandblasling is effectiveand doeslitile dmage to
the pavement surface-Thc sand depositedon fie pavenent
should be renoved as ure work progresses to prevent
Aercdrone Design Manual
accumulation.High-pressurewater or lydroblasting can be
used successtully on somc markings. Grinding is not
ieconnaded becausc of danage to lhe pavmot surfacc
md probable reduction of frictjon for brakrS-
Chemical removal
22. Wleir chemicals are used for paint removal, a
largeand continuoussourceof watq is usuallyneededto
reduce.pototial dmagc io pavement surfacesand to dilutc
fte cnemicals w6hcd into drains or clannels.
Removal by burnitrg
23- Buming is ofto used to remove paints; howevq,
methodsinvolving bumers using air and butue, propate, ot
mixiurcs of liquid petroleum gaseshave slow bLinringrates,
and tle extmded periods of exposure to the heat may
damage lhe pavdat surface. The overb€anng melts the
asphalhc concrcte and causessurface spalling of portland
cemeit corcretc. Recently, bumeis using propde and pure
oxygen which poduce much holtd flmcs have been
devcloped. An €xcess of oxygo rapidly oxidizes rhe paint
and transfm lcss heal to the uderlyng paven6t surface.
Wilh ihese bumqs, several layers ofpaint may be oxidized
mpidly witb ftinimal or no damageto the pavemeit surface-
Layers ofpaint ofapproximalely 0.5 nm can be removed at
a single pass. Creatq thickrcsses of paint may requi.e
additional passeswiih the flame. After the paint is oxidized,
the residue should be moved ftom the pavement surface
by wie brushing, hydrobioomins or lisht sandblasting.
SPECIAI CONSIDERATIONS
Striated Darkings
24- Striated markings may be used in areaswiih low
tempdatures to reduc€ the effets of ftost heaves,
especially for wider markings such as threshold markings,
runway desisnahon markings, touchdoM zone marking,
and fixed distuce marhngs. Striaied mdkinss consist of
altemaling paint€d and u.pajnted stripes, usually of equal
Mdls noLerceedingl5 cm. o\er rhe specificdd'mensions
of the mdkina. How€vet striated markngs reducethe con-
spicuity of the marking when viewed at longer ranges
during an approachto ihe runway becausethe brightnessof
the marking becomesthc averageof the painted and
unpailled slripes. Hence str-iatednarkings should be uscd
onrywnq€ nccessary.
Pan4. VisuelAids
Aryndk 3. Sele.tion,,lryli.ation and Renoyat4 PainE At5

Oufllnlng mrrklrgs with blrck bord.B

25. Ithiie runway mskingE and yellow hxiway

narkingsnay not pr€sents k8e cont'astwhenappliedon
light-fllolEed par€menb.The crns"i@ity ofthe rnarkings
may be ilnploved by painting a black bnder tround the
paint€drnarktugs.Preferabtt the bord€r shouldbe a flat
black stripenot les th4ll 15 mr wide of a.good ry"e of
traffic paint. Black bordss wider than the minimurnwiI
incr€as€tl'e coispieity ofthe lnaikings.Theblackbord€rs
may not rcquirercpaintingas ft€quenflyaEthe marking!.
 Appendix 4

Proceduresfor DevelopingLight Intensities

for Day Conditions

1. A pilot lmdins an aircraft in poor visibility
conditions goeralty needs to s€€ a segmenr of a! least
150 m of the apFmch Erd runway lighting pattem. Ii
Cat€gory I md ll operations, the pilot needs to see tbis
segmmt atud after the de€ision height; a similar segmmt
of lighting is rcqujr€d for monitoring purposs ar heights
below 30 m in Category III operations. On€ of the pro-
cedwes us€dto develop tle lighnng specified in Amex 14,
Votume I, Appendix 2, is d€soibed in the following
p@sraphs.
2. Figuie A4-1 illustraies geomehically rhe l5&m
vislBl segmot md the position of this segment as deter-
rnined by the ai'cnft ftisht path ai any given height.
l. It is a$med for the purposesofcalculation that:
a) the glide slope is 3 degr€es,
b) the pilor's eye is 13 m above ed 28 m beyond the
nain gear (Bical dinensions for a iarse aiMaft);

R = Visualrangeto thefurlhesllighlinthssegmenl
h = Pilot's
eyeheight
d = Dislancelom endof visualsegment to runway
lhrcshold

| 1 3m
ppinl I
Ajmins

Figure A4-1. Geometry during fiDal approach

A+1
A4-2 Aercdrone Desiqt' ManMl

c) tle height of the aeroplaneis refened to ihe main
gear;
d) thc touchdoM aimins point (main sed) is 300 m
beyond the thresholdi
e) the cockpit cutoil dgle, which defin€s the near
point ofthe 150 m visual segmflt, is 15 deg.ees-
6. For Category lI operahons,wiih the decision heisht
ser at 30 m, €quations(1) and (2) show rhat rhe i.itial
visual segment contains boih approach and runway light-
iDg. The €quired visuat ftnge js iherefore identical for
approach, tlreshold and runway edge ligbting. Fo' the
landing, the touchdoqn zone and runway centre line lights
should meet tbe sarne Iange requirements as for a
Category I landing operation.

7. CategorylIlA opsations requiie oriy the nnmum

No allowance is made for the decision-makjng process
150-m visual segmdt to be available frm the touchdom
which would increase the heighl for each calculation by a
zone dd runway cmtre line for the landing ud mll-out.
height €quivalent to 3 seconds decision tirne prior to lh€
d€cision height.
8. lable A4-l summai/es Lhe\isual ruse requirc-
mentsden\ed fiom equahons(l) dd (2) fome various
4. From Figur€ A4-1 ihe iequfted visual range, R, for categori€sof operation.
a 150-mvisual segmmtis:
9. Having deremined the minimum visual mnges at
+(t5O+h/I^a o) whi.h vanouslighls in tle lighting pattemmustbe sem in
order io provide the rcquired 150-m visual segment
Aho fiom Figure Azl-l the distaf,ce, d, from the fuithest (Table A4-1), the rext stage of the procedure involves the
p3rt of the visual segmqt to the roway tkeshold, can b€ calculation of th€ light intensiti€s necessaryto meet these

1 1 )
a, = n, (t - -t 10. Th€ relationship used is a modified
(2) Allard's Law:
- [ - . - 1* 13 6 *s 2 3* 1 5 s )
E,h-ltl - L.At e'Pl Rz (3)

5- In Category I operations, equations (1) and (2)

show that at tle 60-m decision height only approachliglis
t,, = the illuminance of the eye at the lheshold of
are visible. As the appioach is confinued, ihe value of d
detection at a range ,R
decredes to zm. At the height whse ihis occuis, the
conesp@dins value of,R is 6sumed to define the iequired / : the irtdsity ofthe lieht
visual rege for the thr€shold md runway edge lights. For
the touchdoM zone lights and the flnway cotre xne Io = the luminuce ofthe background ofthe light
lights, ii is assumedthat a segnent of 150 m should be
visible at touchdown, when , : 13 m. I : the area ofthe light source

Table A4-1. Required visual .aDgeto meet the minimum operatiotrrl

requirenents: 15Gm visual segment

Requirsdvisualranse R (m)
Calegory Decision
Tf'reshold; Touchdownzone;
runwayeose runwaycenve
I 60 800 0.0063 430 330 200
30 400 0.016 310 310 200
IA 0 200 0.039 200
Pan 4. Yisual Aids
Appendl. 4. Prccedura for Ddeloping Light Intensinesfor Day Con litiohs A4-j

This modification is only nec€ssary if the avdase 1: Z (2 x 10-?x R2 eox + 0.05)

lumrnmceof rhe lghr. gven by /,r. approaches ,,. i.e. rn for approach lights
day condifions. At night tbe basic form of Allard's Law cm
I = L ( 2 x t O - 1x R 2 e a R+ 0 _ 0 0 6 )
for Mway lights

R-
11. Fd day conditions an aveBge backg.ourd
llminece, ,, of 10 000 cd/m' is assum€d.
12. Ifthe luminance facior for the nnway surface is
0.35 dd assumingthat the lumindce ofthe unlit li8ht unit
is neslisible conprcd with the value ofr, th6 a value of
Z, cu be dqived ftom the relationship l', = 0-35,.
13. The appropriate vaires for,4 de assumedto be
0.13 m'(0.4 m diamete.) for approach lishts and 0.018 m'
(0.15 m diameter) for all othe{ lights.
14. For day conditions it is assumedlhat:
Eh-Zxfif x Llrx
Substituting these assumedvalu€s in equation (3) l€ads to
the following:
15. These ielations are illlstrzt€d in Figue A4-2,
assuning thatl' : 10 000 cd/m'. It is cled tnat, afts a
initial sharp rise ar low intensilies, th€ visual range js only
weakly dependenton int€nsjry. For exmnpl€,to cornpensate
for a decr€aseirl RYR by a factor of 2, an jroease of
inlensiry of more than a factor of l0 may be.ecessdy. On
tle other !ard, uncertaintiesin intensiry due to ucertainties
j,, for instance, backsrou.d luminance will rot stonsly
irfluence tne resulting visual iege.
16. Table A4-2 summeizes the intosities requir€d to
satis& the iequitmots of Table A41. In Table A4-2 the
required visual rmges ee in parathes€s betow the inten-
sities. For the apPlo&h liehts, the mway edge lights ud
the runway centre line lights, the synbols,r, -Eand C apply
respectively. lt is assumed that the intensities of the
thieshold lights ee the sme a the rutrway edgelights ed
that the touchdoM zme lights have the sane intensities as
the nnway centre line lights.

1o' 1o'
| (cd)

Figure A4-2. \4sual raDge, -R, as ! functiotr of light itrtensit, 4

for backgroutrdltrminaDc€a = 10 000 cd/m2

17. Comparing Table A4-2 witl the mmmum
average intdsities for the lights shown in Arrex 14,
Volurne I, Apperdix 2, it can be seenthat severaliniensiiies
in Table A4-2 are unrealistically high. This mems that
some of lhe computed RvR-visual segmot combinations
ar€ impossjble to realize in practice.
lE. Having developedin Table A4-2 the idealized
intensityvaluesto €nsurethat a 150-m visual segmentjs
visible to the pilot, one further step of calculation js
required before the rcconrmendedtable of intensity value,
can be defincd. This is done in Table A4-3 wlere the
varying etrect of backeround luminanc€s, derived a a
function of sun heighr and cloud condition, is takm into
accoxnt throush so-called luminance muhjpliers (2,14- ZM
values de denvcd in the following way:
a) At a givm meleololosical extinction 6 and required
visual iuge -R, the requir€d inrensity 1 is propor-
tional to the background luminance Z. Thrs neans
that 1 at uy I cm be calculated from tb€ I
conespoldins to l, : 10 000 cd/m'by means of tle
I(L)=Ix10qxLx1cl
b) ln odcr to incorporate the vrious values of
da}tine , in a relatively simple way, th€ lumrlmce
muliipli€rs ZM, presented in T|rble A4-3 and io be
applied fd convertins th€ l values in Table A+2,
ale defined as follows:
ZM is approxi@tely equal to , x 104, vithin
u fo"r- ./2.
- ifl, x l0r is tower than 0.1 (a relatively nre
event dunng daltirne fog), ZM: 0.1.
t9. L Table ,A4 3 the cloud conditios ref€l to rhe
ciouds above the decision heisht. lf fos extods from
grourd level to a neisht above the decision heighl, then ZM
decreasesaccordingly.
20. As an approximation, ,M for "approachwith sun"
nEy be used f(n all dneclions that have an ^zimutb dgle
greatd thd 60 degreeswjih the sun's direction. For smlld
"approach into
angies tle use of a ,M appropdate to an
sun" is recommaded.
21. HaMng conputed the l,M values shown in
Table A4-3, it is th6 possibleto finally constructthe inler-
sity setling table, bearing in mind thar the visual segment
should be at leasl 150 m but thai thse is little additional
benefit if it is geater than 600 m.
Aerodrone Desip Manual
22. Table A4-2 shows that many r€quiled intensities
a.e highd thu th€ minimum averagejntensities givm in
Annex 14, Volunre I, Appendix 2, especially if lumrnance
mullipliers highd thd I ar€ applied. This leads to two con-
sequoces for Table A4-4. Firs y, mdimum inimsities
(1*) highd thu those in tle manual are specified;
secondly,if/* is not sufiicicntto Fovide a 150-mvjsual
segment for any specified conbination of R\R and ,M
conditions, an RVR-i. is esrimated,i.e. the lowest RVR for
which lmdins with a 150-m visual segmmi is possiblc.
This cu be done by interpolalion in Figure A4-2, taking
the r€quired R at visual segmmt 150 m Aom Tablc A+2,
ad taking ai the abscissaof Figle A,4'2 the vafuel*lLM
in order to correct for ti€ fact that Figure A4-2 gives ihe 1
vs. R.elation for I: l0 000 cdln' - If.I * of eachlighting
group is sulicient for a visual segmmt of 150 m but % lnn
is no! then 1Im is used.
23. If % 1* of eachlighting group is sufficjmt ior a
visual segmot of at lest 150 m, then ih€ recornmmded
idensity will be not moE than % 1nd. This rule is applied
becaus€ taking % 1* instead of 1nd vill not smously
influence the visual sesmenl wh€reas lamp life is
lenglhened more thd tenfold. If an intensity setliog lower
thar % 1* Fovides a visual s€gmentof ai leas! 600 m tbr
all lights, tho this lower iniensity setting is used.
24. A tuiths ritsion is applied to ensure ihat a
balarc€d lighting systd is naintained. To acl'ieve this
balance ihe iniensity ratjos are as follows:
Approach: Threshold and runwat edEe= 2:I
TouchdoM zone and nmway c6tre line: Threshold
a,adedge:0.33:1
These ratios are within the limits of Annex 14, Voinme I,
Appodix 2. hr€nsities approximating th€ calculated values
are used so that the inta$ity steps are not smalls tnu a
25. The.e are four turther rules that de used in
constiucting the final table ofintensi9 sethngs:
a) For eachimse ofR\R values for whjch an i'tensity
setting is assessedthe b6is for each calculaho, js
the R\R (or o) from Table A4-2 that corresponds
with the lowest R\aR in the ratAe.
b) At RVR : 200 rn to 399 m, the approach,ihr€shold
dd runway edge lights have nainum intensities,
but this RVR range coresponds with Category [lA
opqations where visual guidancefiom these groups
is not requiied. However, touchdoM zone and
Paft 4. Ybual Aids
Appendix 4. Prc.edures for Dewloping Lisht Inensities for Doy Conditions A4-5

Table A4-2. Light intensity required to satisry

the r€ouir€mcntsof lhble A,L1

(mr) E
-039 2.0r 105
(200)
_016 28 000 27 000 2 000
(310) (310) {200)
800 _0063 6100 1 800 30
{430) (330) (200)
1 500 .0025 I 600 560 .t90
(430) (330) (200)
2 500 .0011 1100 370 160
(Yn= 5 000) (430) (330) (200)
5 000 .00030 920 300 140
(Y' = 10 000) (430) (330) (200)

Y- = meteorcloSicalvlsibility
Visualsegment= 150 m

Thble A+3. Lumimme nultiplie$, ZM, to be us€d for rss€lsitrgthe rcquirEd

Iight i e$ities rt various b$kgrord hnitrlrces duritrg daytinc

Luminancemulliplier(Li,t)
Cbar sky
Sunhsigms Vsry lighl V€ry dens6 Approach App'oach
(desre3) (cirrus) (d6nseslratus) inlo sun
5 0.1 0.1 | 0.25
10 0.25 0.1 2 0.5
20 0.5 0.25 4 1
40 2.O 0.5
60 2.O 0.5
A4-6 AerodrM DesienMannl

Table A4-4. Reconmended intensity set ings' l+ (cd.)' as a lunction of meteo&loeical extinction
(expressed as RVR) od backsrcnnd luninanct
(expre$ed by neans of lhe lumi.Dce Dnliiprer, tM, given in Table Aa-3)

CalegorylllA Category
ll Calegory|

400 to 1 500 lo 2 500 !c RVR>5000m

200 lo 399 m 400 lo 799 m 1499m 2499m 4999m
LM= O.l = 220 m)
(RVRmin
30 000 15000 15000 3 000 0 0
15000 7 500 7 500 1' 5500
00 0 0
5 000 2 500 2 500 0 0
LM = O_25
30 000 15000 15000 6 000 0 0
15 000 7 500 7 500 3 000 0 0
5 000 2 500 2 500 1 000 0 0
LM = O.5
30 000 30 000 15 000 15000 0 0
15000 15 000 7 500 7 500 0 0
TD, C 5 000 5 000 2 500 2 500 0 0
LM=1
30 000 30 000 15 000 15000 15 000 0
T,E 15000 15000 7 500 7 500 7 500 0
TD,C 5 000 5 000 2 500 2 500 2 500 0
LM=2
30 000 30 000 15000 15 000 15000 0
15000 15000 7 500 7 500 7 500 0
T D ,C 5 000 5 000 2 500 2 500 2 500 0

30 000 30 000 30 000 15000 15000 0

15000 15 000 15000 7 500 7 500 0
TD, C 5 000 5 000 5 000 2 500 2 500 0

,4 = AoDroachcenlreline
I = Thresholdand winSbar
E = R'inway edSe
lD = Touchdownzone
C = Runwaycenlre li.e

lhs FVR at whicha 15Gmvisualsegmenlis just visible,

lf a visualsegmenlof 150 m oannotbe €ached at m€ximumintensity,

NOIES:

1. Al RVR= 2 500-4999,the lightsare io be 6ed onlytor approaches into low sun (i.e.azinulh anglewithsun < 60 degrces;
sun height< 40 degrces).
2. The recomrnendedintensniesare as low as considered acceplable,in the iniercsl of plolonging lamp lile and saving energy.
3. li pilotsin an apprcachingaercplanercquesta higherintensilyssting, uso the haxinum intensily.In da'4irneluminances,
glareis nevera poblem.
4. The apprcachside rcw lightsshouldpreielablyhavean inlensilyequallo that rccommended lor lhe approachcenlreline
lighrs.This is technicallydifficult because of ligbt sbsontion by the red filter. lt is thercforc rccommendedthal the apprcach
side row lighishave an intensityas highas feasible,in a llxed ratiolo lhe.apprcachcentreline lighls.
5. The tunway end ligbtsshouldpreferablyhave the same intedsitiesas the runwayedge lighls.ll not techn'callypossible
becauseol flushmounling,theyshouldat leasthav€an irlensityequallo the runwaycentreline lighls.
Pai 4. Yiswl Aitls
Appendit 4. Prccedu4 fur Ddelopins Light lfltensities for Day Conditiors A1-7

centre line lishts will have to be at maximum inten-
sib, in ordq to provide a visual segmentof 150 m.
c) At RiR = 2 500 m to 4 999 m, inrcnsiti€s of all
groups cd be zdo, excepi for "approach into sun"
at su heishts less than 40 degees ("low sun"). fie
reason for tiis is that in thes€ conditions, runway
mdkings have a sufficient visual range. From
Table A4-3 it can b€ seenthat apFoaches into low
sun yield ZM values of l, 2 or 4.
d) At R\R : 5 000 m, intensities of all lights cm be
z€io becauserunway markings ar€ always visible,
even for approach€sinto low sun.
26. olr the basis ofthe foregoing paragraphs,the nles
foi deimi.ing tle recornmendedintensity s€ttings 1* are
sumized as follows:
a) A choice ofthe intmsiry setrings(cd) in Table A4-5
b) At RVR = 200 m to 199 m, 1* : lnd for approach,
thieshold and rurway edg€.
f) Calculate 1150for each lighting group:
- if for dy sroup 450 > 1IH, tim .l' = /mu;
calculate the hiAhestRVRnin of all groups;
if for all groups .lr5o:; 1* ad if for ey eioup
450 > % Inu, thm 1' = 1IIK;
- if foi all groups 450 5 % 1*, then go to g).
s) Calculate /600for eacl lighfing group:
- if for dy group /600U I-s, then L :% Itu;
- if for all Croups 1600< /nu, then select the
lowest dimming step for whjch 1* Z /600for all
lights.
27. fie proc€dure described in the preceding
paragaphs has sevenl shoncominss, althoush the liehting
designed by lhis method has adequately supponed ops-
ations since the calculations were made in the 1960s.
28. The main shortcominss de:

c) At RVR = 2 500 m ro 4 999 a r* -0 for LM:0.1;
0.25 and 0.5.
d) ATRVR)5000m,/*=0-
e) .r is the rearest possible (within the rules sivm
above) to the lvalues from Tabl€ Azl-2 at the lov€st
RVR in the range, at a y€t-to-be+elected visual
sesment between 150 and 600 m, multiplied by th€
appropriate value of rM. These conected 1 lElues
aie denoted below with 450 and 1600.
a) The nethod assum€s that fos is homosmeous.
Res$rch ha5 shown that pronounced density pro-
files exist in most fog. \,isibitity reducesas heisht
increases. Thus an assunption dut fog is homo-
geneousgenqally results in an optimislic estimate
of the range at which the pilot of an approaching
aiidaft will se€ rhe lights ir the approach and
runMy lighting pattems.
b) Tte procedure does not take accomt of the
isocandelacharacteristicsof light fiftings. With lhe

TrbL Aa-s. Illlority !?ltiryi

Touchdown
Thresholdi zone;
runway runway
Approach edge cenlreljne
30 000 15 000 5 000
15 000 7 boo 2 500
6 000 3 000 1 000
Dimmingsteps 3 000 1 500 500
1 500 750 250
A4-8 Aerodrcne Desiga Mo\utl

540/S3 _ appruach
lighl900mtromlhreshold

approach
lighling

*..- h"""rd
l':l'J'i:n*il:
; lieona strBighl
line)
db\6x
z 4 0
frlnj
\Hunway edgelighling
\
t
\ uoo \ 4oo \6oo \ 800m(RVR)
mors) eoors.) sools)
300 600 900
ground
Longiludinal pojeclion visual
ofslant (fi)
range

NOlES:

1. Data collecled fo day fog, with a dmsity
conditi@ will be woBe, rcsdttug ir lowd
2. Clide slope agle = ihree degrc6.
3. Lighting perfommce dd settitrg dglq e
4. The dis@ntinuiris ia the aplmach lighting
5- Dara tur the rorwly cdt|e line liglting e
repEs.trting ar dcMenc€ !@batility ol50 ?r ce.t. OD 50 Pa ced of occdions, the
contact heiglts dd mdler visual segmsts for the safu repon€d RVR.
h ecoddce wilh the reqlilmdts of Amex 14, ChaFer 5.
crw6 corApoad to those locat@ wberc the selting egles of lhe lights chadge.
not slom but cd te @lculaled dd prcsent d iD lle sde folmt,

Figuro A43. An €rample of calculatior of visual segment provid€d by lighriDg

(mod€rate fog gradient)
Paft 4. Ybual Anls
Appe * 4. Prccedoes for De1)elopitg Light I tensitiesfor Day Conditiots
lighting designed by rh€ nethod desaibed above,
the pilot makes use of beam components that ee
significddy displaced&om the cmrral ponim of
th€ bem (nain bem). Detailed analysis cledly
denonstrates that the outmost eldofs of the
lighting beamsFeads that wqe not pan of the
d€sign catculations play m essmtial iole in the
operational use of the lighting guidance. For
eMnple, in low visibilities initial contact with th€
approeh hghnngis always rnadeat anglesthat l€
outside the mair beam.
o The calculatimsdo not provide an elalua$on of
hdLins perfomdce at night. One of th€ rnarn
opsational uses of the lighting is the suppon of
nisht laDding in all weather conditions.
d) The melhod6 dsmbed asumes a tedrousmanual
calculation to develop the lighting specification. A
A4,9
method that uses conputtr bas€d modelling tech-
njques sl'ould be considered for all future design
29. Validated computer piogmrnnres are available rhat
ovmome a the shortcomjngs described above. In these
progiammes, fog ciffacteristics, lighting specifications and
aircraft flight !'rofil€s are all modelled to high levels of
30. Thes€progmes cd be wd both to developed
evatuatenew lighting d€signs.By adoptingthis nore modm
iechniqu€, tlle lighting designercan produce morc €fficiflt
systernslhat i. ly rnatch the op€rationalrequiiernents.
31. An exarnple of the data thal such a piograrnne
can provide is shown in Figure A4-3, where the iange
perfomance of the lighting in a Aecified set of crrcum-
 Appendix 5
Method Usedto Developthe Graphical Presentations
in figures 5-1 to 5=3
1. It is ben€ficial both to th€ user and to th€ desisner
of airfield lighting if the light control guidance natqial
minimizes the constrainis causedby steppedcont ol md the
fixed visibility incr€rnents shoM in Tabl€s 5l to 5-3. It is
also beneficial to have some means of respondins to the
larse veianon in b&ksround luminance values, and hence
requn€d itrtmsities, €ovqed by tle three broad categodes
of day, twilisht ad night- Figures 5-l to 5-3 are a means
of achievins this obj@tive.
b) The vdtical sepdation b€tween tle lines (width of
2. The fieEs are bas€d on the contentsofthe tables.
Fou pm el lines delineate three bmds con€s?onding to
day, twilisht dd niSht conditions. The uppermost line
(hght day) relatB to a backgound luminance (Br) of
40 000 cdlm2 ad a conesponding ey€ ilumination thresh-
old (t") of lfr lu. The next line (dayltwilight bouoary,
relatesto a ,, of I 000 cdlm2 and tr of l0r lur. The third
line (twilighthight boundary) corresponds to a BL of
15 cd/m' and an tr of loj lua whilst the low€st lin€ relates
to a Br of 0.3 cd/rn2 and an Er of 10 7 5 lux (dak nieho.
3. It will be s€en ftorn co$idration of the figues
that two general r€lationships gov6n the data:
a) All the lin€s on all the figur€s have dle sameslop€,
such that the re{uired intensity at vis = 10 kn is
I/10 oftle intmsiry requiredai vis 0krrl. i.e.
r,6,
4t'= - all three diagErns recommend a l0 p€r cent inten-
Thusfor anytight udE anyloownconditions,
ft€
lines can be draM, provided only that the appfo-
pnale interNity for zero visibility is known. The
A5-1
only slight exception to ttris r e is the lrdimum
daytime casewhen in Iow visibility conditions the
maximum available intensity specified in Amex 14
volume I. App€ndix 2. is nol optimum. Thus. in
pmctice, the maximum daytirne boundar./ line
tminates at the point whtre visibility : 1.5 kq
ralher than at a visual idge ofo hn, but the slop€
of the line confms to the gen€ial case.
the day, fwilieht and right bands on the figures) is
constant for all t$es of lighting in the ratio of the
Er value covered by that band, i.e.
day tr= l0r - tor lux = I ruit
t*iljght tr: l0{ - 10{ lux = 2 'mits
night tr = 10i - 10 ?5lu = 1.5 units
night bard = 1.5 x width day bed
twilight band = 2 x width day band.
The fisll6 presewe the conc€pt of balanc€d
lighting patteEs, e.g. ifthe visibility is 0 hn and the
conditions ,!e o the twilighvnight boundary, then
siry sedns (on the half-decades.ale). siinilarly, if
the visibility is 4l(n, lh€n ar the day/twilight boun-
dary, the r€cornnended intensity setting would b€
20 p€r cent (on ft€ 5:l scale).
 Appendix 6

Eye-to-Wheel and Eye-to-Aerial Heights of Aeroplanes

This app€ndr cosisrs of *re followirs tabies:

Table A61 . Vertical distaics betweer critical points oo aircr:.ft at maxjmm pilch attihlde (approach at VREF) @S)

TableAG2. Vertical distarces betw€€dcritical point! on anqaft atminimmpitch aftitude (approachat VRIF + 20) ([S)

Table A6"3. V€itical distance! between critical points on airraft at ]]diml[t pirch attitude (sppmach at VR!F) @LS)

Table 4.6-4. Vertical distances breen caiticat points on ancrafr al minimum pitch attitude (approach di VR!I, + 20)
{MLS)

- i..,

461
A6-2 Aercdrcne D6is Man@l

ae4s ' i 9 u ? q a \ q \ a n
!iF-^

o l q r : q . i l q \ c ? r y

-9 E 3+ 9 9 o ? o q o : q n 0 2 9 u ?
I

e E €
o F o o c , i c i

c a
.i q9
EI
.a
:. ?; gH

dEqs
t ; € o r F - a t ; o F @ @
96E9
.et
3 E
5: g : 4 E
o t o t s d ; o o i i o @ r i

€ e
> ! c ? o q n ? o : q + q 9 u ?
-e

p
P ar : \ . ? o ) \ a ' : o ) \
-69E€
F

E EE
t o€

g EE P ^P ^9
lE 9a
2Let * R ;n * ; * F ! ; ' R e 53 e ' : 3 I g R s* c e;s8 3
i*,5
d - o El a

E
I
E

as*cFe[*[F
Pad 4. Viswl Aid,l
AppendLt 6. Ere-towheel an.l Eye-to-Aerial Heights of Aercplanes A6l

ds*E o t a o : r y
snE: g P C g g 3 & R
9i;---

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