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Electrochemical

 genera/on  and  
storage  
Primary  and  secondary  Ba5eries  
difference  
•  Primary:  chemical  energy  to  electrical  energy  
•  Secondary  :  electrical  energy  to  electrical  
energy  
Zinc-­‐carbon  or  Leclanché  ba5ery  
•  Zn(s)lZnCl2(aq),NH4Cl(aq)lMnO2(s),C(s)  
and  the  OCV  is  in  the  range  1.55-­‐1.74  V  
By  1868  more  than  20  000  of  these  cells  
were  in  service  in  European  telegraph  
systems.  Twenty  years  aWer  the  
original  cell  had  been  proposed,  Carl  
Geissner  patented  the  idea  of  
manufacturing  
the  zinc  anode  in  the  form  of  a  cup  
which  would  act  as  a  
container  for  the  electrolyte  (which  was  
immobilized  with  plaster  of  Paris).  
In  the  following  a  cereal  gel  subs/tuted  
the  plaster  method.  
reac/ons  

The  basic  process  consists  of  oxida/on  of  zinc  at  the  anode  to  form  
zinc  ions  in  solu/on:  
•  Zn(s)-­‐-­‐+Zn2+  +  2e    
•  together  with  a  reduc/on  of  Mn  (IV)  to  a  trivalent  state  as  MnO.OH
(s)  or  
•  Mn203.H20(s),  at  the  cathode,  e.g.  
•  2MnO2(s)  +  2H20  +  2e  -­‐-­‐+  2MnO.OH(s)  +  2OH-­‐(aq)    
•  The  ini/al  products  of  the  electrode  reac/ons  may  then  undergo  
further  
•  reac/ons  in  solu/on.  The  prevailing  process  is  
•  Zn2+(aq)  +  2OH-­‐(aq)+  2NH4+(aq)-­‐-­‐-­‐>  Zn(NH3)22+  +  2H20    
•  followed  by  the  forma/on  of  the  slightly  soluble  Zn(NH3)2Cl2  
•  Zn(NH3)2+(aq)  +  2Cl-­‐(aq)  -­‐-­‐+  Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s)  
electrolyte  
•  The  electrolyte  in  the  original  Leclanché  cell  was  
a  saturated  solu/on  of  ammonium  chloride.  The  
addi/on  of  zinc  chloride  was  soon  found  to  be  
beneficial  to  cell  performance,  and  since  
Geissner's  /me  the  electrolyte  has  contained  
both  salts.  
Acid-­‐base  polariza/on  
•  The  cathodic  reac/ons  generate  OH-­‐  and  
increase  pH  
•  While  the  anodic  one  decreases  pH:  
•  Zn2+(aq)  +  H20  -­‐-­‐-­‐)  Zn(OH)+  +  H+(aq)  
•  A  pH  gradient  is  thus  established  during  cell  
discharge.  
The  cathode  
•  Graphite,  once  the  normal  choice  for  Leclanché  
cells,  is  now  used  only  occasionally  for  certain  
high  current  cells,  and  has  been  replaced  by  
acetylene  black.  
•  In  Leclanché  cells,  in  contrast  to  other  zinc-­‐
carbon  cells,  a  measure  of  porosity  is  retained  to  
permit  ven/ng  of  hydrogen  or  carbon  dioxide  
and  hence  to  obviate  the  need  for  installing  a  
resealable  vent  with  the  a5endant  cost  
implica/ons.  
Manganese  oxide  
•  MnO2  has  numerous  allotropic  forms,  with  
subtle  crystal  structure  modifica/ons  and  a  
wide  variety  of  surface  types.  So  far  it  has  not  
proved  possible  to  relate  in  any  exact  way  the  
crystal  structure,  surface  proper/es,  etc.  of  a  
par/cular  sample  of  MnO2  with  its  
corresponding  electrochemical  behaviour.  
Manganese  oxide  
•  Naturally  occurring  MnO2  ores  from  a  number  of  sources  (and  in  
par/cular  Ghana,  Gabon  and  Mexico),  known  as  NMD,  are  
prac/cally  free  from  significant  amounts  of  heavy  metal  impuri/es  
and  can  be  used  directly  aWer  washing  processes  without  chemical  
purifica/on.  
•  'Synthe/c'  MnO2  is  obtained  from  natural  MnO2  which  has  been  
reduced  to  MnO  and  thence  put  into  solu/on  using  sulphuric  acid.  
The  resul/ng  manganous  sulphate  is  purified  and  then  oxidized  
either  chemically  to  yield  CMD  or  electrochemically  to  yield  EMD,  
which  are  MnO2  phases  with  high  surface  area  and  consistent  
proper/es,  and  which  are  used  in  high  quality  Leclanché  cells.    
•  CMD  and  EMD  have  different  crystal  structures  from  the  phases  
exis/ng  in  the  natural  ores.  They  are  also  free  from  manganite,  
MnOOH,  which  in  NMD-­‐based  cells  results  in  a  slightly  lower  OCV.  
reac/ons  

In  addi/on,  the  slow  diffusion  of  protons  within  the  solid  MnO2  results  
in  serious  polariza/on  of  the  cell,  especially  at  high  currents  .  If  the  cell  is  
allowed  to  'rest'  for  a  period  while  no  current  is  drawn,  the  cell  voltage  
slowly  recovers,  as  proton  diffusion  dissipates  the  high  Mn  (III)  
concentra/on  near  the  surface  of  the  MnO2  grains  and  the  composi/on  of  
the  solid  returns  to  uniformity  
anode  
•  In  modern  cells  the  anode  is  fabricated  from  a  zinc  
alloy  sheet  synthesized  from  'ba5ery  grade'  zinc  
(99.99%)  containing  small  quan//es  of  Pb  and  Cd  to  
give  sa/sfactory  mechanical  proper/es  for  drawing,  
extrusion,  etc.  
•  Electrode  polariza/on  of  the  anode  is  less  severe  than  
that  for  the  cathode  and  is  mainly  concentra/on  
polariza/on  resul/ng  from  accumula/on  of  zinc  
chloride  near  the  electrode  surface.  During  rest  
periods  aWer  discharge,  diffusion  of  ZnCl2  into  the  bulk  
of  the  electrolyte  reduces  the  anode  polariza/on  and  
this  also  contributes  to  the  recovery  of  the  cell  voltage.  
Shelf  reac/ons  
•  Shelf  reac/ons  are  defined  as  chemical  processes  
occurring  in  ba5eries  during  storage  before  they  have  
been  used.  
•  The  most  significant  shelf  reac/ons  which  lead  to  the  
deteriora/on  of  Leclanché  cells  are  corrosion  
processes  at  the  anode.  
•  Those  corrosion  process  comes  from  oxygen  
penetra/on  and  zinc  oxida/on  or  from  hydrogen  
evolu/on  at  anode  greatly  enhanced  from  the  
presence  of  some  impuri/es.  
•  Zn(s)  +  2NH4+(aq)  +  2Cl-­‐(aq)  à  Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s)  +  H2(g)  
•  Zn(s)  +  Fe2+(aq)  -­‐>Zn2+(aq)  +  Fe(s)  
Shelf  reac/ons  
•  Un/l  recently  the  principal  technique  was  to  
amalgamate  the  zinc  surface  by  adding  a  small  
quan/ty  of  a  soluble  mercury  salt  to  the  
electrolyte.  This  increased  the  hydrogen  
overvoltage  of  the  zinc  and  also  allowed  
dissolu/on  of  small  quan//es  of  
electroposi/ve  metals,  thus  preven/ng  the  
forma/on  of  local  couples.  
•  (Why?  Consider  the  volcano  plot!!)  
Leakage  
•  A  long-­‐standing  problem  of  Leclanché  dry  cells  is  
their  propensity  to  leak  aWer  heavy  discharge.  
•  This  fact  comes  form  a  complex  set  of  reac/ons:  
zinc  corrosion  which  weakens  the  metal  and  
produc/on  of  gas  from  starch  degrada/on;  the  
combina/on  of  these  processes  allows  an  easier  
leakage;  exhausted  ba5eries  should  be  
immediately  get  out  of  the  electric  device.  
Some  prac/cal  informa/ons  
•  Leclanché  cells  are  manufactured  in  a  range  of  
sizes,  from  11.3  mm  diameter  •  3.3  mm  high  
bu5on  cells  to  66.7  mm  diameter  x  166  mm  
high  alarm  cells.  Combina/on  of  cells  in  series  
and  parallel  arrangements  gives  a  wide  variety  
of  ba5eries  with  different  capaci/es  and  
voltages  ranging  from  1.5  to  510  V.  
A  modern  Leclanché  cell  
Alterna/ve  geometries  
Alterna/ve  chemistries  
Zinc  chloride  

The  improved  
performance  of  the  
ZnCl2  cell  is  offset  by  
the  higher  cost  
incurred  through  
using  a  be5er  quality  
cathode  mix  and  
more  complex  
fabrica/on  due  to  
the  requirement  of  
more  reliable  seals.  
Alterna/ve  chemistries  
Zinc  chloride  

The  improved  
performance  of  the  
ZnC12  cell  is  offset  
by  the  higher  cost  
incurred  through  
using  a  be5er  quality  
cathode  mix  and  
more  complex  
fabrica/on  due  to  
the  requirement  of  
more  reliable  seals.  
Alkaline  ba5eries  
•  In  this  case,  the  electrolyte  is  a  concentrated  
aqueous  solu/on  of  potassium  hydroxide  (about  
30%),  partly  converted  to  potassium  zincate  by  
the  addi/on  of  zinc  oxide.    
•  rela/vely  constant  capacity  over  a  wide  range  of  
current  drains  
•   be5er  behaviour  at  low  temperature.    
•  Another  feature  of  this  system  is  that  it  can  be  
the  basis  of  a  secondary  ba5ery  system.  
•  2Zn(s)+2MnO2(s)+H20(l)  -­‐>  2MnO.OH(s)  +  2ZnO(s)  
Alkaline  ba5eries  
•  The  electrolyte  is  immobilized  generally  using  
carboxymethylcellulose,  and  a  non-­‐woven  fabric  
separator  made  of  natural  or  synthe/c  fibres  resistant  
to  the  high  pH  is  placed  between  the  electrodes  
•  The  cathode  mix  is  a  compressed  mixture  of  
electroly/c  MnO2  (EMD)  and  synthe/c  graphite  or  
acetylene  black  to  provide  electronic  conduc/vity,  in  
•  a  ra/o  of  4-­‐5:  1,  we5ed  with  electrolyte.  The  cathode  
current  collector  is  generally  the  external  steel  can,  
which  may  be  nickel-­‐plated  or  coated  with  conduc/ve  
carbon.  
Alkaline  ba5eries  
Alkaline  ba5eries  

Non-­‐stoichiometric  materials  
Provided  that  the  reduc/on  does  not  exceed  a  
Mn02  -­‐>  MnO1.5   level  equivalent  to  MnO1.33the  reac/on  can  be  
 MnO1.5-­‐-­‐-­‐>  >  MnO1.33   reversed  and  the  cathode  recharged.  In  prac/ce  
 MnO1.33  -­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐>  MnO   this  means  limi/ng  the  discharge  at  0.9  V.  
Alkaline  ba5eries  
•  The  anode  is  a  hollow  cylinder  of  powdered  zinc  set  in  
a  carboxymethylcellulose,  polyacrylate  or  other  
polymer-­‐based  gel.  Zinc  powder  with  median  par/cle  
diameters  in  the  range  150-­‐250  gm  is  produced  by  
interac/on  of  a  thin  stream  of  molten  metal  with  jets  
of  compressed  air.    
•  Gassing  may  be  reduced  by  alloying  the  zinc  with  small  
quan//es  of  aluminium,  bismuth  or  calcium.    
•  As  in  the  case  of  Leclanché  cells,  manufacturers  use  a  
range  of  organic  addi/ves  to  reduce  zinc  corrosion  
now  that  mercury  amalgama/on  is  no  longer  
acceptable  for  environmental  reasons.  
Other  chemistry  alterna/ves  
•  Replacement  of  zinc  anodes  by  aluminium  or  magnesium  seems  an  
a5rac/ve  proposi/on  because  of  their  significantly  higher  specific  
capaci/es  
•  (2.98  Ah/g  for  Al  and  2.20  Ah/g  for  Mg  compared  with  0.82  Ah/g  for  
•  Zn).  
•   In  addi/on,  both  metals  have  higher  standard  poten/als  than  zinc  
so  that  a  higher  cell  voltage  and  energy  density  can  be  an/cipated.    

•  Two  problems    
 
the  greatly  increased  corrosion  rate,    
the  presence  of  an  oxide  film  which  limits  anode  corrosion  but  is  
responsible  for  a  'voltage  delay'  on  discharge.  
Bu5on  cells  
•  'Miniature'  or  'bu5on'  cells  are  cylindrical  in  form  and  have  
a  height  of  less  than  5  mm.  
•  electric  watches  and  other  miniature  electronic  devices  and  
current  produc/on  is  over  109  units  per  year  
•  The  earliest  aqueous  system,  based  on  mercuric  oxide  and  
zinc,  was  introduced  in  the  1940s.  This  is  the  Ruben-­‐
Mallory  or  RM  cell  
•  The  zinc-­‐silver  oxide  system  was  introduced  commercially  
by  Union  Carbide  in  1961  shortly  aWer  the  appearance  of  
electric  watches,  and  a  number  of  other  alkaline  electrolyte  
bu5on  cells  were  developed  subsequently.  
Zinc/mercuric-­‐oxide  
•  Zn(s)lZnO(s)lKOH(aq)lHgO(s),C(s)  
•  The  anode  reac/on  may  be  wri5en  as  
•  Zn(s)  +  2OH-­‐(aq)  à  ZnO(s)  +  H20(l)  +  2e-­‐  and  the  cathode  reac/on  
as  
•  HgO(s)  +  H20(1)  +  2e-­‐  à  Hg(l)  +  2OH-­‐(aq)  
•  so  that  the  overall  cell  reac/on  is  
•  Zn(s)  +  HgO(s)  à  ZnO(s)  +  Hg(l)  
•  Two  important  points  to  note  are  the  invariance  of  the  electrolyte  
solu/on  and  the  constancy  of  the  chemical  poten/als  of  reactants  
and  products,  as  the  discharge  proceeds.    
•  One  consequence  of  the  effec/ve  non-­‐involvement  of  the  
electrolyte  is  that  only  a  very  small  quan/ty  is  required  in  a  working  
cell.  Another  is  a  rela/vely  constant  internal  resistance,  leading  to  a  
fiat  discharge  curve.  
Zinc/mercuric  oxide  
•  The  free  energy  change  for  the  cell  reac/on  is  259.8  kJ/
mol  and  the  cell  emf  is  1.347  V,  which  is  in  very  
sa/sfactory  agreement  with  the  OCV  of  1.357  V  of  
commercially  produced  cells  
•  The  electrolyte  is  usually  an  approximately  40%  
solu/on  of  KOH  saturated  with  zinc  oxide,  to  which  
corrosion  inhibitors  have  been  added.  The  KOH  is  
occasionally  replaced  by  NaOH.  
•  The  electrolyte  is  immobilized  using  felted  cellulose.  
The  most  common  anode  is  a  porous  compressed  
cylindrical  pellet  of  amalgamated  zinc  powder  and  
electrolyte  (possibly  gelled).  
Zinc/mercuric  oxide  
Comparisons  
Comparisons  

   
Comparisons  
Comparisons  
Lithium  primary  ba5ery  
Proper/es  
•  High  cell  voltage.  Lithium  cells  commonly  have  
OCV  and  working  voltages  of  3  V  and  may  have  
values  of  4  V.  In  addi/on  to  contribu/ng  to  the  
high  energy  density  of  the  cells,  the  number  of  
cells  in  a  ba5ery  pack  can  be  reduced  by  a  factor  
of  2  or  3  in  comparison  with  aqueous  
primary  cells.  
•  Flat  discharge.  It  is  straighrorward  to  combine  
lithium  with  a  cathode  where  the  ac/vity  of  the  
oxidized  and  reduced  forms  are  invariant  during  
discharge  of  the  cell.  
Proper/es  
•  Self-­‐discharge  is  minimized  due  to  the  forma/on  
of  the  passiva/ng  layer  on  lithium.  Prac/cal  
storage  limits  of  5-­‐10  years  at  room  temperature  
are  readily  achieved  
•  Wide  opera/ng  temperature  range.  Because  of  
the  low  freezing  point  of  suitable  non-­‐aqueous  
solvents,  lithium  cells  can  perform  reasonably  
well  down  to  temperatures  of  around  -­‐40°  Their  
construc/on  also  allows  them  to  be  operated  at  
60°  and  over.  
Organic  electrolytes  
formule  
Some  proper/es  
Li  Salts  
•  The  most  widely  used  salts  are  LiBr,  LiPF6,  LiAsF6,  LiBF4,  
LiCl04  and  LiAlCI4,  i.e.  either  simple  salts  or  
combina/ons  of  a  lithium  halide  with  a  Lewis  acid.  The  
best  known,  LiCF3SO3,  lithium  
trifluoromethanesulphonate,  some/mes  referred  to  as  
'lithium  triflate’    
•  .  More  conduc/ve  solu/ons,  due  to  lower  ion  pairing,  
may  be  obtained  using  LiN(SO2CF3)2,  known  as  LiTFSI  or  
'lithium  imide’,  or  LiC(SO2CF3)3which  is  called  'lithium  
methide'.    
•  Both  of  these  salts  are  highly  stable  both  from  a  
thermal  and  from  an  electrochemical  point  of  view.  
Behaviour  
Lithium  Passiva/on  
•  The  forma/on  of  passiva/ng  films  on  lithium  
in  contact  with  liquid  or  soluble  cathodic  
reagents  is  a  prerequisite  for  the  construc/on  
of  a  prac/cal  cell.  The  film  acts  in  the  same  
way  as  a  separator,  preven/ng  further  direct  
chemical  reac/on  of  lithium  and  the  cathodic  
reagent.  
Passiva/on  effect:  voltage  delay  

the  twin  objec/ves  of  protec/ng  the  lithium  from  


corrosion  while  avoiding  unacceptable  levels  of  voltage  delay  can  be  
considered  to  have  been  met.  However,  the  detailed  mechanisms  of  film  
forma/on  and  disrup/on  are  s/ll  ma5ers  of  some  controversy  
The  anode:  lithium;  and  the  cathode?  
•  There  are  three  different  types  of  cathodes:    
•  solid  cathode  reagents:  compounds  with  a  
negligibly  small  solubility  in  the  electrolyte,  e.g.  
(CFx),  CuO,  MnO2,  FeS;  
•  soluble  cathode  reagents:  the  only  important  
example  is  sulphur  dioxide,  SO2;  
•  liquid  cathode  “reagents"  the  ac/ve  species  is  in  
liquid  form  at  the  cell  opera/ng  temperature,  e.g.  
thionyl  chloride,  SOCl2  and  sulphuryl  chloride,  
SO2Cl2.  
Solid  Cathodes  
•  Polycarbon  fluorides:  
•  nxLi(s)  +  (CFx),(s)  -­‐-­‐-­‐)  nC(s)  +  nxLiF(s)  
•  Oxosalts:  
•  2Li(s)  +  Ag2CrO4(s)  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  2Ag(s)  +  Li2CrO4(s)  for  
which  the  structure  is  
•  Li(s)ILiCl04,PCIAg2CrO4(s),C(s)  
•  PC=propylencarbonate  
•  Oxides  or  sulphide  
Cells  for  cardiac  pacemaker  
Li/o-­‐Ossido  
No/ceable  
•  4Li(s)  +  FeS2(s)  à  Fe(s)  +  2Li2S  
Soluble  cathode  
•  All  the  currently  available  commercial  lithium  cells  using  a  soluble  
cathodic  reagent  are  based  on  sulphur  dioxide;    for  heavy  duty  
applica/ons.  
•  The  cell  may  be  represented  as  
•  Li(s)lSO2,  LiBr,  ANIC(s)  
•  with  an  overall  reac/on:  
•  2Li(s)  +  2SO2(diss.)  à  Li2S204(s)  
•  The  concentra/on  of  dissolved  sulphur  dioxide  in  an  undischarged  cell  at  
room  temperature  gives  rise  to  an  internal  pressure  of  about  300  kPa  (3  
atm).  The  internal  pressure  decreases  as  the  cell  is  discharged.    
•  However,  the  pressure  increases  to  3  MPa  (30  atm)  at  100°C  
•  Lithium-­‐sulphur  dioxide  cells  are  characterized  by  high  energy  density  
>300  Wh/kg,  high  power  density,  good  voltage  regula/on,  excep/onal  low  
temperature  performance  and  superior  shelf  life  
Liquid  cathode  
•  thionyl  chloride  (SOCl2),  sulphuryl  
•  chloride  (SO2Cl2)  and  phosphoryl  chloride  (POCl3),  have  been  
found  to  be  capable  of  ac/ng  both  as  solvent  and  as  cathodic  
reagent  
Thionyl  chloride  
•  Li(s)ILiAlCl4,  SOCl2(l)IC(s)  
•  with  the  main  cell  reac/on  
•  4Li(s)  +  2SOCl2(l)  -­‐à  4LiCl(s)  +  SO2(diss.)  +  S(s)  
•  larger  cells  with  capaci/es  up  to  10  000  Ah  and  
40  A  discharge  capabili/es  have  been  tested,  and  
a  1.2  MWh  30  V  ba5ery  has  been  developed  for  
military  use.  
•  Low  rate  cells  manufactured  by  Mallory  with  a  
spiral  configura/on  (4.45  cm  X  25-­‐38  cm  
electrodes)  produced  prac/cal  energy  densi/es  
of  661  Wh/kg  (1240  Wh/dm  3)!!!!  
Impressive  flat  discharge  
Reserve  ba5ery  

Magnesium  to  Silver  ba5ery  

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