Evaluating Volcanic Reservoirs
M.Y. Farooqui Hydrocarbons can be found in volcanic rock—sometimes in significant quantities.
Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation (GSPC)
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Petrophysical methods originally developed for sedimentary accumulations are being
used to evaluate these unusual reservoirs.
Huijun Hou
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Guoxin Li
PetroChina Exploration and Production
Company Limited In the early days of petroleum exploration, the
Beijing, China discovery of hydrocarbons in anything other than
sedimentary rock was largely accidental, and such
Nigel Machin
accumulations were considered flukes. Serendipity
Saudi Aramco
is still part of exploration, but geologists now know
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
that the presence of oil and gas in such rock is
Tom Neville certainly no coincidence. Igneous rock—created
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA by the solidification of magma—hosts petroleum
reservoirs in many major hydro­carbon provinces,
Aditi Pal sometimes predominating them.
Jakarta, Indonesia In general, igneous rocks have been ignored
and even avoided by the E&P industry. They have
Chandramani Shrivastva been ignored because of a perceived lack of res-
Mumbai, India ervoir quality. However, there are many ways in
which igneous rocks can develop porosity and
Yuhua Wang
permeability.1 Far from inconsequential, igneous
Fengping Yang
Changhai Yin activity can influence every aspect of a petroleum
Jie Zhao system, providing source rock, affecting fluid
PetroChina Daqing Oilfield Company maturation and creating migration pathways,
Daqing, China traps, reservoirs and seals.2
Igneous rocks have been avoided for other
Xingwang Yang reasons. They tend to be extremely hard, although
Tokyo, Japan improvements in bit technology are helping drill-
ers cope with these tough lithologies.3 Because
Oilfield Review Spring 2009: 21, no. 1.
Copyright © 2009 Schlumberger.
they typically prevent deep pene­tration of seismic
DMR, ECS and FMI are marks of Schlumberger.
1. Srugoa P and Rubinstein P: “Processes Controlling
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Martin Porosity and Permeability in Volcanic Reservoirs from
Isaacs, Sugar Land, Texas, USA; Shumao Jin, Brett Rimmer the Austral and Neuquén Basins, Argentina,” AAPG
and Michael Yang, Beijing; Charles E. Jones, University of Bulletin 91, no. 1 (January 2007): 115–129.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA; Andreas Laake, Cairo; and
2. Schutter SR: “Hydrocarbon Occurrence and Exploration
Hetu C. Sheth, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai.
in and Around Igneous Rocks,” in Petford N and
McCaffrey KJW (eds): Hydrocarbons in Crystalline Rocks,
Geological Society Special Publication 214. London:
Geological Society (2003): 7–33.
3. Close F, Conroy D, Greig A, Morin A, Flint G and Seale R:
“Successful Drilling of Basalt in a West of Shetland
Deepwater Discovery,” paper SPE 96575, presented at
the SPE Offshore Europe Oil and Gas Conference and
Exhibition, Aberdeen, September 6–9, 2005.
36
energy, igneous layers are considered an impedi-
ment to evaluation of underlying sediments as well.
New seismic methods are advancing solutions
to this problem, but with their strong refrac-
tive qualities, igneous reservoirs remain difficult
to characterize.4
Once hydrocarbons are found in igneous
reser­voirs, assessing hydrocarbon volumes and
productivity presents several challenges. Log
interpretation in igneous reservoirs often requires
adapting techniques designed for other environ-
ments. Logging tools and interpretation methods
that succeed in sedimentary rock can give mean-
ingful answers in igneous rock, but they often
require artful application. Furthermore, because
mineralogy varies greatly in these formations,
methods that work in one volcanic province may
fail in another. Usually, a combination of methods
is required.
This article describes the complexity of vol-
canic reservoirs and presents technologies that
have proved successful in characterizing them.
The discussion begins with a review of igneous
rock types and follows with an examination of
the effects of igneous processes on petroleum
Salleh S and Eckstrom D: “Reducing Well Costs by
Optimizing Drilling Including Hard/Abrasive Igneous Rock
Section Offshore Vietnam,” paper SPE 62777, presented
at the IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drilling Technology
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, September 11–13, 2000.
4. Hill D, Combee L and Bacon J: “Over/Under Acquisition
and Data Processing: The Next Quantum Leap in Seismic
Technology?” First Break 24, no. 6 (June 2006): 81–95.
White RS, Smallwood JR, Fliedner MM, Boslaugh B,
Maresh J and Fruehn J: “Imaging and Regional
Distribution of Basalt Flows in the Faeroe-Shetland
Basin,” Geophysical Prospecting 51, no. 3 (May 2003):
215–231.
Oilfield Review
 Oilfield Review
Winter 09
Volcanic Fig. Opener
ORWINT09-VOL Fig. Opener
Spring 2009 37
systems. Two field examples highlight formation that combines conventional logging measure-
evaluation in volcanic rocks. A case study from a ments and image logs with neutron-capture
gas-rich reservoir in China presents a technique spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance.
Plume
Eruption
column
Ash-cloud surge
Pyroclastic flow Volcaniclastic rocks
Traps
Laccolith
exposed
Dikes by erosion
Volcano
Granite wash
Lava flow
Plutonic
Dike rock
Laccolith
Sill
Country rock
Pluton
Basement
> Emplacement of igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks, formed by cooling of magma within the Earth, display
well-developed crystals with little porosity. Plutons and laccoliths—bulging igneous injections into
sedimentary layers—are examples of plutonic rock. Volcanic rocks, formed when magma extrudes
onto the surface and cools rapidly, show very fine crystalline or even glassy textures. Buildup
of pressures within the Earth can cause explosive eruptions; these result in the accumulation of
fragments of volcanic material in pyroclastic deposits. Rock containing clastic fragments of volcanic
origin is termed volcaniclastic. Complex porosities and permeabilities can develop as a result of these
different processes.
Structures Textures
Flow—Flows form when the fabric of lava aligns in Brecciated—Most angular particles exceeding 2 mm
parallel rows or ropy waves. in diameter are volcanic breccia. Typically, particles
form from the movement of partially solidified rock, not
Pillow—Lava that erupts under water and quickly from the ejection of fragments.
develops a cool skin around a molten core forms pillow
structures, which are bulbous piles of rock. Pillow lava Glassy—Lava that cools rapidly forms volcanic glass
often incorporates seafloor sediments. such as obsidian, tonalite and pitchstone, which differ
mainly in their alkali feldspar content.
Porphyry—One of the most common porphyritic
Oilfield ReviewTuffaceous—Consolidated pyroclastic material less
structures is phenocrysts, 1- to 2-mm [0.04- to 0.08-in.]
Winter
crystals embedded in a fine-grained, often glassy matrix. 09 than 2 mm [about 0.08 in.] in diameter is tuff.
Andesite and basalt often have olivine and pyroxene
phenocrysts. Volcanic Fig. 1Unconsolidated tuff is ash. Both can be deposited far
from their source. A common epiclastic, or weathered
ORWINT09-VOL Fig. 1reservoir rock is tuffaceous sand, in which
volcanic,
Pyroclast—Pyroclasts are sharp, chiseled rock reworked tuff accounts for less than half the volume of
fragments created during a volcanic explosion. Glass rock. When tuff makes up more than half the rock,
shards are often a key component. Sharp shards indicate
the deposit is called sandy tuff.
rapid burial or minimal postdepositional reworking.
Vesicular—Gas expanding in cooling lava creates
pores called vesicles. Often unconnected, they are the
reason very porous volcanic rock, such as pumice, can
> Structures and textures in volcanic rocks. float but has negligible permeability. Vesicles often
fill with secondary minerals, usually hydrated silicates
Variations in structure and texture give rise to called zeolites. These filled vesicles, called amygdules,
the wide range of porosity and permeability
reduce intergranular porosity in the same manner as
observed in crystalline and pyroclastic rock. clay in sandstone.
38
An example from India demonstrates the impor-
tance of incorporating borehole resistivity images
in the evaluation of oil-bearing volcanic rock.
About Igneous Rocks
Igneous rock is formed through the solidification
of magma—a mixture of water, dissolved gases
and molten to partially molten rock. Igneous
rocks vary from one reservoir to another because
their constituents have diverse chemistries,
origi­nating from magma that mixes material
from the Earth’s mantle, crust and surface—
typically oxides of silicon, iron, magnesium,
sodium, calcium and potassium. They also have
diverse structures and textures—leading to
complex porosities and permeabilities—depend-
ing on how they were emplaced. Emplacement
mechanisms include sudden explosive eruptions,
syrupy viscous flows and slow, deep subsurface
intrusions. Subsequent weathering and fractur-
ing can further complicate rock properties.
Igneous rocks form under a wide range of condi-
tions, and therefore display a variety of properties
(left). Molten rock that cools deep beneath the sur-
face forms intrusive, or plutonic, rocks. Slow cooling
of deep magmas forms large crystals, resulting in
coarse-grained rock. These formations typically
have low intergranular porosity and insignificant
permeability, making them of little interest to the
oil industry. The one exception is fractured granites,
which can produce hydrocarbons.5 Magmas that
approach the surface tend to cool more rapidly.
This allows less time for the formation of crystals,
which therefore tend to be smaller, resulting in fine-
grained crystalline rock.
Extrusive, or volcanic, rocks are created
when magma erupts through the Earth’s sur-
face. Magma may extrude in flows of molten
lava that, when cooled, form fine- to very fine-
grained crystalline volcanic rock. Sometimes,
cooling occurs so quickly that crystals cannot
form, resulting in volcanic glass, such as obsid-
ian. When magmas contain large amounts of
water and dissolved gases, buildup of excessive
pressure under the ground can cause explosive
eruptions of volcanic material. Ejected frag-
ments, or pyroclasts, can range in size from fine
volcanic ash to “bombs” tens of centimeters in
diameter. Once they have been ejected, indi-
vidual fragments accumulate to form pyroclastic
rock. Lava flows and pyroclastic deposits may
be a few centimeters to a few hundred meters
thick, covering thousands of square kilometers.
These deposits can have sufficient porosity
and permeability to make them viable hydrocar-
bon reservoirs.
Oilfield Review
 The different modes of formation of igneous Fine Grained Basalt Andesite Dacite Rhyolite
rocks—cooling of lavas, either under the ground or at
Coarse Grained Peridotite Gabbro Diorite Granodiorite Granite
the surface, and agglomeration of fragments ejected
100
during explosive eruptions—allow a subdivision of
Calcium-rich Quartz
igneous rocks into two groups: crystalline igneous plagioclase

Mineral composition, volume percent

rocks and fragmental igneous, or pyroclastic, rocks. 80 feldspars

A simple and common compositional classi-

fication of crystalline igneous rocks is based on 60 Potassium
feldspar
silica [SiO2] weight percentage. Rocks low in SiO2 Sodium-rich
(less than 52%) are classed as basic, rocks high in plagioclase
40 Olivine feldspars
SiO2 (more than 66%) are acidic and those with
Pyroxene
SiO2 between 52 and 66% are intermediate.6
A parallel classification system groups rocks 20

by weight percent of dark-colored minerals. Amphibole Biotite

Rocks rich (more than 70%) in dark minerals, 0
such as olivine and pyroxene, are mafic; those
45% Increasing silica content 75%
containing few dark minerals (less than 40%),
and therefore more light minerals, such as quartz Increasing calcium, magnesium and iron content
and feldspar, are silicic, sometimes called felsic.7
Mafic rocks, such as basalt, tend to be basic; Increasing potassium, sodium and aluminum content
silicic rocks, such as granite, tend to be acidic.
1,200°C [2,200°F] Increasing temperature of crystallization 700°C [1,300°F]
A different classification encompasses em­-
place­ment mechanism, crystal size and miner- > Classifying igneous rocks by mineral composition. Fine-grained and coarse-grained rocks of similar
alogy, dividing crystalline volcanic rocks into composition have different names. For example, a magma containing quartz, potassium feldspar,
four main types (above right). The trend from sodium-rich plagioclase and biotite may cool slowly and form coarse-grained granite. If the same
basalt to andesite, dacite and rhyolite forms a magma is extruded, it will form fine-grained rhyolite. Olivine-rich magmas do not commonly extrude,
but crystallize at depth, and so form only coarse-grained rocks.
continuum of mineralogy.
Pyroclastic rocks, on the other hand, are
typically classified by grain size, as are clastic Clast or Crystalline Rocks:
Crystal Sedimentary Pyroclastic Igneous, Metamorphic
sedimentary rocks. Relative proportions of three Size, mm Clasts Fragments or Sedimentary
grain-size classes—blocks and bombs, lapilli
Boulders
and ash—are used to classify a pyroclastic rock 256 Blocks Very coarse
(right). Pyroclastic and crystalline rock types and bombs grained
Cobbles
exhibit differences in texture and structure that 64
Very coarse
Gravel

lead to differences in porosity and permeability crystalline

(previous page, bottom).
16 Pebbles
5. For example, recoverable oil reserves in the fractured Lapilli
granite of the Cuu Long basin offshore Vietnam are Coarse grained
estimated at 2 billion bbl [320 million m3] or more. For
more: Du Hung N and Van Le H: “Petroleum Geology 4 Coarse crystalline
of Cuu Long Basin—Offshore Vietnam,” Search and Granules
2
Discovery Article #10062, http://www.searchanddiscovery. Very coarse sand
net/documents/2004/hung/images/hung.pdf (accessed 1 Medium grained
April 6, 2009). Coarse sand
The giant Suban gas field in southern Sumatra contains 0.5 Medium crystalline
Medium sand Oilfield Review
Sand

estimated reserves of 5 Tcf [140 billion m3] in fractured Coarse ash

granites. For more: Koning T: “Oil and Gas Production 0.25 Winter 09grains
Fine sand
from Basement Reservoirs: Examples from Indonesia, 0.125 Volcanic Fig. 2 Fine grained
USA and Venezuela,” in Petford N and McCaffrey KJW
(eds): Hydrocarbons in Crystalline Rocks, Geological
ORWINT09-VOL Fig. 2
Very fine sand Fine crystalline
Society Special Publication 214. London: Geological
Society (2003): 83–92. 0.032
Landes KK, Amoruso JJ, Charlesworth LJ Jr, Heany F
and Lesperance PJ: “Petroleum Resources in Basement Very fine grained
Rocks,” Bulletin of the AAPG 44, no. 10 (October 1960): Silt
Very fine crystalline
Mud

Fine ash
1682–1691. grains
6. An acidic rock contains proportionately more nonmetallic 0.004
oxides than a basic rock and forms an acid when
Clay Cryptocrystalline
dissolved in water. A basic rock contains proportionately
more metallic oxides than an acidic rock and forms a
base when dissolved in water. > Classifying pyroclastic rocks by grain size. Pyroclastic rocks are identified
7. The term “mafic” is derived from the words magnesium based on grain size, in a similar fashion to clastic sedimentary rocks.
and ferric, whereas “felsic” is a combination of feldspar
and silica.
Hyndman DW: Petrology of Igneous and Metamorphic
Rocks, 2nd ed. New York City: McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, 1985.

Spring 2009 39
 Volumes of Volcanics
Petrologists have calculated that the shallow part
ARGENTINA
of the Earth’s crust contains a volume of volca-
Chaitén
Plume
nic rock—formed by the ejection of lava at the
CHILE Ash cover surface—of 3.4 to 9 x 109 km3, an order of magni-
tude greater than the volume of sedimentary rock.
This estimate includes extrusions at seafloor rift
zones, where oceanic plates are pulling apart and
new crust is created by volcanic activity.
The presence of volcanic rocks in hydro-
ATLANTIC OCEAN
carbon provinces is common because volcanic
activity has taken place in or near many sedi-
mentary basins at one time or another. Volcanism
can also affect distant basins—large volcanoes
0 km 100
can push pyroclastic flows up to 1,000 km [about
0 miles 100
600 mi] from their origin and wind can carry ash
thousands of kilometers (left). Consequently,
blankets of ash and tuffs, or consolidated ash,
may be found far from their source.
Hydrocarbon-producing igneous rocks occur
the world over (below). The earliest docu-
mented oil discovery in volcanic rock may be
> Image of the Chaitén volcano, southern Chile, from the NASA Terra satellite. The volcano, thought the Hara oil field of Japan, which began pro-
to be dormant before its May 2, 2008, eruption, sent a plume of ash and steam 10.7 to 16.8 km [35,000 ducing in 1900.8 The field produced oil from
to 55,000 ft] into the atmosphere. This image, acquired three days after the eruption, shows the plume three tuffaceous layers. Other early produc-
extending eastward more than 1,000 km across Argentina and into the Atlantic Ocean. The volcanic
plume (white) is distinguishable from the clouds (turquoise). The land surface is dusted with tan-gray
tion was recorded in Texas, in 1915, along a
ash. [From “Chile’s Chaiten Volcano Erupts,” http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=8725 trend of seafloor volcanoes that erupted dur-
(accessed April 6, 2009)]. ing deposition of the Austin Chalk.9 The buried
volcanic formations produced 54 million bbl
[8.6 million m3] of oil from 90 fields in more than
200 igneous bodies.

Oilfield Review
Winter 09
Volcanic Fig. 5
ORWINT09-VOL Fig. 5

Hydrocarbons associated with

igneous rocks or igneous activity

> Distribution of hydrocarbon-bearing igneous rocks. Gold dots represent locations of hydrocarbon seeps, shows and reservoirs in igneous rocks. (Adapted
from Schutter, reference 36).

40 Oilfield Review
 Volcanic reservoirs may contain significant
accumulations. As of 1996, cumulative produc­
tion from the volcanic tuff and associated
layers of the Jatibarang field, West Java, was
1.2 billion bbl [190 million m3] of oil and 2.7 Tcf
[76 billion m3] of gas. Speculated reserves are
4 billion bbl [635 million m3] of oil and 3 Tcf
[85 billion m3] of gas.10 Reservoir analysis yields
porosity values of 16 to 25% and permeability up
to 10 darcies. In this reservoir, the volcanic rocks
are also source rocks.11
Petroleum Systems
Volcanism can affect all aspects of a petroleum
system, producing distinctive source rocks,
accelerating fluid maturation, facilitating fluid
migration, and creating traps, reservoirs and seals.
Source Rock—Although most hydrocarbons
found in volcanic rocks come from sedimen­
tary source rock, some volcanic rocks are also
source rocks. Vegetation entrained in ash flows
may contain enough water to protect it from
the heat of emplacement. Subaerial volcanism
may create lakes and swamps with kerogen-rich
sediments, and the volcanically warmed water in
these basins encourages nutrient growth, further
enhancing the production of organic material.
Maturation—By adding heat, igneous bod­
ies can accelerate hydrocarbon maturation.
Large intrusive bodies, such as thick dikes and
sills, cool slowly and may affect great volumes
of surrounding rock, causing overmaturation.12
Volcanic flows cool relatively quickly, so they usu­
ally have less impact on maturation. The impact
of igneous activity on fluid maturation can be
assessed by petroleum systems modeling.13
In addition to direct heat, the circulation
of hydrothermal fluids in the heated zone also
may affect maturation. For example, scientists
working in the Guaymas basin of the Gulf of
California have reported that hydrothermal
fluids heated to 400°C [752°F] are responsible
8. Mining in Japan, Past and Present. The Bureau of
Mines, Department of Agriculture and Commerce of
Japan, 1909.
9. Ewing TE and Caran SC: “Late Cretaceous Volcanism in
South and Central Texas—Stratigraphic, Structural, and
Seismic Models,” Transactions, Gulf Coast Association
of Geological Societies 32 (1982): 137–145.
10. Kartanegara AL, Baik RN and Ibrahim MA: “Volcanics
Oil Bearing in Indonesia,” AAPG Bulletin 80, no. 13
(1996): A73.
11. Bishop MG: “Petroleum Systems of the Northwest
Java Province, Java and Offshore Southeast Sumatra,
Indonesia,” USGS Open-File Report 99–50R (2000),
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/ofr-99-0050/OF99-50R/
ardj_occr.html (accessed April 7, 2009).
Spring 2009
Christmas Tree Laccolith Punched Laccolith
> Traps caused by laccolith intrusion. The trap of the Omaha Dome field in
Illinois was caused by a Christmas tree laccolith (left ) of mica-peridotite
intruding into limestones and sandstones. Traps (green) can also be caused
by punched laccoliths (right), which lift overlying layers along bounding faults.
for alteration of organic matter and the creation of Traps—Igneous intrusions into surrounding
petroleum.14 The process is rapid, taking hundreds sedimentary layers, called country rock, often
to thousands of years rather than the millions of result in closed structures within the intruded
years typically needed to generate oil.15 formations. The Omaha Dome field in the Illinois
Migration—There are several ways for hydro­ basin, USA, was formed by this type of trap. The
carbons that originated elsewhere to become trapping structure is a Christmas tree laccolith
trapped in volcanic rocks: produced by an ultramafic intrusion (above).16
• Hydrocarbons can pass vertically or later­ The field was discovered in 1940 and produced
ally from sedimentary rocks into structurally about 6.5 million bbl [1 million m3] of oil from
higher volcanic rocks. Oilfield Review
sandstones that are in contact with the intrusion.
• Compaction of sedimentary rocks can Winter 09
force Reservoirs—Igneous rocks share another
Volcanic Fig.characteristic
hydrocarbons downward into volcanic rocks.
7 with sedimentary reservoir rocks;
ORWINT09-VOL Fig. 7
• Hydrothermal fluids are capable of dissolving they can have primary porosity and sometimes
hydrocarbons and depositing them in igne­ develop secondary porosity. But unlike sedimen­
ous rocks. tary rocks, igneous rocks lose their porosity quite
• If the vapor pressure in volcanic rocks becomes slowly with compaction. Primary porosity may
low enough during cooling, hydrocarbons may be intergranular or vesicular—a type of poros­
be drawn into the pore spaces. ity resulting from the presence of vesicles, or gas
12. Schutter, reference 2. 15. Kvenvolden KA and Simoneit BRT: “Hydrothermally
13. Yurewicz DA, Bohacs KM, Kendall J, Klimentidis RE, Derived Petroleum: Examples from Guaymas Basin, Gulf
Kronmueller K, Meurer ME, Ryan TC and Yeakel JD: of California, and Escanaba Trough, Northeast Pacific
“Controls on Gas and Water Distribution, Mesaverde Ocean,” AAPG Bulletin 74, no. 3 (March 1990): 223–237.
Basin-Centered Gas Play, Piceance Basin, Colorado,” 16. English RM and Grogan RM: “Omaha Pool and
in Cumella SP, Shanley KW and Camp WK (eds): Mica-Peridotite Intrusives, Gallatin County, Illinois,”
Understanding, Exploring and Developing Tight-Gas in Howell JV (ed): Structure of Typical American Oil
Sands: 2005 Vail Hedberg Conference, AAPG Hedberg Fields, Special Publication 14, vol. 3. Tulsa: American
Series, no. 3 (2008): 105–136. Association of Petroleum Geologists (1948): 189–212.
14. Simoneit BRT: “Organic Matter Alteration and Fluid
Migration in Hydrothermal Systems,” in Parnell J (ed):
Geofluids: Origin, Migration and Evolution of Fluids
in Sedimentary Basins, Geological Society Special
Publication 78. London: Geological Society (1994):
261–274.
41
 Depending on the properties of the volcanic
rocks, gravity and magnetic techniques may be
useful. These were among the earliest geophysi-
cal approaches applied, and they contributed to
Fresh basalt
the successful exploitation of the 1915 Texas vol-
canic play mentioned previously. Mafic igneous
Weathered basalt
rocks—richer in dense and magnetic minerals
than felsic igneous rocks—offer better contrast
Nonbasalt rocks with regional sediments, so they may show
up distinctly on gravity and magnetic surveys.
Aeromagnetic surveys have been effective in
identifying prospects in mafic flood basalts in the
Otway basin, southeastern Australia.22
Magnetotelluric (MT) methods have also
been used, usually in conjunction with other
techniques, to investigate high-resistivity vol­canic
rocks as potential reservoirs (for more on MT,
see “Electromagnetic Sounding for Hydrocarbons,”
page 4). For example, MT surveys in the Yurihara
oil and gas field in Japan are aiding exploration of
Fresh basalt
areas surrounding producing reservoirs.23 On some
Payun Payun
Weathered basalt
MT lines, resistive uplifted volcanic layers have
been identified as possible prospects. Integration
Basalt with sparse vegetation
0 km 20 of MT surveys with surface seismic information
Nonvolcanic sediments 0 mi 20 was valuable in characterizing the internal struc-
Vegetation
ture of an oil- and gas-producing basalt layer.
> Remote sensing in volcanic provinces. Satellite data from visible, near-infrared, infrared and thermal Seismic methods, while extremely useful for
bands help geophysicists assess topography and ground surface character before planning seismic detecting sedimentary structures, have had mixed
survey acquisition. In this example from Argentina, satellite data (bottom) from several spectral bands
are combined and color-coded to distinguish different surface characteristics. Recently erupted success in volcanic provinces. Massive basalts with-
basalt flows are highlighted as dark red in both satellite images. Acquisition crews use the information out internal layering have high effective seismic
to determine whether the terrain is accessible to vibrator trucks and other equipment (top). The quality, meaning they are not highly absorptive,
photograph of the survey vehicles shows the Payun volcano seen from the south.
so seismic waves pass through them with little
attenuation. Seismic surveys are relatively suc-
cessful in delineating the tops and bottoms of such
layers. However, layered basalts, especially those
bubbles, in igneous rock. Porosities in vesicular surface mapping of elevated structures has with interspersed weathered surfaces, tend to
basalts and andesites may reach 50%.17 Secondary revealed volcanic deposits. For example, in scatter seismic energy and may yield poor data.24
porosity is important for many volcanic reservoirs Japan, rhyolitic volcanic rocks containing large To improve the quality of seismic data in volcanic
and is sometimes the only porosity present. It may hydrocarbon accumulations have been discov- provinces, survey planners use satellite sensing
result from hydrothermal alteration, fracturing ered by mapping structural highs.18 Another tra- to determine lithology and topography, and are
and late-stage metamorphism—metamorphism ditional method, the recognition of hydrocarbon incorporating the results in assessments of survey
Oilfield
during the late stages of igneous activity Review
that seeps at the surface, is used to find deeper reser- logistics, acquisition parameters and processing
Winter 09
alters the minerals formed earlier. Sills and lac- voirs. Oil and gas sometimes rise to the surface requirements (above left).25
Volcanic Fig. 8
ORWINT09-VOL
coliths may become reservoirs, especially when alongFig. 8
contacts between igneous and sedimentary In areas with highly attenuating volcanic lay-
they intrude into source rocks. They may fracture rocks. Seeps in the Golden Lane area of eastern ers, borehole seismic surveys have shown some
upon cooling, providing porosity, permeability Mexico have been associated with steeply dip- promise in improving seismic image resolution.
and migration pathways. ping igneous rocks that have penetrated thick Such was the case with an offset vertical seismic
Seals—Igneous rocks can provide seals. After oil-rich carbonate layers.19 profile (VSP) acquired in a 4,750-m [15,600-ft]
alteration to clay, extrusive layers may act as Advanced techniques are also used. Satellite exploratory well in the Neuquén basin, Argentina.26
tight seals. Impermeable intruded rocks, such as imagery has been applied to evaluate the basalt- At the well location, the surface was covered
laccoliths that form traps, also may seal hydro- covered Columbia basin in Washington and by approximately 150 m [490  ft] of basalt that
carbons in formations beneath them. Oregon, USA.20 Geochemical analysis of ground- strongly attenuated surface seismic energy. The
water in the same region has detected significant VSP produced an image with higher resolution
Exploration in Volcanic Provinces levels of methane over a large area, indicating than the surface seismic results and illuminated
Hydrocarbon exploration in and around igneous potentially commercial quantities of natural gas other igneous bodies in the subsurface.
rocks may involve a variety of geological, geo­ in Columbia River basalts.21
physical and geochemical techniques. Traditional

42 Oilfield Review
 Once a hydrocarbon-bearing volcanic deposit
is discovered, evaluating the reservoir can be
a challenge. Methods for assessing porosity,
permeability and saturation in sedimentary rocks
must be modified to work in volcanic provinces.
Case studies from China and India demonstrate
Depth, m
such techniques.
Gas-Bearing Volcanic Formations in China
The giant Daqing field, discovered in 1959, is the
largest oil field in China and one of the largest
in the world. The field has produced more than
10 billion bbl [1.6 billion m3] from sedimentary
layers 700 to 1,200 m [2,300 to 3,900 ft] deep.
Stratigraphic wells—drilled to understand the
basin-scale relationships between the reservoirs
and the surrounding strata—encountered gas in
volcanic layers at depths between 3,000 and
6,000  m [10,000 and 20,000 ft]. Because of the
difficult environment and challenging reservoir
rocks, these reserves were not immediately tar-
geted for development.
In 2004, PetroChina initiated a nine-well
appraisal program and entered into a joint proj-
ect with Schlumberger to better understand
these deep volcanic reservoirs. The study area
covered 930 km2 [360 mi2] and incorporated 3D
seismic data along with wireline logs, borehole
images and core analyses from 15 wells. To sup-
port development decisions, analysts constructed
a workflow to evaluate these complex reservoirs
and estimate the amount of gas in place.27
The initial step in the workflow involved
building a structural model from seismic data.
The top of the Yingcheng volcanic group is a sig-
nificant seismic reflector, and interpretation of
this horizon supplied the major structural control
for the model. In addition to the top of the group,
seismic interpreters distinguished three main
volcanic sequences, with interbedded and bound-
ing sedimentary sequences (above right). Within
the structural model, each sequence was divided
17. Chen Z, Yan H, Li J, Zhang G, Zhang Z and Liu B:
“Relationship Between Tertiary Volcanic Rocks and
Hydrocarbons in the Liaohe Basin, People’s Republic of
China,” AAPG Bulletin 83, no. 6 (June 1999): 1004–1014.
18. Komatsu N, Fujita Y and Sato O: “Cenozoic Volcanic
Rocks as Potential Hydrocarbon Reservoirs,” presented
at the 11th World Petroleum Congress, London,
August 28–September 2, 1983.
19. Link WK: “Significance of Oil and Gas Seeps in World
Oil Exploration,” Bulletin of the AAPG 36, no. 8
(August 1952): 1505–1540.
20. Fritts SG and Fisk LH: “Structural Evolution of South
Margin—Relation to Hydrocarbon Generation,” Oil &
Gas Journal 83, no. 34 (August 26, 1985): 84–86.
Fritts SG and Fisk LH: “Tectonic Model for Formation
of Columbia Basin: Implications for Oil, Gas Potential
of North Central Oregon,” Oil & Gas Journal 83, no. 35
(September 2, 1985): 85–89.
21. Johnson VG, Graham DL and Reidel SP: “Methane
in Columbia River Basalt Aquifers: Isotopic and
Geohydrologic Evidence for a Deep Coal-Bed Gas
Spring 2009
X,000
X,200 XS8 XS401 XS4 XS602 XS6 XS601
X,400
X,600
X,800
Y,000
Y,200 Conglomerate
Shale
Y,400 0 km 2 Upper volcanic
0 mi 2 Sedimentary
Lower volcanic
Y,600
Basalt
Y,800
R U S S I A
Daqing
MONGOLIA
N
Beijing N. KOREA
A
P
A
C H I N A S. KOREA
J
0 km 400
0 mi 400
> Structure of the Yingcheng volcanic group beneath the Daqing field. Interpretation of seismic data
determined the top of the volcanic group, and integration of seismic and log data allowed delineation
of the upper volcanic, lower volcanic and predominantly basaltic sequences.
into smaller cells that were later populated with of rocks relies on mineralogy, which cannot be
physical properties. determined easily for the very fine-grained or
The reservoir consists mainly of interlayered glassy textures common in volcanic rocks. This
crystalline rhyolites and rhyolitic pyroclastics, but a led scientists studying volcanic rocks to focus on
full spectrum of volcanics was encountered, rang- chemical composition as the key factor in classi-
ing from basaltic to rhyolitic in composition and fication schemes. With elemental concentrations
from crystalline igneous to pyroclastic in texture. from an ECS elemental capture spectroscopy
Identifying rock types within the sequences tool, interpreters used these chemistry-based
and correlating them between wells were diffi- classification schemes to provide a continu-
cult tasks. Lithology classification for most types ous lithology description.28 However, chemical
Source in the Columbia Basin, Washington,” AAPG 26. Rodríguez Arias L, Galaguza M and Sanchez A: “Look
Bulletin 77, no. 7 (July 1993): 1192–1207. Ahead VSP, Inversion, and Imaging from ZVSP and
22. Gunn P: “Aeromagnetics Locates Prospective OVSP in a Surface Basalt Environment: Neuquen Basin,
Areas and Prospects,” The Leading Edge 17, no. 1 Argentina,” paper SPE 107944, presented at the SPE
(January 1998): 67–69. Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering
Conference, Buenos Aires, April 15–18, 2007.
23. Mitsuhata Y, Matsuo K and Minegishi M:
“Magnetotelluric Survey for Exploration of a Volcanic- 27. Li G, Wang YH, Yang FP, Zhao J, Meisenhelder J,
Oilfield
Rock Reservoir in the Yurihara Oil and Gas Field, Japan,”ReviewNeville TJ, Farag S, Yang XW, Zhu YQ, Luthi S, Hou HJ,
Geophysical Prospecting 47, no. 2 (March 1999):Winter
195–218.09 Zhang SP, Wu C, Wu JH and Conefrey M: “Computing
Gas in Place in a Complex Volcanic Reservoir in China,”
24. Rohrman M: “Prospectivity of Volcanic Basins: Volcanic Fig. 9 paper SPE 103790, presented at the SPE International
Trap
Delineation and Acreage De-Risking,” AAPG ORWINT09-VOL
Bulletin 91,
OilFig.
and 9
Gas Conference and Exhibition in China, Beijing,
no. 6 (June 2007): 915–939.
December 5–7, 2006.
25. Laake A: “Remote Sensing Application for Vibroseis Data
28. Barson D, Christensen R, Decoster E, Grau J, Herron M,
Quality Estimation in the Neuquen Basin, Argentina,”
Herron S, Guru UK, Jordán M, Maher TM, Rylander E
paper presented at the IAPG VI Congreso de Exploración
and White J: “Spectroscopy: The Key to Rapid, Reliable
y Desarrollo de Hidrocarburos, Mar del Plata, Argentina,
Petrophysical Answers,” Oilfield Review 17, no. 2
November 15–19, 2005.
(Summer 2005): 14–33.
Coulson S, Gråbak O, Cutts A, Sweeney D, Hinsch R,
Schachinger M, Laake A, Monk DJ and Towart J:
“Satellite Sensing: Risk Mapping for Seismic Surveys,”
Oilfield Review 20, no. 4 (Winter 2008/2009): 40–51.
43
 Common depth point number composition is not the whole story; for example,
600 650 700 750 800 850 900 if a particular rock has a rhyolitic composition,
chemistry alone cannot distinguish between a
crystalline rhyolite and a pyroclastic rhyolite
tuff. Textural information from borehole images
obtained by the FMI fullbore formation microim-
ager provided the basis for distinguishing these
rock types and tying together log data from all
the wells. Magnetic resonance T2 distributions
provided additional information to complete the
lithology classification.
Pyroclastic flow By combining all available information,
Pyroclastic fall Lava flow
geologists were able to identify 11 igneous rock
types in each well and then correlate them
across the field using seismic data and con-
Extrusive ceptual geological models from other volcanic
environments (left).
Evaluating the petrophysical properties of
FMI Image Porosity Facies each rock type was particularly challenging.29
50 % 0
Compared with the clastic and carbonate rocks
Lava
flow that form conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs,
Tuff these volcanic rocks exhibit the most problem-
atic features of both; the complex mineralogy,
Water laid Outer dome-building volcanic
including the presence of conductive minerals
Pyroclastic flow Middle dome-building volcanic
such as clays and zeolites, parallels that of the
Pyroclastic fall Inner dome-building volcanic
Pyroclastic most challenging clastic rocks, and their tex-
flow Surge flow Intrusive
ture and pore structure mimic those of the most
Upper lava flow complex carbonate rocks. This combination of
Middle lava flow features presents difficulties for the evaluation of
Lower lava flow porosity, permeability and fluid saturations.
Surge
flow A robust scheme for lithology-independent
Pyroclastic evaluation of porosity in low-porosity, gas-bearing
fall
formations is the DMR density–magnetic reso-
> Correlation of igneous rock types with seismic data. Rock types were identified using FMI images, nance interpretation method, which combines
NMR T2 distributions and ECS elemental concentrations. Rock types were classified into seven bulk density and magnetic resonance porosity
crystalline lithologies (greens, pinks and purples) and four pyroclastic lithologies (orange and yellows). measurements.30 A relationship between matrix
A sample correlation (bottom) shows an FMI image acquired through an interval of predominantly density and elemental concentrations derived
pyroclastic layers. A seismic section (top) through the central well is used to extend rock types across
the field. The rock types observed in the central well are displayed at the well location using the color from core analysis was applied to the ECS results
codes for volcaniclastic and crystalline lithologies. Rock types extrapolated away from the central well to produce a continuous log of matrix density.
are displayed as semitransparent colors on the seismic section. The matrix density provided input to the DMR
process for calculating high-quality estimates of
porosity and indications of gas saturation in each
well. To extrapolate porosity information to areas
away from the wells, interpreters developed
29. Li GX, Wang YH, Zhao J, Yang FP, Yin CH, Neville TJ, 32. Kumar R: Fundamentals of Historical Geology and probability distributions of porosity for each rock
Farag S, Yang XW and Zhu YQ: “Petrophysical Oilfield Review Stratigraphy of India. New Delhi: New Age International type and used them to populate the model.
Winter 09
Characterization of a Complex Volcanic Reservoir,” Publishers Limited, 2001.
Transactions of the SPWLA 48th Annual Logging Estimating gas saturation was a challenge
Volcanic
Symposium, Austin, Texas, June 3–6, 2007, paper E. Fig. 10 AS, Sahu SK, Thomas PD, Raju DSAN, Chand R and
33. Negi
Ram J: “Fusing Geologic Knowledge and Seismic in
ORWINT09-VOL
30. Freedman R, Cao Minh C, Gubelin G, Freeman JJ, Fig. 10 for Subtle Hydrocarbon Traps in India’s Cambay
Searching
because the complex rock texture prevented
McGinness T, Terry B and Rawlence D: “Combining Basin,” The Leading Edge 25, no. 7 (July 2006): 872–880. development of a suitable Archie-type saturation
NMR and Density Logs for Petrophysical Analysis in 34. Pal A, Machin N, Sinha S and Shrivastva C: “Application equation, so a capillary pressure–based approach
Gas-Bearing Formations,” Transactions of the SPWLA of Borehole Images for the Evaluation of Volcanic
39th Annual Logging Symposium, Keystone, Colorado, Reservoirs: A Case Study from the Deccan Volcanics,
was used to estimate saturation. Pseudocapillary-
USA, May 26–29, 1998, paper II. Cambay Basin, India,” presented at the AAPG Annual pressure curves were derived from well-log
31. Short NM Sr and Blair RW Jr (eds): Geomorphology Convention and Exhibition, Long Beach, California, USA,
from Space. NASA (1986), http://disc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ April 1–4, 2007.
magnetic resonance T2 distributions and cali-
geomorphology/ (accessed March 3, 2009). brated to mercury-injection capillary-pressure

44 Oilfield Review
measurements performed on cores. Saturation
values computed in this way showed a strong N C H I N A
S TA
dependence on pore network geometry. For
KI NEP
example, the core measurements showed the PA AL
air-fall tuffs—volumetrically the most signifi- Cambay basin
cant reservoir rock type—to be microporous, or BANGLADESH
Deccan Traps
having pore throats less than 0.5 μm in radius.
Saturation profiles across these formations exhib-
I N D I A
ited long transition zones extending hundreds of
meters and covering most of the reservoir. The Mahabaleshwar
saturation results, validated with gas indications
from the DMR method, downhole fluid analysis
measurements and production data, were consis-
tent with the assumption that the reservoir was a
single-pressure system with one free-water level. 0 km 500
SRI LANKA
The capillary pressure–based approach was 0 miles 500
subsequently used to populate the model with
saturation values.
Gas in place for the reservoir was calculated
by summing the gas contained in each model
cell. However, reservoir rock quality in this
field is extremely heterogeneous. In addition,
well control was limited, and the seismic data
were imperfect in guiding the distribution of
petrophysical properties. To cope with these diffi-
culties, engineers employed a stochastic method
to populate cells with porosity and gas satura-
tion. Nearly 60 realizations were performed to
evaluate the potential quantities of gas in place
for the study area, providing an understanding
of the range of uncertainty associated with field
volumetrics. The results of the overall study sup- > The Deccan Traps of India. The Deccan Traps are a sequence of approximately 40 basalt layers
ported the decision to develop the field. covering portions of central western India. Differences between the basalts, which are competent,
and interlayered sands, shales and limestones, which are more easily eroded, give rise to the rough
Oil in India’s Deccan Traps terrain (right ). This photograph was taken at the Mahabaleshwar escarpment in the Western Ghats.
The Cambay basin (left) is a downdropped graben with oil-bearing sediments overlying the basalts.
The Deccan Traps were formed by Late Basalt outcrops are shown in orange. (Photograph courtesy of Dr. Hetu C. Sheth, Department of Earth
Cretaceous extrusion of flood basalts that today Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai.)
cover more than 500,000 km2 [190,000 mi2] of
central western India. They are called traps, from
the German word treppen for step, because they
give rise to topography characterized by stepped
terraces of resistant basalt layers (above right).31 the top of the volcanic deposits was considered by Well PK-2 was laterally extensive. Based on
The episode of volcanism was synchronous with economic basement, below which commercial this model, Well PK-6 was drilled in 2005 just
the rifting of the Indian continent from southern hydrocarbon reservoirs were not expected to be 600  m [1,970 ft] to the southwest of PK-2, but
Africa. Although the genesis and the mechanism found. However, in the past few years, Oilfield Review
oil has unfortunately it did not flow any hydrocarbon.
of emplacement of these basalts are still debated, been discovered in these deeper volcanic Winter
rocks.09 This unexpected result encouraged GSPC to
Volcanic Fig. 11
the general consensus is that they erupted under In 2003, Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation
ORWINT09-VOL update
Fig. the
11 reservoir model through further data
water.32 More than 40 such basalt layers have (GSPC) initiated a six-well campaign in analysis, specifically considering the rock facies
been identified, many of them interbedded with Block  CB-ONN-2000/1. The first three wells and fractures and their interplay with faults
fluvial and estuarine limestones, shales and exhibited oil shows in the volcanic layers. In within the volcanic layers.34
sandstones. In some places, total thickness of the 2004, the fourth well, PK-2, proved to be a signifi- As a first step, geologists developed a textural
traps exceeds 3,000 m. cant oil discovery, testing at 64 m3/d [400 bbl/d]. classification of the volcanic layers. Three main
During the last 40 years, Cambay basin, one For planning the next well, a simplistic reservoir facies—vesicular basalt, nonvesicular basalt
of the oldest hydrocarbon plays of western India, model was constructed that assumed the hydro- and volcaniclastic units—were identified using
has produced hydrocarbons from sediments carbon-bearing topmost basalt layer penetrated borehole image logs, petrography from Well PK-1
overlying the Deccan basalts.33 Until recently,

Spring 2009 45
 Vesicular Basalt Nonvesicular Basalt Volcaniclastic Rock Well PK-2 Well PK-6

Top
Basalt A
1,775 1,775

Top
1,800 Basalt B 1,800

1,825 1,825

3 cm

1,850 Top 1,850

Basalt C

1,875 1,875

1,900 1,900

Depth, m
1,925

> Textural classification of Deccan basalt facies. Images from the FMI borehole
Vesicular
resistivity imaging tool helped geologists identify three main rock types. Volcaniclastics basalt
Vesicular basalts (left) exhibited vesicles in image (top), in hand specimen Nonvesicular Brecciated zone in
sample (bottom) and also in sidewall cores from a neighboring well. basalt nonweathered basalt
Nonvesicular basalts (center ) showed no such gas bubbles in borehole
images or in sidewall cores. Images of volcaniclastic basalts (right) showed > Initial well-to-well facies correlation. Texture-
fine-scale layering of angular particles. (Basalt photograph courtesy of based facies classification allowed correlation
Charles E. Jones, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.) of three basalt layers between Well PK-2 and
Well PK-6. Basalt A (blue) is the producing zone
in Well PK-2, but not in PK-6. Basalts B and C are
nonproductive.
and hand specimens of basalt (above). Next, the aluminum, iron and titanium for Basalts A, B and
facies were correlated from well to well—an C showed that Basalt A, the top unit, is composi- fractures and faults also seems to play a crucial
exercise that was far from straightforward. Lava tionally different in the key wells, while Basalts B role in localizing hydrocarbon accumulations.
flows can commingle, and after solidification and C are compositionally similar (next page). In Well  PK-2, the open fractures occur at high
other changes can occur, such as hydrother- This suggests that the top basalt layer is discon- angles to a seismic-scale fault, while fractures in
mal alteration, weathering, cementation and tinuous laterally between the two wells, contrary Well PK-6 are aligned approximately parallel to the
structural deformation. These changes can be to the assumption in the original model. fault. Interpreters developed a conceptual model
identified in outcrop, but tracking them in the Following the facies analysis, the next phase in which the seismic-scale fault facilitates fluid
subsurface is not easy. Based on image facies and of the study involved characterizing natural frac- communication, allowing the open fractures that
Oilfield Review
log signatures, three main basalt layers, A, B and tures, which are abundant within the volcanic intersect it to conduct hydrocarbons to produc-
Winter 09
C, could be correlated between key wells Volcanic
PK-2 Fig.layers.
12 In the discovery Well PK-2, the top basalt Oilfieldaligned
ing wells. Fractures Reviewwith the fault are less
and PK-6 (above right). ORWINT09-VOL Fig.
that 12 hydrocarbon is thick, comprising a
flowed Winter
likely to intersect it, 09
and therefore are unlikely to
Volcanic Fig. 13
In outcrop studies, volcanic rocks can be cor- nonvesicular basalt layer overlying a vesicular conduct hydrocarbons.
ORWINT09-VOL This Fig.
concept
13 was vali-
related using geochemical analysis of major and basalt section with a number of fractures that dated in a new well, PK-2A1, which contained
minor elemental composition. In the subsurface, appear conductive on borehole images.35 The conductive fractures oriented perpendicular to
similar data can be acquired using the ECS tool. presence of open fractures and vesicles creates seismic-scale faults and also produced oil.
Crossplots of elemental silicon versus calcium, a good-quality reservoir with a dual-porosity
system, and the fracture network enhances per- Future Volcanic Activity
35. In the absence of acoustic or testing data, conductive frac­
tures on borehole images are considered open to flow. meability. In contrast, in Well PK-6, the top basalt Evaluation of hydrocarbons in volcanic rock pres-
36. Schutter SR: “Occurrences of Hydrocarbons in and layer, which is thinner, essentially nonvesicular ents many challenges, but creative application of
Around Igneous Rocks,” in Petford N and McCaffrey KJW
(eds): Hydrocarbons in Crystalline Rocks, Geological
and less fractured, is not a good reservoir. techniques designed for sedimentary reservoirs
Society Special Publication 214. London: Geological In addition to facies type and the presence of is helping oil and gas companies characterize
Society (2003): 35–68.
fractures, the geometrical relationship between and exploit these complex accumulations. The

46 Oilfield Review
 Well PK-2 Image
Depth, m Gamma Ray Lithology Logs Elemental Concentrations, kg/kg
1,760 Ca/Si Fe/Si
0.15 0.20
1,770 Basalt A

1,780 0.15
0.10
1,790
0.10
1,800
0.05
1,810 Basalt B 0.05

1,820
0 0
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35
1,830

1,840
Al/Si Ti/Si
0.14 0.06
1,850 Basalt C
0.12 0.05

0.10
0.04

0.08
0.03
0.06

0.02
Well PK-6 0.04

Depth, m Gamma Ray Lithology 0.02 0.01

0 0
1,760 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0 0.10 0.20 0.30

1,770
Basalt A

1,780
Ca/Si Fe/Si
1,790 0.15 0.20

1,800
0.15
1,810 0.10

Basalt B
1,820 0.10

1,830 0.05
0.05
1,840

1,850 0 0
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0 0.10 0.20 0.30

1,860

1,870 Al/Si Ti/Si

0.14 0.06

1,880
0.12

1,890 0.10
0.04
1,900 Basalt C 0.08

1,910 0.06

0.02
0.04
1,920
0.02
1,930
0 0
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0 0.10 0.20 0.30
1,940

> Comparison of basalts in two wells. Elemental concentrations (right) from the ECS tool are expressed as ratios of
calcium, iron, aluminum and titanium to silicon (Ca/Si, Fe/Si, Al/Si and Ti/Si). Ratios are plotted for Basalts A (blue
oval), B (green oval) and C (red oval). In each of the ratio plots, the red and green ovals have approximately the
same relationship to each other, but not to the blue ovals. For example, in the Ca/Si plot for Well PK-2 (top), the red
and green ovals are next to each other, and the blue oval is inside the red oval. However, in the Ca/Si plot for Well
PK-6, the red and green ovals are still next to each other, but the blue oval is inside the green oval. This arrangement
indicates that Basalts B and C correlate from one well to the other, but Basalt A does not.

combination of borehole resistivity images with
neutron-capture spectroscopy and magnetic
resonance logs is becoming the new standard
data suite for evaluation of volcanic reservoirs.
With increased understanding of the capacity of
volcanic rocks to contain oil and gas, other
companies may consider reassessing volcanic
formations they have bypassed, with a view to
reevaluating their potential.
Unlike their sedimentary counterparts, vol- The presence of volcanic rocks in a basin
canic rock reservoirs have not been studied may not ever become a basis for exploration, but
systematically. In addition to the few examples the possibility of such basins sustaining a viable
Oilfield Review
described inWinter
this article,
09 hydrocarbons occur in petroleum system should be included within an
Volcanic Fig.in14more than 100 coun-
or around igneous rocks array of options. While some operators might stop
ORWINT09-VOL
tries.36 In many Fig. 14
instances, only oil shows and drilling after encountering “basement,” those
seeps have been documented, but further explo- with a better understanding of the potential of
ration may uncover significant reserves. volcanic rocks may treat them like any other pro-
spective reservoir rock. —LS

Spring 2009 47