Quiz

Enumerate the two intermediate steps/reactions in glycolysis that requires atp. For each give the
corresponding enzyme catalyzing it.

There are two steps that results in atp production. Give those two intermediate steps and the enzymes
catalyzing each.

Give the products and how many of each will be produced for just one cycle of the krebs cycle

Aerobic cellular respiration can be divided into several stages. The first is glycolysis which occurs in the
cytoplasm. It does not require oxygen and no carbon dioxide is released. The six carbons of the original
hexose are still present in the two pyruvate at the end of glycolysis.

Atp synthesized through substrate level phosphorylation. In the krebs cycle and glycolysis. Atp synthesis
is through substrate level phosphorylation. Atp in cellular respiration is produced through oxidative
phosphorylation.

How is atp synthesized? A substrate donates a phosphate to adp.

The first series of steps resulting to the isomers (triose phosphates) (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or
phosphoglyceraldehyde is the product of the calvin cycle which is also an intermediate in glycolysis.

Glucose is phosphorylated to make it more reactive. Glucose 6-phosphate

Add another phosphate to produce fructose 1,6 bisphosphate

Reduction of nad to nadh. There are 2 nad reduced using a dehydrogenase.

What category of enzymes are dehydrogenases?

The action of the drug is from cellular respiration

The net atp yield is 2. There is a total of 4 atp produced but 2 atps were used to phosphorylate.

If you stop at glycolysis much of the energy is stored in pyruvate.

Bulk of the atp is produced in the electron transport chain coupled with chemioosmotic synthesis of atp

Glycolysis has four functions. First is the partial oxidation of the hexose because the hexose has not
been fully oxidized. It resulted to the reduction of 2 nad molecules that will unload electrons to the
electron transport chain. The transfer of electrons will generate the proton pump which will be used for
the chemiosmotic synthesis of atp. Second it produces a net yield of 2 atp. Third there is formation of
molecules that can be used for synthesis of other compounds. Some of the intermediates can be used
for synthesis of other compounds. Fourth- fermentation.

When oxygen is limiting, fermentation can occur. In animals it’s lactic acid fermentation, in plants it’s
alcohol fermentation. In bacteria there are 9 fermentative pathways.

Fermentation aims to replenish nad oxidized for glycolysis. Fermentation functions when oxygen is
limiting to replenish nad such that when oxygen is now available nad oxidized can now be further
reduced.
Alcoholic fermentation – the end product is ethanol and the main enzymes would be pyruvic acid
decarboxylase which removes one carbon released as carbon dioxide and alcohol dehydrogenase
(function of dehydrogenase review).

Lactic acid fermentation – only one key enzyme lactic acid dehydrogenase.

Find out how many atp is produced in alcoholic fermentation and in lactic acid fermentation.

No CO2 will be released in lactic acid fermentation

At the end of glycolysis you have pyruvate and at the start of krebs cycle you have acetyl co A.

The krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix while glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. Pyruvate needs
to enter the mitochondria. Some books will say that a transport protein and energy is used for pyruvate
to enter the mitochondrial matrix. Some books will say 36-38 atps and some believe that some will be
used for transport of pyruvate into the mitochondria.

There is a step linking glycolysis to the krebs cycle where pyruvic acid is oxidized. As pyruvic acid is
oxidized NAD is reduced. Remember that these NAD will be included in the krebs cycle already which
will unload electrons later to the ETC. Pyruvate will also be decarboxylated to produce carbon dioxide.
Removing one carbon from pyruvic acid forms acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is then _____ to form Acetyl
coA.

For every turn one acetyl coA will condense with oxaloacetic acid to form the first intermediate which is
citric acid. If you will look at citric acid it has 3 carboxylic acids. Prior to krebs cycle two carbons has
already been released as carbon dioxide.

In plant krebs cycle there is no GTP only ATP.

The products for each turn of the cycle are 2 CO2s. 3 reduced NAD, 1ATP and 1 reduced FAD.

At the end of krebs cycle there are 4 atp produced. Other atp are produced through oxidative
phosphorylation.

Functions:

Reduction of NAD and FAD which will eventually be oxidized in ETC

Direct synthesis of atp through substrate level phosphorylation

Formation of carbon skeletons for amino acid synthesis. What particular skeletons in the krebs cycle can
be used for amino acid synthesis.

Electron acceptors enter the etc. the reduced compounds in cellular respiration. NAD and FAD.

In glycolysis there are 2 nad reduced, in the stage linking there are 2, in the krebs there are 6. A total of
10 NAD reduced. Krebs cycle 2 Fad reduced.

It mainly results to the production of the bulk of the atp and requires oxygen. The electron carriers are
arranged in four major protein complexes and energy used is the proton motive force, the free energy
associated with electrochemical gradients. Chemioosmotic phosphorylation is where free energy from
proton motive force is harnessed to synthesize atp. Oxidative phosphorylation is atp formation within
the electron transport chain of aerobic respiration.

NADs are present in the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae holds the four major protein complexes. The
intermembrane space is outside the cristae.

The two parts of atp synthase – stalk and head

Protons are pumped to the intermembrane space which generates a proton motive force. Protons
passively diffuse back to the matrix. They pass through the atp synthase through facilitated diffusion.

Types of transport –diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport.

Review how atp synthase works

Bioenergetics of respiration:

Glycolysis produced 2 NADH which is responsible for the synthesis of 2 ATPS each which produces 4 ATP
total + 2 net ATP substrate level = 6 ATP

Krebs cycle produced 8 NADH and 2 reduced FAD. 3 atp for each NADH and 2 atp for each FAD. 8*3 +
2*2 = 28 ATP + 2 atp substrate level = 30 ATP

Complete oxidation of 1 mol glucose = 2830kJ.

If you hydrolyze 36 ATP = 41kJ per ATP x 36 = 1476 kJ. The rest of the energy is released as heat.

If you eat plants, some energy is lost in the form of heat.

QUESTIONS

1. Carbon skeletons intermediates that can be used in other processes

2. Formation of acetyl coA
3. How ATP synthase works

Other pathways of plant respiration:

1. Cyanide resistant respiration – cyanide is lethal because it affects the oxidative phosphorylation
in cellular respiration. Transcription, translation, dna replication require ATP. There are some
plants who store cyanide like cassava (scientific name?). In the presence of negative ions, the
electrons from ubiquinone? directly accepted by oxygen. Read on this.
2. Pentose phosphate pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt or oxidative pentose phosphate
pathway or phosphogluconic? pathway. The electron acceptor is NADP instead of NAD. Enzymes
are found in the cytosol. The products produced are NADPH. NADP is needed in biosynthesis of
fatty acids (lipids) and other compounds. Erythrose-4 phosphate has 4 carbons and is a starting
compound for the synthesis of phenolics which can be linked to secondary metabolism.
Anthocyanin – water soluble pigments
Lignin – secondary cell wall of plants
Ribose 5 phosphate – precursors for nucleic acids

Carbon reduction in photosynthesis occurs during the? photochemical or biochemical reaction?

Intermediates in carbon reduction for photosynthesis in the pentose phosphate pathway is
glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate.

Factors affecting respiration:

1. Substrate availability – we need something to metabolize

Eat carbohydrates after a workout in the gym so that your muscle mass is not affected

Sugar deficiency – fat will be the new substrate

2. In leaves, rate of respiration increases after sundown. This is because they have lots of products
from photosynthesis.
3. O2 penetration in leaves stems and roots. Bulky tissues result to slow penetration. They adapt
by producing aerenchyma which are specialized parenchyma that have a lot of intercellular
spaces.
4. Pasteur effect – high CO2, low atp. This is an effect in flooded soils. Much of the water uptake is
active which requires atp. If it is flooded respiration is not efficient. If there is not much water
uptake, the plant will wilt.
High CO2 inhibits respiration which has a good application in ripening of fruits. Ripening requires
energy. High cellular respiration increases rate of ripening. Decrease oxygen so that fruits don’t
ripen. Lower temp, lower oxygen, increase CO2
5. Temperature – affects the efficiency of enzymes related to the optimal temperature of enzymes.
Q10 is the measure of the increase in the rate of a process for every 10 degree rise in
temperature. If q10 is 2 and temp increases from 5 to 15 degrees, the rate doubles. At 25
degrees the rate doubles again leading to 4x the original rate at 5 degrees. At enzyme
denaturation, rate decreases.

Different plants have different cell respiration rates. Different morphologies and genetics. There is high
respiration rate in meristematic tissues because they are dividing. This is also true in young leaves
because they are growing and for maintenance. Roots and growing flowers would also be respiring a lot.
Seed germination requires energy. Vegetative growth and ripening of fruits also require respiration.
Wounding a plant activates respiration because of entry of oxygen and ions.

Think about respiration and crop yield. Crops are plants grown because they have economic value. A
yield can be biological yield or economic yield. How respiration affects crop yield.