26.02.

2018 May | 2017 | Ithihas

Ithihas
Kaleidoscope of Indian civilization

In this blog you will find

Monthly Archives: May 2017
Writeups on Indian historical
themes and Biographies of
rulers and statesmen.
Interpreting the Myths in the Puranas and Epics
May 2, 2017 – 5:01 am
Blogroll
The epics and the Puranas constitute an important source of the cultural history of
facetsofindianhistory
India as they throw a flood of light on the various aspects of the life of the time1. To
Sanatana Parishad
reconstruct the history of ancient India many information contained in the Puranas
Thinkerspad have to be critically analyzed and poetic exaggerations and inventions which have
been interpolated have to be purged2. Similarly both Ramayana and
Archives Mahabharatha abound in numerous Brahmanical myths and legends which
frequently interrupt the thread of the narrative3. There are several stories or
February 2018 episodes in ancient Indian literature which are absurd if taken literally. It would
January 2018 certainly be unwise to reject the entire story on account of such apparent
October 2017 absurdities; and one should try to look deeper beyond the literal meaning to extract
August 2017 the wisdom of the ancient. For instance the gods and goddesses having three, four
June 2017 and five heads and four, eight and sixteen hands are interpreted to be divine,
May 2017 immensely more powerful than man with the usual number of heads and hands4.
March 2017
Similarly some of the ancient nomadic tribes were called by the names of Sarpas
(serpents) and Garudas (eagles) on account of their constant movement and
October 2016
June 2016
migratory habits5.Hence there is a need of reading a new meaning in the sacred
January 2016
tradition in order to protect it from the satire of critics6. A critical study of the epics
and Puranas shows four types of interpolations like
November 2015
August 2015 1. Factual incidents which were blown out of proportions by fanciful writers of
June 2015 subsequent period
February 2015 2. Hilarious stories inserted to amuse people
January 2015 3. Facts twisted to cover up customs considered as inappropriate at later times
September 2014 or blunders committed by famous historical characters and
June 2014
4. Stories inserted to establish the supremacy of Brahmanas
May 2014
Through a critical analysis of incidents in the various types of interpolation
April 2014 mentioned above, we can find the actual historical facts. Some of the episodes
March 2014 which have been exaggerated in the first type of interpolation are –
December 2013
November 2013 1. In ancient India there was a continuous conflict between the forces of good
October 2013 and evil, the former representing by the Devas (Manavas) and the latter
September 2013
represented by the Asuras/Rakshasas.
Fact– Ancient India was inhabited by Devas (Manavas), Daityas, Danavas,
August 2013
Vanaras, Rakshasas, Yakshas, Nagas, Panis (Dasas), etc7. All of them were
May 2013
human beings and claim descent from mythical Rishis. The Devas, Daityas,
April 2013
Danavas and Nagas were descendants from Rishi Marichi, while the
February 2013 Vanaras, Rakshasas and Yakshas were descendants from Rishi Pulastya.
January 2013 Further the Devas, Daityas, Danavas and Nagas were step brothers born to
July 2012 a common father Kashyapa. While the mother of Devas was Aditi, that of
January 2010 Daityas was Diti, that of Danavas was Danu and that of Nagas was Kadru.
July 2009 The Daityas and Danavas were called as Asuras by the Devas. Some of the
June 2009
prominent Asuras were Vrtra, Hiranyakashyapu, Prahalada and Bali. The
Devas were advised by Brihaspati son of Rishi Angirasa and the Asuras by
May 2009
April 2009
Shukracharya son of Rishi Bhrigu8. The Nagas supported both the Devas
and Asuras depending upon the relations with them. Sesha and Vasuki were
March 2009
the allies of Vishnu (who always supported the Devas). Some of the Naga
February 2009 girls married the Devas. There were many Naga Rishis like Arbudkadraveya
October 2008 Naga (Rig Veda 10/94), Jatakarna Erwata (Rig Veda 10/76) and Sarprajni
September 2008 (Rig Veda 10/182) who composed Vedic mantras9. With regards to the

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August 2008 Yakshas, as long as they supported the Devas in their fight against the
July 2008 Asuras, they were called Rakshak (protectors) by the Devas; but after the fall
June 2008 of the Asuras, when the Yakshas became the rival of the Devas, the
May 2008
Yakshas were called Rakshas and depicted as ugly. Some of the important
April 2008 Yakshas were Kubera and Ravana10. Another important group living in
March 2008
ancient India was the Panis who were businessmen and were very wealthy.
If the Panis lent money to the Devas, they (Panis) earned their favour
February 2008
otherwise they earned they wrath and were condemned as niggardly or
miserly Asuras. As the moneyed class is generally physically weak, the
Panis lost to the Devas in the power struggle. Being vanquished the Panis
were assigned the status of Dasas11.
As the practice of hero worship (ancestor worship) was prevailing in ancient
India, personalities like Indra, Varuna and Agni became celestial beings after
their death and were addressed as Devas (gods) by their descendants.
People performed yajnas and invited them to their aid in times of distress
and wants12. The composers of Rig Vedic hymns developed the cults of
Indra, Agni and Soma13. In the beginning the Rig Vedic hymns described the
heroic deeds of their leader Indra and those who aided him in the conflict
and were meant to be taken in the literal sense without any symbolism.
When the conflict was over and when its authors (Manavas) sought to make
a religion out of the events of the conflict, the process of myth making set in.
The process of myth making is apparent though in a subtle manner in the
Brahmanas which contain the detailed instructions and explanation for
performing certain rites in a stated manner. Because Indra acted in a certain
manner in a certain battle and was victorious, a sacrificer seeking to obtain
the same result should perform the sacrifice in a symbolic manner14. Thus
when the Manavas created a religion out of these events, they defied their
leaders and arrogated to themselves the title of cosmic good. The opponents
naturally became demons and represented the cosmic evil15. As the
Rakshasas had lost the battle, the ancient historians (Puranic writers)
depicted them as wicked people and their ladies ugly. If they had married the
sages they were shown as beautiful16. Hence after the subjugation of
various powerful races like Danavas, Daityas, Rakshasas and Nagas, even
their names became scornful until at length they ceased to possess any
ethnological force and turned into purely evil appellations. For instance the
word Asura became synonymous with the meaning demon and Pishacha,
the original name of a tribe was turned to mean an impish goblin17. Thus the
conflict between the Devas (Manavas) and Asuras/Panis/Rakshas was for
power and kingship and nothing to do with ideology or morals.
2. Sathyavrata (Trishanku), son of Trayyaruna once carried away a bride from
a Brahmin house on the eve of her marriage. This act of his resulted in his
father expelling him from the palace. Sathyavrata spent his days roaming in
the forest and helped the family of Vishwamitra who were in distress on
account of the absence of Vishwamitra who had gone to do penance. Once
hunger drove Sathyavrata to killed Nandini a cow belonging to Vasishta and
consumed its flesh. On knowing this incident Vasishta cursed him to become
a Chandala (an outcaste) and called him Trishanku ( trayi- three and
shanku- sins) as he had committed three sins; incurring the wrath of his
father, for abducting another man’s wife and for consuming cow’s flesh. Later
Sathyavrata (Trishanku) was crowned the ruler of Ayodhya as he was the
sole heir for Trayyaruna. After some times Sathyavrata (Trishanku) desired
to go to heaven with his mortal body and approached Vasishta for help but
the latter refused. Meanwhile Vishwamitra returned from penance and was
told by his wife of the help rendered by Sathyavrata (Trishanku) in their
difficult period. As gratitude Vishwamitra decided to fulfill the desire of
Sathyavrata (Trishanku) to go to heaven with his mortal remains. When
Sathyavrata (Trishanku) reached the heaven, the Devas refused to allow him
and he began to fall back to earth. Vishwamitra then created a separate
heaven for Trishanku (Trishanku swarga). As the Devas did not want a
duplicate heaven, they agreed to allow Sathyavrata (Trishanku) into the
heaven18.
Fact– Sathyavrata (Trishanku) was expelled by his father at the instance of
his family priest (Vasishta) on account of some excesses. For twelve years
Sathyavrata (Trishanku) wandered in the woods. While in the forest a severe
famine occurred lasting for nine years. At that time Sathyavrata (Trishanku)
supported the family of Vishwamitra who were starving as the latter had

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gone to perform penance. When Vishwamitra returned after his penance and
heard about the help rendered by Sathyavrata (Trishanku), he intervened
and saw that Sathyavrata (Trishanku) was installed as the king of Ayodhya.
Probably this incident has been blown out of proportion by an interpolator by
writing that Vishwamitra created a heaven called Trishanku19. It is also likely
that Vasishta the family preceptor with whom Trishanku was not in good
terms had probably refused to perform Trishanku’s obsequies. This could
have forced Trishanku’s son Harishchandra take the help of Vishwamitra to
conduct his father’s last rites by paying a heavy fee (dakshina). These facts
were blown out of proportion by the Puranic writers of the later period. Hence
we find all those fanciful stuff like Vishwamitra creating a heaven for
Trishanku and later harassing his son Harishchandra for dakshina, etc.
3. Arjuna son of Haihaya ruler Kartavirya through a boon granted by his guru
Dattatreya, son of sage Atri had 1000 arms (sahasra baahu). Once he
visited the ashrama of sage Jamadagni where he and his followers were
given a sumptuous feast. This was done through a divine cow, Susheela
which Jamadagni possessed. Kartavirya Arjuna wanted the cow and sent
Chandragupta to bring it. But Jamadagni refused to part with it and when
Chandragupta tried to seize it, the cow suddenly vanished into the sky. Then
Chandragupta tried to capture her calf. When Jamadagni intervened he was
beaten to death. Parashurama, son of Jamadagni then took a vow to go
round the world 21 times and extirpate the Kshatriya kings. At the gate of
Mahismati, he chopped off all the 1000 arms of Kartavirya Arjuna and
beheaded him with his axe (parashu) 20.
Fact– The story of the Bhrigu-Haihaya conflict may be interpreted in the
following way. The Haihayas, scions of the Yadava family were great
warriors and Bhrigus though belonging to the priestly class were great
navigators, expert mariners and enterprising tradesman who controlled the
trade between India and the western world, acting as intermediaries between
Indian and the foreigners such as Assyrians. They had amassed great
wealth by helping foreigners at the cost of indigenous population. Mahismati
on the Narmada River was a great trading center which was the focus of the
routes running north and south and hence prized by ancient rulers. The
Karkotaka Nagas has seized it from the Haihayas, but Kartavirya had
recovered it. In order to secure the allegiance of the Bhrigus and to alienate
them from the Nagas, Asuras, etc., Kartavirya bestowed wealth on them.
Arjuna, son of Kartavirya was a great warrior who spread the Haihaya sway
far and wide. He wanted the trade and commerce of India to be under the
control of Indians and did not like the Bhrigus who were the agents of the
foreigners. This was the main reason of the Bhrigu-Haihaya conflict. The
Haihaya were in need of money for continuing their military operations and
demanded the return of wealth from the Bhrigus and on their refusal pursued
them and recovered the wealth buried by them. The Bhrigus ran helter-
skelter for safety. In order to counter attack, the Bhrigus entered into
matrimonial relationship with the ruling families. One Richika belonging to
Bhrigu family approached Gadhi for his daughter and his son was
Jamadagni and his grandson was Parashurama. Meanwhile the Haihayas
made alliance with the Atris, rivals of the Bhrigus and sought the help of
Dattatreya who helped Kartavirya Arjuna by building him a 1000 oared ship
(or a fleet of 1000 ships). (The Atris were experts in ship building) 21.
Kartavirya Arjuna’s effort at getting control of the sea trade was an eyesore
to the Bhrigus. Parashurama carried a ruthless war and entirely eliminated
the Haihayas from the Naramada valley. He founded new cities and also
colonized the region known as Aparanta on the west coast where Surparaka
became a great trading center22. Parashurama was the first colonizer of the
tract (the present Konkan and Kerala region) which probably erupted out of
the sea due to seismic disturbances23. Another rational interpretation for the
epithet sahasra baahu which Kartavirya Arjuna possessed was that he was
so called because he had the power and strength to wield 500 bows together
or a single bow equal to them24.
4. Sagara the predecessor of Bhagiratha had lost his 60,000 sons due to the
wrath of sage Kapila who had reduced them to ashes in the fire which
emanated from his eyes for disturbing his penance. The responsibility of
performing the last rites of these 60,000 sons of Sagara fell upon Bhagiratha
who did penance to bring River Ganga to earth. Ganga was pleased but said
that the earth would not be able to withstand the impact of her powerful flow
and this could take place only if Shiva agreed to allow her to flow into his
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matted hair. Bhagiratha then did penance for 1000 years on Shiva and being
pleased Shiva agreed to allow Ganga to flow on his matted hair and from
then gently to the earth. Then Bhagiratha performed the funeral rites of
Sagara’s sons25.
Fact– The story of Bhagiratha bringing the River Ganga to earth refers to
directing the course of the Ganga from the Himalayas to the eastern regions
to water and fertilize the tract. One of the greatest irrigation works in the
world, it involved the efforts of four generation of the rulers of Ayodhya
dynasty, namely, Sagara, Anshuman, Dilipa and Bhagiratha to construct a
channel more than a thousand miles in length26. Bhagiratha perhaps was
also the originator of the Ganga worship27.

With regards to hilarious stories inserted in the Puranas and epics to amuse people
we have incidents of Hanuman flying with a mountain in one hand, Bhishma laying
upon a bed of arrows in the battle field awaiting death, Krishna’s son Sambha
giving birth to a iron rod, etc.

1. During the battle between Rama and Ravana at Lanka, Indrajit, son of
Ravana shot an arrow at Lakshmana who became unconscious. To revive
him Jambavan told Hanuman to bring the herbal plant Mrtasanjivini from the
Himalayas. Hanuman flew to the Himalayas but could not identify
Mrtasanjivini from other herbal plants. Hence he brought the whole mountain
which grew these types of plants to Lanka. Jambavan then used the
Mrtasanjivini to bring back Lakshmana back to sense28.
Fact– Hanuman brought the Sanjivini herbs from the Dronachana hill
(Mahodaya Mountain) which must be one of the three hills surrounding
Lanka where herbal medicines are available29. Hanuman bringing the herbs
on time and Lakshmana being brought back to senses thrilled the author of
the epic to use metaphor to describe this incident and one should not take
the explanation literally.
2. During the battle Bhishma fell down after Arjuna shot his arrow at him.
Bhishma decided to stay alive until the sun came to uttarayana. Till then he
lay on a bed of arrow and begged for a pillow to the kings. When he found
that they were not paying any heed to his entreaties he asked Arjuna for a
pillow and also begged for water from him. Later he taught Rajadharma to
Yudhisthira resting on a bed of arrows30.
Fact– A careful study of the critical edition of the Mahabharatha shows that
Bhishma died on the tenth day of the battle or soon after. His laying on the
bed of arrows simply means that he fell on the ground that was strewn with
arrows. This was later mythologized to mean that he lay on a bed of arrows
as he waited for the auspicious time of the year to die. The main purpose of
this story was to keep Bhishma alive long enough to advise the new king
Yudhisthira on rajadharma and introduce other didactic and sectarian
material31. Today in the Kali age if common people come across an injured
animal, they show sympathy and try their best to get it medical facilities.
Hence it is hard to believe that neither the Pandavas nor the Kauravas and
also their respective allies lacked conscience and continued to fight when
the great patriarch was lying down on a bed of arrows that too in the battle
field.
3. With regards to the destruction of the Yadu race it is said that one day some
of the Yadus to have fun with three great Rishis Vishwamitra, Kanva and
Narada who had come to Dwaraka dressed Samba, one of the sons of
Krishna in female attire and taking him to the Rishis asked them what child
the supposed woman would give birth. The Rishis at once knew what
mischievous pranks the impudent Yadus were playing. They grew fearfully
angry and cursed them saying that an iron bar would be produced from the
womb of the woman and this bar would destroy the entire Yadu race. The
next day Samba delivered an iron rod. The Yadavas pounded it into powder
and threw it into the sea. This powder was washed ashore and it grew up
like arrow like grass. Krishna who was angry due to the death of Satyaki,
Pradyumna and others plucked a handful of that grass and it transformed
itself into an iron rod with which he beat to death those around him. Then
other people plucked up the grass which turned into iron rod. They fought
among themselves and all of them got killed32.
Fact– Probably the story of Samba being pregnant was added by the
interpolator to make the Mahabharatha amusing to the masses33. First of all

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Samba’s existence itself appears fictitious as his mother is said to be

Jambavanti, daughter of Jambavan, a bear. Can a man (Krishna) marry a
she-bear and having contact with a man; can a she-bear deliver a human
being? Being the son of Krishna, would Samba stoop to such low level as to
get himself dressed as an pregnant woman and play such silly pranks?
Perhaps Samba could have been the first and last man in the history of
mankind to deliver that too an iron rod. Also the interpolator has depicted
Krishna as a mentally deranged for killing all those around him just because
his son had died.

Sometimes stories in the Puranas and epics were interpolated to cover-up customs
considered as inappropriate at later times and blunders committed by famous
historical characters.

1. For instance it is said that in the svayamvara of Draupadi, the Pandavas

participated disguised as Brahmanas. There Arjuna was successful in hitting
a target, thereby fulfilling the condition imposed for becoming eligible to
marry Draupadi. After marrying her he returned home along with his
brothers. When the Pandavas returned home, they cried at the door-
‘mother, we have got splendid alms today’. The mother replied whatever it be
my sons, divide it among all of you. So that their mother’s right might not
become false, they married the princess all together34.
Fact– The Pandavas had passed their early life in Tibet. It was a prevalent
custom of that country for the women to have a plurality of husbands. This
custom prevailed among many Hindu castes in many parts of India. Over a
period of time this custom disappeared and the writers of the epic could not
bear the idea that such custom prevailed among their forefathers. Thus
several chapters in the Adi parva of Mahabharatha were interpolated and the
story above is one of them35.
2. Kunthi had served sage Durvasa and being pleased, the latter had taught
her a mantra by which she could invoke any deva and get children from
them. To test the efficiency of this mantra, she invoked the sun god with the
mantra. Thereupon the sun god came and she was blessed with a son who
later became Karna. As Kunthi had not been married she put the child in a
box and floated it in the Yamuna. Kunthi later became the wife of Pandu,
who also had another wife, Madri. Once while hunting, Pandu killed a sage
Kindama, who was making love with his wife in the forest; both of the sage
and his wife having assumed the forms of deer. The sage cursed Pandu that
he would die the instance he touched his wives. Pandu became dejected as
he would be heirless and asked his wives to become mothers through some
noble persons but they declined. At that instance Kunthi told about the boon
she had got from sage Durvasa and by uttering the mantra bore three sons,
Yudhisthira, Bhima and Arjuna from Dharma, Vayu and Indra and Madri bore
two sons, Nakula and Sahadeva from the Ashwini devas36.
Fact– Karna was a Kanin (a child born to an unmarried damsel was called
Kanin) born to Kunthi before her marriage. To hide her shame, she placed
the child in a basket and floated it in the river. The interpolators have related
an extraordinary story to save Kunthi’s honour37.

Another type of interpolation in the Puranas and epics was stories intent to convey
the superiority of Brahmanas. For instance it is said

1. During Rama’s rule infant’s death was very much on the increase in
Ayodhya. It was believed that such deaths increased when shudras did
tapas (penance). To find out if any shudra was engaged in penance, Rama
flew over the Dandaka forest in his Pushpaka Vimana where he found a
shudra called Shambuka performing penance hanging down from the branch
of a tree with his head down. Rama killed him and Shambuka’s spirit got
salvation38.
Fact– This story is found in the Uttara Kanda, a later addition to Valmiki’s
Ramayana which contained only five kandas. Nowhere in the sacred books
of Hindus it has been mentioned that shudras should not do penance.
Valmiki, a hunter had performed penance and became a sage. It is a clear
case of interpolation to convey the masses that spiritual practices was only
for the upper castes and if one transgress this rule he will have to face the
consequences. Unfortunately this story has tarnished the image of Rama.

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2. When Yudhisthira performed the Rajasuya yajna, he invited kings and chiefs
from across the country including Krishna to participate in the yajna. It is said
that at the yajna Krishna with a desire of gaining the excellent fruits willingly
took upon himself the task of washing the feet of Brahmins39.
Fact– On the advice of Krishna, Yudhisthira performed the Rajasuya
sacrifice only after defeating Jarasandha. In the said sacrifice, when the
question arose as to who should be offered the Agra puja (first worship,
where the honoured person is offered things like sandal paste, blade of
grass, flowers, etc.), Bhishma said that as the sun shines among all
luminous objects, so shines Krishna among all men present here. Therefore
Agra puja (first worship) should be first presented to Krishna40. These being
the case it is impossible to believe that Krishna invited as a chief guest at a
function would wash the feet of Brahmanas. In Bhagavad Gita, Krishna
speaks of nishkama karma, that is action without desire, how come the same
Krishna desire of anything. In fact he had refused to ascend the throne after
the death of Kamsa, in spite of his kinsmen plea. Moreover would the
Brahmins who had come to receive gifts (dana) dare to allow Krishna to
wash their feet or would Bhishma allowed Krishna whom he considered as
an incarnation of God to wash the feet of Brahmanas? This incident of
washing the feet of Brahmanas is another instance of interpolation to show
that even Gods worship Brahmins to gain merit.

Indian scholars have untiringly bringing out the critical editions of our ancient texts
containing historical information by rejecting absurd stories and incidents which
have been inserted. For instance Vyasa taking the help of Lord Ganesha as a
scribe to write the Mahabharatha and Krishna clothing Draupadi when she was
being disrobed by Dushshasana have been rejected as interpolations in the critical
edition of the Mahabharatha41.

Bibliography

1. D.Pusalker- The Epic and Puranas, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1955,
p. xviii
2. P.Mittal- History of Ancient India (7300 B.C.-4250 B. C.) Vol-I, Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2006, p.xix
3. D.Pusalker- Op.cit, p.xxxv
4. D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas in Mahendra Kulasrestra- Edited,
Culture India– A Compendium of Indian Philosophy, Religion, Arts, Literature
and Society contributed by authorities in various areas, Lotus Press, New
Delhi,2006, pp: 64,65
5. Abinas Chandra Das- Rig-Vedic India, R.Cambray & Co, Calcutta, 1927,148
6. D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, p. 65
7. K.Pruthi (Edited) – Vedic Civilization, Discovery Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2004, p.91
8. Vettam Mani- Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975, pp:
162,396,612,760
9. P.Mittal- Op.cit, p.44
10. Ibid, p.67
11. C.Singhal and Roshan Gupta- The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period, a
New Interpretation, Atlantic Publishers and distributors, New Delhi, 2003,
pp:142,143
12. Ibid, pp: 2,3
13. Thaneswar Sarmah- The Bharadvajas in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers, New Delhi, 1991, p.xxiii
14. Malati J Shendge, The Civilized Demons: The Harappans in Rigveda,
Abhinav Publication, New Delhi, 1977, p.8
15. Ibid, pp:3,4
16. P.Mittal- Op.cit, p.249
17. E.Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press,
London, 1922, p.290
18. Vettam Mani- cit, pp: 794,795
19. K.Pruthi- Op.cit,p.59
20. Vettam Mani- cit, pp: 393,394
21. D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, pp:70,72; R.K.Pruthi- Op.cit, pp:
55,56
22. Ibid
23. D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, p. 67
24. Ratilal N Mehta- Pre Buddhist India, Examiner Press, Bombay, 1939, p.11
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25. Vettam Mani- cit, p. 114

26. D.Pusalker- The New Style Puranas, Op.cit, pp:65,66
27. K.Pruthi- Op.cit,p.62
28. Vettam Mani- cit, p. 638
29. P.Mittal- Op.cit, p.244
30. Vettam Mani- cit, pp: 137,138
31. S.Rajaram- Mahabharata Date: A Word of Caution, QJMS, vol- XCIV, 1958,
No:1-2, 2003, pp:56,57
32. Dhirendra Nath Pal- Sri Krishna- His Life and Teachings, Published by
C.C.Basak, The Research Home, Calcutta, 1923, p. 448; Vettam Mani- cit,
p.428
33. Dhirendra Nath Pal, cit, p.448
34. Ibid, p.124
35. Ibid, pp: 123,124
36. Vettam Mani- cit, pp: 442, 443
37. Dhirendra Nath Pal, cit, p.112
38. Vettam Mani- cit, pp: 639,678
39. Dhirendra Nath Pal, cit, p.171
40. Ibid, pp: 172,173
41. D.Pusalker- Op.cit, pp: xxiii, 97

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