GENETICS

Topic 3
Objective
After completing this topic, students
should be able to ;
distinguish between meiosis and
mitosis
outline the Mendel’s experiment and
particulate behavior of genes
Interpret the prokaryotic and
eukaryotic in gene expression.
apply the methods involved in DNA
technology
Meiosis and sexual life cycling
•Reproduction: Sexual and Asexual
• The cell cycle can repeat itself
many times, forming a clone of
genetically identical cells

• Asexual reproduction
produces an organism
genetically identical to the
parent. Any genetic variety is
the result of mutations.
In contrast….
• Sexual reproduction – is the production of
offspring whose genetic makeup comes from
two parents.
• Female parent contribute an egg; male
produce sperm – next generation
• In sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes—
one from each parent—unite in fertilization to
form a genetically unique, diploid zygote.
Important
• Because sexual reproduction mixes up and
recombines traits, the offspring are genetically
different from each other…
Important Terms (review)
GENOME: all of a cell’s DNA
CHROMOSOME: individual DNA molecule

CHROMATIN: chromosomal DNA

and its protein scaffold

SISTER CHROMATIDS: the two

identical copies of a duplicated
chromosome
CENTROMERE: the point of attachment for two sister chromatids

SOMATIC CELLS: (most cells) have two copies of each chromosome

(diploid)
gametes: (reproductive cells; sperm and eggs) have one copy
of each
chromosome (haploid)
 More Important Terms

homologous chromosomes: the

two similar but nonidentical
chromosomes that make up a
pair.
sex chromosomes: in humans, X
and Y chromosomes. Not truly
homologous

autosomes: all other chromosomes

fertilization: the uniting of two

gametes to form a zygote (n + n goes to 2n)

meiosis: the process of gametogenesis (2n goes to n + n + n + n)

• Gamete ?
• Zygote ?
• Fertilization?

• Haploid?

• Diploid?
• In sexually reproducing organisms, certain
cells in the adult undergo meiosis, whereby
a diploid cell produces haploid gametes.

• Each gamete contains a random mix of

one of each pair of homologous
chromosomes from the parent.
 Timing of Meiosis and Fertilization
Some organisms have free-living multicellular
haploid phases.
 Chromosomes and
Meiosis

Meiosis reduces the

chromosome number from
diploid to haploid.
First, the DNA in a diploid
cell is duplicated in S
phase.
Cells resulting from the first meiotic
division are haploid duplicated.

The products of meiosis are

haploid gametes.
• Meiosis:
• Meiosis reduces the chromosome number
from diploid to haploid and ensures that
each haploid cell contains one member
of each chromosome pair.
• It consists of two nuclear divisions.
•Meiosis
• During prophase I of the first meiotic division,
homologous chromosomes pair, and material may
be exchanged by crossing over between nonsister
chromatids of two adjacent homologs.

• In metaphase I, the paired homologs gather at the

equatorial plate. Each chromosome has one
kinetochore and associates with polar microtubules
for one pole. In anaphase I, entire chromosomes,
each with two chromatids, migrate to the poles.

• By the end of meiosis I, there are two nuclei, each

with the haploid number of chromosomes with two
sister chromatids.
• In meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate.
No DNA replication procedes this division,
which in other aspects is similar to mitosis.

• The result of meiosis is four cells, each with a

haploid chromosome content.
Meiosis I with Crossing Over
Meiosis II - The products of meiosis are genetically different
from each other and from the parent cell.
•REVIEW
•REVIEW
•REVIEW
 Mitosis and Meiosis
Meiosis differs from mitosis in the number of divisions, the
process of synapsis, and the number and genetic composition of
daughter cells
•Comparison of mitosis and meiosis in animals
Event Mitosis Meiosis

DNA Occurs during interphase before Occurs during interphase before nuclear
replication nuclear division begins. division begins.

Number of One, consisting of prophase, Two, each consisting of prophase, metaphase,

division metaphase, anaphase, and anaphase, and telophase; DNA replication
telophase. does not occur between the two nuclear
divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II); an event
unique to meiosis is that during meiosis I, the
homologous chromosomes synapse (join
along their length), forming tetrads (group of
four chromatids)

Number of Two, each diploid (2n) and Four, each containing half as many
daughter cells genetically identical to the mother chromosomes as the mother cells (haploid, or
and genetic cell. n) genetically non-identical to the mothe cell
composition and each other.

Importance in Development of multicellular Production of gametes; reduces chromosome

the animal adult from zygote; production of number by half and introduces genetic
body cells for growth and tissue repair. variability in the gametes.
•ORIGINS OF GENETIC VARIATION
• Sexual reproduction contributes to
genetic variation by :
• A) independent assortment

• B) Crossing over during prophase I of

meiosis
• C) Random Fusion of gametes during
fetilization
•Independent Assortment
During the first meiotic division contributes to genetic
variation.

•Independent assortment = The random distribution of

maternal and paternal homologues to the gametes.

•In a more specific sense, assortment refers to the

random distribution of genes located on different
chromosomes

• Since each homologous pair assorts independently

from all the others, the
process produces 2n possible combinations of
maternal and paternal
chromosomes in gametes, where n is the haploid
number.
• In humans, the possible combinations would be 223,
or about 8 million.

• Thus, each human gamete contains one of eight

million possible assortments of chromosomes
inherited from that person's mother and father.

• Genetic variation results from this reshuffling of

chromosomes, because the maternal and paternal
homologues will carry different genetic information
at many of their corresponding loci.
 Independent Assortment

Here, there are 22 = 4

possible gametes
In humans, there are
223 = about 8 million
possible gametes
 •CROSSING OVER

• Crossing
over = The exchange of
genetic material between homologues;

•occurs two to three times per

chromosome, and increases the
number of possible offspring even
further.

• during prophase of meiosis I.

• This process:
• Occurs when homologous portions of two nonsister
chromatids trade places.

During prophase I, X-shaped chiasmata become

visible at places where this homologous strand
exchange occurs.

Produces chromosomes that contain genes from

both parents.
Synapsis during prophase I is precise, so that
homologues align gene by gene.
•Random Fertilization
•Random fertilization allows for (8 million)2 = 64 trillion
possible offspring from any two parents.

• In humans, when individual ovum representative of

one of eight million possible chromosome
combinations is fertilized by a sperm cell, which also
represents one of eight million possibilities, the
resulting zygote can have

one of 64 trillion possible diploid combinations

(without considering variations from crossing over!).