Thermocouple

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Thermocouple plugged to a multimeter displaying room temperature in °C.

In electronics and in electrical engineering, thermocouples are a widely used type of

temperature sensor[1] and can also be used as a means to convert thermal potential
difference into electric potential difference.[2] They are cheap[3] and interchangeable, have
standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation
is accuracy; Kieran Thomas' research shows that system errors of less than one degree
Celsius (°C) can be difficult to achieve.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Principle of operations
o 1.1 Attachment
o 1.2 Voltage–Temperature Relationship
 2 Types
o 2.1 K
o 2.2 E
o 2.3 J
o 2.4 N
o 2.5 B, R, and S
o 2.6 T
o 2.7 C
o 2.8 M
 3 Thermocouple comparison
 4 Applications
o 4.1 Steel industry
 o 4.2 Heating appliance safety
o 4.3 Thermopile radiation sensors
o 4.4 Radioisotope thermoelectric generators
 5 See also
 6 References

 7 External links

[edit] Principle of operations

In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when
any conductor (such as a metal) is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a
voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to
measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end.
This additional conductor will then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop
a voltage of its own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the
effect depends on the metal in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit
creates a circuit in which the two legs generate different voltages, leaving a small
difference in voltage available for measurement. That difference increases with
temperature, and can typically be between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius
(µV/°C) for the modern range of available metal combinations. Certain combinations
have become popular as industry standards, driven by cost, availability, convenience,
melting point, chemical properties, stability, and output. This coupling of two metals
gives the thermocouple its name.

It is important to note that thermocouples measure the temperature difference between

two points, not absolute temperature. In traditional applications, one of the junctions—the
cold junction—was maintained at a known (reference) temperature, while the other end
was attached to a probe.

Having available a known temperature cold junction, while useful for laboratory
calibrations, is simply not convenient for most directly connected indicating and control
instruments. They incorporate into their circuits an artificial cold junction using some
other thermally sensitive device, such as a thermistor or diode, to measure the
temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being taken to
minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known
cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction applied. This is known as
cold junction compensation.

Additionally, a device can perform cold junction compensation by computation. It can

translate device voltages to temperatures by either of two methods. It can use values from
look-up tables[4] or approximate using polynomial interpolation.

A thermocouple can produce current, which means it can be used to drive some processes
directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For example, the power
from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature difference arises. The
electric power generated by a thermocouple is a conversion of the heat energy that one
must continuously supply to the hot side of the thermocouple to maintain the electric
potential. The flow of heat is necessary because the current flowing through the
thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool down and the cold side to heat up (the
Peltier effect).

Thermocouples can be connected in series with each other to form a thermopile, where
all the hot junctions are exposed to the higher temperature and all the cold junctions to a
lower temperature. Thus, the voltages of the individual thermocouple add up, which
allows for a larger voltage and increased power. With the radioactive decay of transuranic
elements providing a heat source this arrangement has been used to power spacecraft on
missions too far from the Sun to utilize solar power.

[edit] Attachment

Thermocouple materials are available in several different metallurgical formulations per

type, such as: (listed in decreasing levels of accuracy and cost) Special limits of error,
Standard, and Extension grades. Extension grade wire is less costly than dedicated
thermocouple junction wire and is usually specified for accuracy over a more restricted
temperature range. Extension grade wire is used when the point of measurement is farther
from the measuring instrument than would be financially viable for standard or special
limits materials, and has a very similar thermal coefficient of EMF for a narrow range
(usually encompassing ambient). In this case, a standard or special limits wire junction is
tied to the extension grade wire outside of the area of temperature measurment for transit
to the instrument. Since most modern temperature measuring instruments that utilize
thermocouples are electronically buffered to prevent any significant current draw from
the thermocouple, the length of the thermocouple or extension wire is irrelevant.

Changes in metalurgy along the length of the thermocouple (such as termination strips or
changes in thermocouple type wire) will introduce another thermocouple junction which
affects measurment accuracy. Also, in the United States, industry standards are that the
thermocouple color code is used for the insulation of the positive lead, and red is the
negative lead.

[edit] Voltage–Temperature Relationship

The relationship between the temperature difference and the output voltage of a
thermocouple is nonlinear and is approximated by polynomial:

The coefficients an are given for n from zero to between five and nine.
To achieve accurate measurements the equation is usually implemented in a digital
controller or stored in a look-up table.[4] Some older devices use analog filters.

[edit] Types
A variety of thermocouples are available, suitable for different measuring applications.
They are usually selected based on the temperature range and sensitivity needed.
Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower
resolutions. Other selection criteria include the inertness of the thermocouple material,
and whether or not it is magnetic. The thermocouple types are listed below with the
positive electrode first, followed by the negative electrode.

[edit] K

K type thermocouple.

S and K type thermocouples, the S one is partially sheathed with an alundum tube.

Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most commonly used general purpose thermocouple. It is

inexpensive and, owing to its popularity, available in a wide variety of probes. They are
available in the −200 °C to +1350 °C range. The type K was specified at a time when
metallurgy was less advanced than it is today and, consequently, characteristics vary
considerably between examples. Another potential problem arises in some situations
since one of the constituent metals, nickel, is magnetic. The characteristic of the
thermocouple undergoes a step change when a magnetic material reaches its Curie point.
This occurs for this thermocouple at 354°C. Sensitivity is approximately 41 µV/°C.

[edit] E

Type E(chromel–constantan)[4] has a high output (68 µV/°C) which makes it well suited
to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic.
[edit] J

Type J (iron–constantan) is less popular than type K due to its limited range (−40 to
+750 °C). The main application is with old equipment that cannot accept modern
thermocouples. J types cannot be used above 760 °C as an abrupt magnetic
transformation causes permanent decalibration. The magnetic properties also prevent use
in some applications. Type J thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 50 µV/°C.[3]

[edit] N

Type N (nicrosil–nisil) thermocouples are suitable for use at high temperatures,

exceeding 1200 °C, due to their stability and ability to resist high temperature oxidation.
Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C at 900°C, slightly lower than type K. Designed to be an
improved type K, it is becoming more popular.

[edit] B, R, and S

Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum–rhodium alloy for each

conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity,
approximately 10 µV/°C, than other types. The high cost of these thermocouple types
makes them unsuitable for general use. Generally, type B, R, and S thermocouples are
used only for high temperature measurements.

Type B thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy for each conductor. One conductor
contains 30% rhodium while the other conductor contains 6% rhodium. These
thermocouples are suited for use at up to 1800 °C. Type B thermocouples produce the
same output at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their use below about 50 °C.

Type R thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy containing 13% rhodium for one
conductor and pure platinum for the other conductor. Type R thermocouples are used up
to 1600 °C.

Type S thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy containing 10% rhodium for one
conductor and pure platinum for the other conductor. Like type R, type S thermocouples
are used up to 1600 °C. In particular, type S is used as the standard of calibration for the
melting point of gold (1064.43 °C).

[edit] T

Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200 to

350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement since only copper wire touches
the probes. As both conductors are non-magnetic, type T thermocouples are a popular
choice for applications such as electrical generators which contain strong magnetic fields.
Type T thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C.

[edit] C
Type C (tungsten 5% rhenium – tungsten 26% rhenium) thermocouples are suited for
measurements in the 0 °C to 2320 °C range. This thermocouple is well-suited for vacuum
furnaces at extremely high temperatures and must never be used in the presence of
oxygen at temperatures above 260 °C.

[edit] M

Type M thermocouples use a nickel alloy for each wire. The positive wire contains 18%
molybdenum while the negative wire contains 0.8% cobalt[5]. These thermocouples are
used in the vacuum furnaces for the same reasons as with type C. Upper temperature is
limited to 1400 °C. Though it is a less common type of thermocouple, look-up tables to
correlate temperature to EMF (milli-volt output) are available.

[edit] Thermocouple comparison

The table below describes properties of several different
thermocouple types. Within the tolerance columns, T represents
the temperature of the hot junction, in degrees Celsius. For
example, a thermocouple with a tolerance of ±0.0025×T would
have a tolerance of ±2.5 °C at 1000 °C.

Temperature Temperature Tolerance Tolerance IEC BS ANSI

Type range °C range °C class one class two Color Color Color
(continuous) (short term) (°C) (°C) code code code

±1.5 ±2.5
between between
−40 °C and −40 °C and
375 °C 333 °C
K 0 to +1100 −180 to +1300
±0.004×T ±0.0075×T
between between
375 °C and 333 °C and
1000 °C 1200 °C
 ±1.5 ±2.5
between between
−40 °C and −40 °C and
375 °C 333 °C
J 0 to +700 −180 to +800
±0.004×T ±0.0075×T
between between
375 °C and 333 °C and
750 °C 750 °C

±1.5 ±2.5
between between
−40 °C and −40 °C and
375 °C 333 °C
N 0 to +1100 −270 to +1300
±0.004×T ±0.0075×T
between between
375 °C and 333 °C and
1000 °C 1200 °C

±1.0
between 0
±1.5
°C and
between 0
1100 °C
°C and 600
±[1 +
°C Not
R 0 to +1600 −50 to +1700 0.003×(T −
±0.0025×T defined.
1100)]
between
between
600 °C and
1100 °C
1600 °C
and 1600
°C

±1.0
between 0
±1.5
°C and
between 0
1100 °C
°C and 600
±[1 +
°C Not
S 0 to 1600 −50 to +1750 0.003×(T −
±0.0025×T defined.
1100)]
between
between
600 °C and
1100 °C
1600 °C
and 1600
°C
 No No
±0.0025×T
standard standard
Not between Not
B +200 to +1700 0 to +1820 use use
Available 600 °C and defined.
copper copper
1700 °C
wire wire

±0.5 ±1.0
between between
−40 °C and −40 °C and
125 °C 133 °C
T −185 to +300 −250 to +400
±0.004×T ±0.0075×T
between between
125 °C and 133 °C and
350 °C 350 °C

±1.5 ±2.5
between between
−40 °C and −40 °C and
375 °C 333 °C
E 0 to +800 −40 to +900
±0.004×T ±0.0075×T
between between
375 °C and 333 °C and
800 °C 900 °C

[edit] Applications
Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to
1800 °C. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences
need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C
accuracy. For such applications, thermistors and resistance temperature detectors are
more suitable.

[edit] Steel industry

Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used extensively in the steel and iron industries to
monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process. Disposable,
immersible, type S thermocouples are regularly used in the electric arc furnace process to
accurately measure the steel's temperature before tapping. The cooling curve of a small
steel sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon content of molten steel.

[edit] Heating appliance safety

Many gas-fed heating appliances such as ovens and water heaters make use of a pilot
light to ignite the main gas burner as required. If the pilot light becomes extinguished for
any reason, there is the potential for un-combusted gas to be released into the surrounding
area, thereby creating both risk of fire and a health hazard. To prevent such a danger,
some appliances use a thermocouple as a fail-safe control to sense when the pilot light is
burning. The tip of the thermocouple is placed in the pilot flame. The resultant voltage,
typically around 20 mV, operates the gas supply valve responsible for feeding the pilot.
So long as the pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot and holds the pilot
gas valve open. If the pilot light goes out, the temperature will fall along with a
corresponding drop in voltage across the thermocouple leads, removing power from the
valve. The valve closes, shutting off the gas and halting this unsafe condition.

Some systems, known as millivolt control systems, extend this concept to the main gas
valve as well. Not only does the voltage created by the pilot thermocouple activate the
pilot gas valve, it is also routed through a thermostat to power the main gas valve as well.
Here, a larger voltage is needed than in a pilot flame safety system described above, and a
thermopile is used rather than a single thermocouple. Such a system requires no external
source of electricity for its operation and so can operate during a power failure, provided
all the related system components allow for this. Note that this excludes common forced
air furnaces because external power is required to operate the blower motor, but this
feature is especially useful for un-powered convection heaters.

A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using a thermocouple is sometimes employed to

ensure that the main burner ignites within a certain time period, shutting off the main
burner gas supply valve should that not happen.

Out of concern for energy wasted by the standing pilot, designers of many newer
appliances have switched to an electronically controlled pilot-less ignition, also called
intermittent ignition. With no standing pilot flame, there is no risk of gas buildup should
the flame go out, so these appliances do not need thermocouple-based safety pilot safety
switches. As these designs lose the benefit of operation without a continuous source of
electricity, standing pilots are still used in some appliances.

[edit] Thermopile radiation sensors

Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or
infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It
is possible to measure radiative intensities of only a few μW/cm2 with commercially
available thermopile sensors. For example, laser power meters are based on such sensors.

[edit] Radioisotope thermoelectric generators

Thermopiles can also be applied to generate electricity in radioisotope thermoelectric

generators.