See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237174150

Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the

Landscape: A Case Study of Ancient Lycia in the
Turkish Mediterranean

Article in Landscape Research · April 2013

DOI: 10.1080/01426397.2011.642345

CITATIONS READS

5 90

3 authors:

Meryem Atik Simon Bell

Akdeniz University Estonian University of Life Sciences
27 PUBLICATIONS 84 CITATIONS 103 PUBLICATIONS 1,305 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Reyhan Erdogan
Akdeniz University
32 PUBLICATIONS 53 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

MODSCAPES: the modernist reinvention of the rural landscape View project

Linking Up Environment, Health and Climate for Inter-sector Health Promotion and Disease
Prevention in a Rapidly Changing Environment View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Reyhan Erdogan on 12 September 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This article was downloaded by: [Akdeniz Universitesi]
On: 23 February 2012, At: 22:25
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Landscape Research
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/clar20

Understanding Cultural Interfaces in

the Landscape: A Case Study of Ancient
Lycia in the Turkish Mediterranean
a b a
Meryem Atik , Simon Bell & Reyhan ErdoĞan
a
Department of Landscape Architecture, Akdeniz University,
Turkey
b
OPEN Space Research Centre, Edinburgh College of Art, UK

Available online: 23 Feb 2012

To cite this article: Meryem Atik, Simon Bell & Reyhan ErdoĞan (2012): Understanding Cultural
Interfaces in the Landscape: A Case Study of Ancient Lycia in the Turkish Mediterranean, Landscape
Research, DOI:10.1080/01426397.2011.642345

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2011.642345

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-

conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation
that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any
instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary
sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,
demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or
indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Landscape Research,
2012, 1–21, iFirst article

Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the

Landscape: A Case Study of Ancient
Lycia in the Turkish Mediterranean

MERYEM ATIK*, SIMON BELL** & REYHAN ERDOGAN*
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

*Department of Landscape Architecture, Akdeniz University, Turkey **OPEN Space Research Centre,
Edinburgh College of Art, UK

ABSTRACT Landscapes by definition include interactions between man and nature. Our actions,
perceptions and beliefs create and shape the landscape over time. The aim of this study was to
evaluate aspects of the Lycian landscape in the Turkish Mediterranean, testing an approach
based on interpreting cultural interfaces. Interfaces between past and present, between man and
nature, between culture and space and between the visual and the spiritual were evaluated in
relation to a selection of specific landscape elements: ancient tombs and local vernacular
structures. The Lycians constructed tombs to be their houses for the afterlife using the inspiration
of their actual houses. The persistence and the continuity of the original design and construction
techniques utilised in the tombs, still found today in granaries, beehives and chimneys, was
explored in terms of the types of cultural interface. The results of the study showed that the
authenticity of the Lycian landscape is a unique agreement between past and present on land
sharing the same knowledge and forms, and in this respect cultural interface can be an instinctive
communication tool between pattern, process and product in understanding the associative
cultural values within the landscape that are worthy of conservation.

KEY WORDS: Landscape, cultural interface, Lycia, rock tombs, Turkish Mediterranean

Introduction
The concept of landscape embraces both cultural and natural qualities of a particular
territorial area (Krönert et al., 2001). According to the European Landscape
Convention, landscape is defined as ‘‘an area, as perceived by people, whose
character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors’’
(Council of Europe, 2000).
Bell (1999) noted that all landscapes are a combination of exceptional patterns
that arise as a result of a range of natural and cultural processes, while Harvey and
Fieldhouse (2005) indicated that landscape is the historical result of the different uses
made of a place and a multivalent form of knowledge.
Landscape architecture is the art and science of planning, design, management and
stewardship of the land which involves natural and built elements, and cultural and

Correspondence Address: Meryem Atik, Department of Landscape Architecture, Akdeniz University,

Faculty of Agriculture, Antalya 07070, Turkey. meryematik@akdeniz.edu.tr

ISSN 0142-6397 Print/1469-9710 Online/12/000001-21 Ó 2012 Landscape Research Group Ltd

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2011.642345
 2 M. Atik et al.

scientific knowledge (ASLA, 2003). Swaffield (2005) stated that landscape

architecture is a profession of landscape understanding, and it is important to have
a sound comprehension of the structure and significance of the landscape from a
disciplinary point of view. This is particularly crucial in relation to sustainability and
the protection of cultural and natural values and processes within a landscape. In
relation to this landscapes can be read from many perspectives, as nature, habitat,
artefact, system, wealth, ideology, history, place or beauty. When developing a
strategy to document a landscape of cultural value, it is therefore important to be
able to read it in its context of place and time (Birnbaum, 1994).
As landscapes conceptually have both holistic and complex multi-dimensional
characters, they can bridge both natural and cultural aspects at once. The term
‘interface’ refers to relationships or associations between two characteristics or
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

features of a landscape. In the literature, interfaces are seen as opportunities for

innovation and creative dialogue (Yunkaporta & McGinty, 2009); while in the
media, a landscape interface is a construction of memory and experience, presented
as a pictorial interpretation of the landscape that unfolds in a gradual progression
along a timeline from the ancient to the modern world (Spiegel, 1997).
Nakata (2002) considered that understanding cultural interfaces allows for a range
of possibilities, such as the places where we live and learn, the places that condition
our lives, and the places that shape our future. The study of cultural interfaces in
landscape research is one approach for understanding how a landscape evolved in
the past and how products and processes from various points in the past continue to
shape its present condition and are likely to continue shaping it into the future
(Palang & Fry, 2003).
PECSRL (2006) discussed a wider interpretation of interfaces, not only as areas of
exchange, but also as areas where spatial and historical processes coalesce. Wardell-
Johnson (2007) suggested that interactions between people and the landscape in
which they live reflect social practices and values that are played out at the complex
interface of the human and ecological systems.
The interface can link past and present, time and space or man and culture, while
cultures reflect variations between different geographic, ethnic or socio-economic
groups at the same time or between the same groups at different time periods or
both. Therefore, understanding cultural interfaces in landscape research is a valuable
tool for comprehending how cultural layers in the landscape that come through time
along with processes and products continue to affect us.
The discourse of, and research using, cultural interfaces in landscape as a
framework requires an interdisciplinary approach for apprehending and bridging the
past and present and the material and non-material worlds within the landscape.
From a historical viewpoint, landscape archaeology, the study of human activities
and the resulting spatial and temporal structures and historical geography, which
focus on understanding the long story of how people have made our landscape over
time, are two of the most relevant disciplines from which landscape architecture and
landscape research can benefit.
Landscape archaeology studies the ways in which people in the past shaped nature
consciously or unconsciously to create landscape. Joyce (2009) suggested that ritual
and symbolism are subjects of archaeological study through the examination of
individual artefacts, the identification of symbolically important locations within
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 3

archaeological sites and landscapes, and the analysis of contextual associations

between location and products.
The landscape that we have inherited can have similar attributes but the time
element in any landscape may vary according to several factors, such as the period in
which the area was first settled, or the degree to which prehistoric or historical
elements have survived. However, cultural heritage in any given landscape can only
be acquired from well-researched information, and therefore we must learn to read
the landscape, its facts and symbols, as well as its systems and transformations
(Feliu, 2003). It is important to combine technical approaches with classical
historical-geographical methodologies when examining cultural interfaces within the
landscape (Palang & Fry, 2003).
Since landscapes of cultural value with a significant time depth contain so much
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

potential meaning it is a challenge to identify and interpret the range of aspects that
may need to be conserved or managed for the future. This is where the concept of
interfaces becomes especially useful and can establish a communication between
physical manifestations and intangible values as well as other associations which
have adhered to a landscape over time. There are several categories of interface that
may be interpreted (Palang & Fry, 2003; PECSRL, 2006): those between past and
present, between man and nature, between culture and space and between the
spiritual and the visual.
The Turkish Mediterranean region was a key location for many ancient human
civilisations. The diverse nature of the surroundings and environmental conditions,
particularly the favourable climate, allowed people to inhabit and develop regions of
different characters through their diverse cultures. In ancient times, Lycia, known as
‘the land of lights’ was located in the Taurus Mountains with direct access to the
Mediterranean Sea. One of the most notable aspects of the Lycian civilisation since
the 500s BC and onwards was the practice of constructing elaborate rock tombs.
The aim of this study was to test the effectiveness of the concept of cultural
interface in the landscape by analysing a particular landscape, and applying it to a
specific area, that of a part of the modern Turkish Mediterranean known in ancient
times as Lycia. This is a particularly appropriate location because of some
remarkable continuities and adaptations of the landscape, in the form of a number
of distinct elements that persist to the present time, yet have been utterly transformed
in function over the millennia. These elements are the unique rock tombs to be found
there, whose form persists in contemporary vernacular buildings such as granaries,
beehives and chimneys.
The question for this research therefore was: does the application of the concept of
cultural interface significantly improve our understanding of cultural landscapes as
exemplified by the Lycia region and the transmission of the style of ancient rock tombs
to local vernacular constructions? The scope of this paper is a multi-interface
approach to landscape analysis and can help to evaluate and present the cultural
insights within landscape that may be especially valuable and particularly remarkable.

Study Area, Materials and Methods

The ancient Lycia region of the south-western Turkish Mediterranean was chosen as
the study area (Figure 1). Known as the land of lights, the history of Lycia traced
 4 M. Atik et al.
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

Figure 1. Map showing the location of Lycia region in the Turkish Mediterranean.

back to 2000 BC. The early inhabitants called the area Trmmise or mountain peak in
their language Luvi (Çevik, 2002).
The Lycians became established as a democratic league with 23 major cities, of
which Xanthos, Pinara, Tlos, Patara, Myra and Olimpos were the centres of
administration, justice, military, finance and religion (Bayburtluoglu, 2004). Xanthos
was the capital; Letoon was the mythical birthplace of Apollo, god of the sun and of
Artemis, goddess of war and wisdom; Myra was the place where St Nicholas lived.
Table 1 summarises the main periods of ancient Lycian history.
The study material comprises the exceptional landscape elements of rock tombs
and the local vernacular constructions still found there and built to this day; the local
granaries, beehives and house chimneys in the Lycia region.
The method of the study was based on the interpretation of cultural interfaces in
the Lycian landscape, aiming at understanding different characteristics of selected
landscape elements in their historical, cultural, architectural and spiritual contexts
and to comprehend their time depth.
This was a mainly desk-based study which started by surveying the archaeological
heritage and vernacular constructions in the Lycia region and their explicit
associations, using a number of sources. Some field visits were carried out both at
archaeological sites and in the surrounding rural areas where vernacular construc-
tions are most available in order to search some of the elements under investigation;
firstly the rock tombs, noting their unique design, structure and location; and
secondly, comparing these with present-day vernacular structures found in the
landscape. Following this identification, the examples were interpreted using the four
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 5

types of cultural interfaces based on Palang and Fry (2003) and PECSRL (2006) as
shown in Table 2.

Rock Tomb Culture in Ancient Lycia

The most significant feature of the Lycia region that distinguishes it from other
ancient places in Anatolia is the appreciation of local cultures and the creation of
Lycian rock tombs (Bean, 1997). Akurgal (2008) reported that the Lycians built the
most interesting and magnificent civilisation in Anatolia. They owned architectural
items carved on and made from the rock.
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

Table 1. Chronology of the ancient Lycia region (adapted from Akşit, 2007; Antalya Valili
gi,
2004; Bayburtluoglu, 2004; Borchhardt, 1999; Çevik, 2002; Umar, 1999)

Period Occupation and important episodes

2000 BC – Appearance of the first Lycians, called Luqqu or Luqqa in eastern
Egyptian sources
– First human record of an axe found in Lycian city of Tlos
1400 BC – King of Hittites, Şuppiluliuma, announced the concord of
Lukka (Lycia)
1375 BC – King of Cyprus complained about Lycians (Lukka) to Egyptians
1284 BC – Lycians allied with Hittites in Kades war between Hittites and Egypt
– Egyptians referred to Lycians (Lukki) as one the sea peoples
1200 BC – Frigian Dynasty
720 BC – Lycia region fell under the influence of the Attika-Delos Sea League
750 BC – Gagai, Korydalla and Rhodiapolis in Lycia established as Greek cities
700–600 BC – Xanthos was the capital
540 BC – Persian occupation
520 BC – First stamped coins
500 BC – Rock tomb architecture first recorded
470 BC – Victory of Kimon, Commander of Attika-Delos in Eurymedon
405–358 BC – Persian occupation
360–333 BC – Karia Dynasty
334 BC – Arrival of Alexander the Great and Macedonians
301–197 BC – Ptolemaic rule (Egyptian-based dynasty)
192 BC – Seleucid rule (Syrian-based dynasty)
200 BC – Lycian League was set up, with 23 Lycian cities
190 BC – Handed over to Rhodian
168 BC – Roman Senate recognised the freedom of Lycia
43–200 AD – Lycia became a Roman state
141 and 240 AD – Earthquakes devastated many cities in Lycia
300–325 AD – Recognition of Christianity
– Myra was metropolis
324–337 AD – St Nicolas of Lycia was a bishop during the reign of
Emperor Constantine
540 AD – Plague epidemic
600–700 AD – Prosperous growth in Lycia
1207 AD – Arrival of Seljuks
1300 AD – Menteşeoglu Principality
1390 AD – Arrival of Ottomans
1830 AD – Political reforms in Ottoman State
1923 AD – Foundation of Turkish Republic
 6 M. Atik et al.

Table 2. An approach for different interfaces of landscapes (adapted from Palang & Fry, 2003;
PECSRL, 2006)

Interfaces Meaning
Between past Interface between past and present brings time depth to the
and present cultural landscape
Between man Interface between man and nature explains the type of product
and nature and process of the landscape
Between culture Interface between culture and space reflects the cultural identity
and space and individuality of the landscape in a particular place
Between the spiritual Interface between the spiritual and the visual reflects the effect of
and the visual belief and perception on the visual character of the landscape
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

There are different records for the number of cities and the corresponding sites of
tomb in ancient Lycia. According to Akşit (2008) and Bean (1997), Pliny, in the first
century AD, claimed that there were 70 cities in Lycia but only 36 of these have been
identified. The east Lycian city of Idebessos, located at the intersection of coast and
mountains, was amongst 50 settlements recorded in the Miliarium Lyciae, an ancient
document found in Patara (Çevik et al., 2009). On the other hand, Strabon (2005)
mentioned that there were 23 cities with voting rights in the management of the
Lycian League. However, 39 major cities with important tomb sites can be identified
so far, according to Çevik (2002). Nevertheless, there are some other minor cities and
rural settlements which are less important and it is likely that new tomb sites will be
uncovered in the ancient Lycian region.
Rock tomb construction was started in Lycia by 500 BC and continued to the 300s
AD and beyond. The exact number of rock tombs is not known. Four hundred
monumental tombs built mainly in the fourth century BC in the city of Lymbra
demonstrate how large and rich this city must have been. There were around 345
tombs recorded in Olimpos, of which 44 were in the form of a sarcophagus (Çevik,
2002); and the number of rock-cut tombs in Myra alone is estimated to be over 100.
However there is no clear picture about exact number of tombs in the Lycia region,
as there are some still buried underground, which it is hoped will be excavated; some
have been destroyed, and some removed.
Regarded as the house of the dead, a tomb is primarily a repository for the
remains of the deceased, and the term can refer to any enclosed interment space
or burial chamber of any type or size. The rock tombs are also regarded as
funerary monuments, which performed social functions for the families and
communities to which the deceased belonged and in order to connect the dead
with the living the builders reflected the design of their traditional wooden houses
in the appearance of the tombs. Efendioglu (2010) noted that there was a
cemetery foundation in ancient Lycia with the aim of protecting the tombs from
damage, stating that the people who vandalised tombs and violated the rules were
defined as faithless.
According to Bean (1997) and Çevik (2002), the main rock tomb types in ancient
Lycia can be classified as monumental, pillar, sarcophagus and rock-cut tombs
(Figure 2).
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 7
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

Figure 2. Lycian rock tombs: (a) monumental, (b) pillar, (c) sarcophagus, (d) rock-cut (Çevik,
2002).

Monumental Tomb
Monumental tombs were grand in scale, and some were in the form of temples to
reflect the wealth and prestige of the family concerned. They often recorded some
kind of political statement or a biography of the dead person, carved on the facades
of the tomb. Bean (1997) has shown that the grandest monumental tombs in Lycia
were usually built by the most important rulers of the time and mainly in the Ionian
style consisting of two columns.

Pillar Tomb
Pillar tombs were often attributed to important dynasties and consist of a single
prominent pillar or column with two main chambers, one of which is square and
carved out of the upper part of the pillar.

Sarcophagus
Being a common form of burial structure, sarcophagi can be found in a great range
of sizes. They are a sophisticated type of tomb that emerged from interment
traditions and are regarded as an important part of Lycian art.
A sarcophagus consists of four parts: a base, a grave-chamber and a crested lid,
and a hyposorion under the main grave-chamber. They are often decorated with
reliefs, usually on the sides and crest of the lid, but sometimes on the grave-chamber
also.
 8 M. Atik et al.

Rock-Cut Tomb
The most elaborate tomb type in Lycia is the rock-cut tomb that was carved into the
living rock. Some of these rock cut tombs were in the form of a temple and had two
columns, an epistyle and a pediment with elaborate carved reliefs, while others
resembled houses (Figure 3). Rock-cut tombs often held more than one body, and
many burial chambers contain several stone couches upon which gifts were left and
the dead were laid, often whole families being laid to rest there. The entrance of a
rock cut tomb was sealed with a sliding stone door that ran sideways along a groove.
Since these rock-cut tombs were perceived to be the houses of the dead within
which the soul resided, they were appropriately modelled on the style of the wooden
houses occupied by the living. Rock-cut tombs have all the construction details and
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

accessories such as doors, windows, pegs, door handles and door bolts accurately
carved (Txier, 2002). A rectangular entrance door on the front facade, planking on
both sides and beams to support the roof were carved to closely resemble the wooden
construction.
Originally, the tombs were probably built from wood, but later were carved
into the rocks in order to last indefinitely. The resulting monumental burial
complexes were frequently connected to each other by stairways. The facades of
the rock-cut tombs were also carved in the form of a house front, and the reliefs
often revealed information about the profession of the person buried there, while
the tombs of the wealthier Lycians were often finely worked with elaborate
decorative relief carving.
Rock-cut tombs in wooden house form are commonly found in Pinara, Tlos,
Telmessos, Myra, Lymyra and Antiphellos. In Pinara, even a plan of the city was
carved on one tomb facade. In order to make rock-cut tombs in Pinara, the sculptors
must have been suspended down the rock face (Txier, 2002). Living around the first
century AD, Pliny called the inhabitants of Pinara ‘bird people’ after visiting the
place (Akşit, 2007) owing to the locations of tombs up on the cliff faces out of reach
from the ground.

Vernacular Constructions
Vernacular constructions incorporate and may modify local features in material,
form and design as they are adapted and reproduced over time, although there is also
inherent conservatism in vernacular architecture. There are three main vernacular
elements that form the subject of this study: granaries, beehives and the chimneys
found on local houses. The construction periods of these existing local vernacular
structures used in the study differs considerably. The granaries were built around

Figure 3. Examples of rock-cut tombs from ancient Lycia (Çevik, 2002).

 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 9

1870 (Güçlü, 2007); the local vernacular houses, with typical elaborate chimneys,
were built around 1920 onwards. The beehives located in upland areas above 2000
metres elevation date back to the 1800s, due to the fact that there has been a long
inhabitation in the Taurus highlands by the Turkish nomadic Yörük people prior to
the development of coastal settlements.

Granaries
Relatively small storehouses for grain, granaries are still widely found in the rural
landscapes of ancient Lycia (Figure 4). The construction method of granaries is
based on the use of joined and locked wooden pieces without using pegs or other
fastenings. Such construction techniques also maintain the strength and solidity of
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

local buildings, where cedar (Cedrus libani) and juniper (Juniperus exelsa, Juniperus
oxycedrus) are the main construction materials.
Wheat growing traditions and the need to store grain out of reach of vermin go
back to ancient times. The Lycian land was an ideal location for cultivating
important products, grain in particular. Xanthos was the centre for growing cereal
crops, whereas Patara and Andriake were known for their large grain warehouses
(Antalya Valili
gi, 2004). Lloyd (2000) pointed out that Myra owed its fame for being
an important harbour where huge grain ships traded in cereals and in second century
Horrea Hadriani, reference is made to the silos of Emperor Hadrian, massive
structures used to store supplies before they were transported (Çevik, 2009). Local
granaries are still used to store cereals such as wheat, barley and chickpeas today.
As a reflection of traditional house construction in ancient Lycia, there is a strong
sign that the form of granaries was inspired by the rock tombs, or by the original
houses portrayed in rock tombs and for which the tombs are the main evidence of
their construction, so that the construction method has persisted through different
cultural phases and times, leading to the identical artefacts of today’s landscape
(Figure 5).

Figure 4. (a) An illustration of a rock-cut tomb and (b) a modern local granary in the ancient
Lycia region (Bektaş, 2005) showing the similarity in design.
 10 M. Atik et al.

Beehives
The beehive is a kind of an enclosed structure in which bees live, raise their young
and store their honey. Masetti (2002) defined beehives as enclosures built to protect
hives from incursions by predators.
There is a sophisticated relationship between beehives and architecture (Ramirez,
2007). Depending on the geographical characteristics of the area, the design and
construction of beehives has been inspired by local materials and traditional models
in a wide range of locations around the world. Concerning the design of beehives
from ancient Egyptian to modern times, Sheppard et al. (2001) emphasised the point
that while many cultural connections between the ancient peoples and present-day
inhabitants of Egypt have been severed and many old ways and technologies have
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

been replaced, some remain. Similarly, as seen in Figure 6, local beehives in the
ancient Lycia region appear to borrow strongly from something of the tomb
architecture or the original timber models used for tombs found locally.
Günay (2008) noted that beehives in the Lycia region are a kind of tower
constructed on a platform consisting of wooden beams extending on four sides. The
body of the beehives consists of dry wall braided by very close girders with an
average height between 5 and 10 metres with a triangular hive made of hollow logs
on top.

Figure 5. Examples of local granaries in the ancient Lycia region.

Figure 6. (a) An illustration (Çevik, 2002) and (b) an example (Islamo

glu, 2007) of modern
beehives in the ancient Lycia region.
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 11

Chimneys
Vernacular architecture incorporates the multi-layered, mysterious, evolved and
imprinted aspects of the environment (Deubzer, 2005). In architecture, every element
can reflect the genius loci and thus the culture and identity of the place. Being one of
the integral building elements in vernacular houses for the escape of smoke from a
fireplace or furnace, chimneys tend to be functionally identical features which
nevertheless also reflect the style of the building and have an aesthetic role in the
landscape.
As a distinctive part of the visual character of traditional buildings, the chimneys
of local houses in Lycia bear a strong resemblance to some of the types of tomb,
especially in the sense that they tend to be seen as silhouettes against the sky, as were
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

some of the tombs (Figure 7).

Interpreting the Cultural Interfaces of the Lycian Landscape

Swaffield (2005) articulated that landscape knowledge can be grounded in different
ways of conceiving the landscape, perceiving the landscape and achieving an inte-
grated understanding of it. At this point, for better comprehension of the relation-
ship between rock tombs and vernacular constructions in the Lycian landscape, the
four types of interface are considered in turn: between past and present, between
man and nature, between culture and space and between the spiritual and the visual.

Interface between Past and Present

The interface between past and present focuses on the temporal relationship and the
persistence of building forms in Lycia. As an inspirational tool, tomb types from the
past which were themselves based on the vernacular structures of the time are
mirrored in vernacular buildings today such as granaries, beehives and chimneys.
Rock tombs were carved like the facades of timber Lycian houses, complete with
protruding beams. Bektaş (2005) indicated that the Lycians used their traditional

Figure 7. Examples of chimneys from local houses in ancient Lycia region resembling some of
the types of tomb.
 12 M. Atik et al.

construction form of timber houses and reflected it in the rock tombs. Reliefs on the
facades strongly symbolise the wooden architecture (Şahin & Adak, 2002). This style
has been carried on over time and through major cultural changes so that the same
details can still be seen in the region, in the form of different vernacular
constructions.
Günay (2008) remarked that the sarcophagus was modelled from the wooden
granaries of ancient times, while Bayburtluoglu (2003) considered that local
granaries in Lycia, built without using metal or pegs are the living examples of
original wooden house architecture in Lycia.
The other unique outcome of Lycian art was the creation of local beehives
reflected strongly in pillar tombs. However, in this case there is a converse cultural
meaning between these two landscape elements in terms of the past and present
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

interface. In contrast to the common recognition that tombs are the houses of the
dead, beehives are the houses of life for bees, reflected in their creation of
honey, which has valuable life-enhancing properties. In terms of design interactions
between the two Çevik (2002) wrote that although the pillar tombs and sarcophagi
seem to be typical burial structures, they have nevertheless taken their models from
daily life.
The quality of stonemasonry of the Lycian masons is noteworthy and was
especially significant in the construction of tombs. The question remains open as to
whether the technique of interlocking joints in timber, that local craftsmen still use
today in the construction of granaries and beehives, has been inspired by the rock
tombs themselves or whether the original techniques utilised in the tombs have
remained alive, handed down from master to apprentice through history and across
cultures.

Interface between Man and Nature

The natural aspects of the interface concern the use of materials found in the locality,
and the selection of sites in the Lycian environment which were harmonious with the
natural setting. The soft limestone in the region was ideal for carving and for
depicting the fine detail found on the tombs. Şahin and Adak (2002) and Zoroglu
(2005) reported that this local limestone allowed the artists to carry out carving as
fine as on wood in ancient Lycia. Idil (1998) and Özdilek and Çevik (2009) also wrote
that the material for making sarcophagi was the smooth and easily sculpted local
limestone.
The ancient Lycians were inspired by their wooden houses and skilfully reflected
these structures in rock. They chose steep and rugged mountainous places to
establish their cities, and their tombs resemble fine and delicately constructed
wooden houses (Txier, 2002). Bean (1997) and Önen (1989) noted that the rock-cut
house tombs have one, two or sometimes three stories, from which protrude the ends
of beams, and which strongly imitate the construction of the wooden houses that can
still be observed in Lycia today in the form of granaries.
Wooden granaries in Elmalı and Sinan Degirmeni built without using pegs are the
finest examples that exist today of descendants of ancient Lycian house architecture
(Bayburtluo glu, 2003). Reflecting the Lycian house construction method, granaries
made of cedar and juniper wood are often found at higher elevations in today’s
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 13

Lycia, for example in Bezirgan, Elmali and Sinan Degirmeni above 1000 metres,
where natural and durable materials from the cedar forest are readily available.
Tombs showing a double-sloping roof that forms a gable at each end portrayed on
the rock faces are thought to be examples of contemporaneous Lycian houses using
the same technique (Barışcan, 1997). The design is also adapted to the climate – the
overhanging roof sheds the rain effectively and the raised construction keeps vermin
away. The same cedar wood is used in beehive construction.
Some specific construction details visible in the carved tombs show that the
original houses on which they are based may also have been constructed from the
same type of timber. For example, Kamiya (2000) identified decorative curved
baseplate and foundation beams shown as being constructed from jointed wooden
sections, which shows the difficulty of bending cedar faithfully expressed in tomb
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

construction.
Other materials in local vernacular constructions appear to be various; beehives
are constructed from natural materials such as stone and locally grown cedar and
juniper wood, while stone, brick and concrete are used in the construction of house
chimneys.

Interface between Culture and Space

Spaces are considered to be one of the primary means by which landscapes are
organised, understood, used and experienced (Dee, 2001). Landscape encompasses
the experiences that form memory and meaning and can be tangible as well as
symbolic. Katlenborn and Bjerke (2002) consider that landscape and natural places
contribute in their own right to the development of a sense of place.
The originality of Lycian art is exceptional amongst that of ancient Anatolia,
expressed especially in its funerary architecture, reliefs and sculptures. Rock tombs
were a symbol of high status in ancient Lycia expressing social wealth, power and
chivalry.
The style of rock altars and niches in the rock tombs shows that their design was
heavily influenced by Anatolian beliefs as well as previous Anatolian civilisations.
They believed in a spiritual afterlife; hence tombs were placed on the higher rock
outcrops with an overview of the whole city and in some cases, like in Xanthos and
Demre, overlooking the important communal buildings such as the theatre. Thus,
whether noble or common, rich or poor the souls of the dead within the tombs
guarded and watched over the people of the city below.
As in the case of the Lycian city of Myra, there were often small paths, gates and
stairs to allow people to reach the tombs on the rock faces. These give us an idea
about the city texture of Lycia. It was a kind of city plan that was visually easily
recognisable. Çevik (2009) considers that Lycian rock-cut tombs are not only the
imitation of civil architecture but also the imitation of a civic settlement.
The setting of the tombs, high on the cliffs, also allowed the mythical bird which
carried the souls to the sun to fly in and out of the tombs easily. Kunar (1995) noted
that the Lycian people believed that their souls would be taken to the sky by a god.
Therefore, tombs in either sarcophagus or rock-cut form were placed on the hilltops
or the highest point of the mountains. The location of these tombs was both a
necessity for the religious beliefs and also part of the demonstration of power, so that
 14 M. Atik et al.

the space was to some extent defined by such monuments. These therefore impart a
strong character to the Lycian landscape.
Feliu (2003) observed that landscape belongs to the vital and imaginary
experiences of the subject and is an individual construction on one level, but when
a community with a particular culture shares the same values, the identity of a
specific landscape instead becomes a social structure. Vernacular constructions
occupy certain spatial patterns in the Lycian landscape; granaries, beehives and
chimneys of local houses were items with different social functions. Related to rural
life, crop production, beekeeping and housing, they reflect local ownership and
territorial structures but in a much more modest way.
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

Interface between the Spiritual and the Visual

Historical landscapes provide tangible and intangible evidence of human habitation
through time. Cultural history and similarities reflected in material, construction
methods and the visible form of landscapes are all associated with the spiritual and
visual qualities of a place.
Johansen (2004) highlighted the fact that past meaning cannot be perceived from a
monument without access to the social context of its production. Rock tombs were
the creation of Lycian people – men, women and children – who lived within this
landscape and believed that the monumental tombs were a kind of link between this
world and the afterlife.
Spirituality refers to the deepest values and purposes that people have. The
interface between the spiritual and the visual reflects the effect of belief and
perception on the visible character of the landscape. The motivation behind the
construction of monumental tombs in Lycia was the strong belief in the spiritual life
and the afterlife. On the reliefs of the Lycian rock tombs, mythological figures and
heroes were depicted, which can be regarded as a visual communication of the
spiritual realm that was clearly an important aspect of tomb construction, design,
decoration and location.
In the ancient Greek world, coins were placed in the mouth and on the eyes of the
dead person. This was to pay the ferryman Charon of Hades, god of the underworld
so that soul of the dead person could cross over the River Styx into eternal life. Such
symbols were associated with the belief in life after death, manifested and reflected
on the rock tombs as well as in the burial traditions of ancient Lycia.
According to the beliefs of the ancient Lycians, the soul of the dead person was
transformed into a bird which flew away while the physical body stayed behind. The
tale of the phoenix, the invisible sacred bird which rises anew from the ashes, may
derive from this belief. Instead of the mythical phoenix, the Lycians used the pigeon
or dove to represent the soul of the dead. With their varied colours and names, each
pigeon was converted into a specific soul and rested in the tomb (Çevik, 2002).
It was important that the house within which the soul dwelt should closely
resemble the one the person lived in when they were alive so that the soul would not
feel uncomfortable or alienated. Lycian master masons therefore carved detailed
replicas of the original wooden houses into the rock. A dead person was buried with
his/her possessions and gifts placed inside the tomb as a ceremonial preparation for
the spiritual world. Engraved pictures and carved decorations on faces of the tombs
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 15

blend stories about social events, mythological scenes, battles and funerary
ceremonies with various artefacts as well as depictions of daily life, plants and
animals characteristic of the region were the manifestations of Lycian art. According
to Özdilek and Çevik (2009), scenery of warfare carved on the tombs reflected the
power, glory, pride and freedom of spirit of the deceased in the other world.

Cultural Interfaces of the Lycian Landscape in a Pattern, Process and

Product Cycle
In the broadest sense, landscapes are a form of literature that can be read on many
levels (Spirn, 1998) and in various ways. Correspondingly, cultural interfaces of the
Lycian landscape in a pattern, process and product cycle are summarised in Table 3.
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

The interface between past and present allows us to analyse time depth within the
landscape, and the interface between man and nature reveals the basic processes that
created the Lycian landscape which is still in progress with the continued use of
various natural materials and products. The interface between culture and space
brings identity and individuality to the landscape in a space continuum while the
interface between the spiritual and the visual empowers the visual character and also
imparts meaning to the landscape.

Table 3. Cultural interfaces of the Lycian landscape

Interfaces Meaning Lycian rock tombs

Between past Time depth The forms of Lycian rock tombs of the past still
and present live on in the granaries, beehives and house
chimneys of the Lycian region today. The
reflection of Lycian house type tombs into local
vernacular architectural products for more
than 2500 years has been intermingled with
perceptions, beliefs and artefacts.
Between man Process and Lycian rock tombs were a special example of the
and nature product interface between man and nature. Using local
topography and natural materials and their fit
to the natural settings, most notably their
locality, carvings on the limestone rock faces,
as well as local timber in vernacular
constructions maintain the relationship with
nature intact.
Between culture Identity and Interface between culture and space of the Lycian
and space individuality rock tombs brought uniqueness to the identity
within a place and individuality to the cultural landscape in
the region. The spatial patterns of tombs differ
from those of local vernacular constructions
but remain closely related to the landscape.
Between spiritual Spirituality Rock tombs in ancient Lycia were regarded as the
and visual in visual house of the dead people’s souls. The
character motivation of their belief in a spiritual life after
death was reflected on the visual character of
house as the route to the afterworld they
believed in.
 16 M. Atik et al.

Swaffield (2005) indicated that there is a hint of the science of landscape as process
and pattern and of different cultural readings to be found in the landscape. Process
implies a series of actions or functions that cause the landscape to evolve over time
(Bell, 1999). Spirn (1998) suggested that material, form and space are sensed and
shaped by processes. Accordingly, a model of the flow of pattern, process and the
resulting product in relation to cultural interfaces of the Lycian landscape is given in
Figure 8. The pattern of the landscape originated from Lycian houses where the rock
tombs provided a time-space process linking with granaries, beehives and chimneys
(Table 3).
The varieties of local architectural products resulting from the interface between
man and nature have been a source of cultural diversity in the Lycian landscape. The
uniqueness of the rock tomb form is one of the elements which ascribe cultural value
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

to the region through the interface between the spiritual and the visual.
Cultural identity is strongly associated with the ways in which people interact with
their landscapes (Stephenson, 2008). Taylor (2008) reported that cultural landscapes
are at the interface of culture and nature, tangible and intangible heritage, biological
and cultural diversity – they represent a closely woven net of relationships, the
essence of culture and people’s identity. The term identity refers to the role of the
landscape in the self-definition of a group of people or cultures. Referring to this
definition, the interface between culture and space in ancient Lycia marks the
cultural identity that originated from rock tombs, while the vernacular constructions,
also being genuine to the area bring a different but related cultural identity. The
interface between past and present provides cultural continuity as a gradual
development in time leading to the development of a rare landscape (Figure 8).

Discussion and Conclusions

Landscape is a tangible expression of the spatial and temporal relationship between
people and the physical environment, shaped to varying degrees by social, economic
and cultural factors (Council of Europe, 2000). This is most visible in relation to
ancient cultures where continuity and persistence lead to time depth and add a
certain strength of character to such landscapes.

Figure 8. A diagram showing the flow of pattern, process and product in relation to cultural
interfaces.
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 17

Menzies and Titchener (2009) wrote that landscape is a cultural construct in the
same way that justice and language are. We perceive and value landscape according
to our culture. When the layers of different cultures are blended with diverse
interpretations, the cultural content of the landscape becomes highly important for
understanding the sense of continuity within the landscape.
Palang and Fry (2003) recognised that there are four things to bear in mind when
studying landscapes; forms, functions, processes and context. Spirn (1998) advocated
that it is important to respond to the landscape’s surface form, and also to the
processes that shape its underlying structure.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the Lycian landscape in the Turkish
Mediterranean, and to test the cultural interface approach as a tool for
understanding how geographical and cultural aspects overlap in the Lycia region
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

and how cultural interfaces can provide a distinct communication tool within the
pattern, process and product cycle. Time depth, cultural processes and products,
identity and individuality within a place, and spirituality expressed in the visual
character of the cultural landscape were major concerns for this study.
Human landscape perception, cognition and values directly affect the landscape
and are affected by it (Nassauer, 1995). Landscape patterns can be understood in one
way as the visible manifestation of the processes at work in the landscape. Bell (2001)
asserted that patterns and processes are indivisible and feed back to one another. As
perception connotes recognition and interpretation of sensory stimuli based chiefly
on memory, the process in the Lycian case has been influenced strongly by the
perception of the cultural and visual context of the landscape and its elements.
Our goal in this study was also to understand non-visual aspects, historical
continuity, aspects of perception and something of the historic layering of the
landscape. In this respect the process, pattern and product model demonstrated how
interfaces can disclose cultural diversity, cultural value, cultural identity and cultural
continuity in the Lycian landscape, while process divulged both tangible and
intangible evidence.
Landscape acquires an ethical, aesthetic and historic sense, gains symbolic values
and is presented as a cultural sign (Feliu, 2003). Symbolic meanings are also often
attributed to landscapes (Schama, 1995). Such a complexity of roles is too often
overlooked, particularly when the various features appear simultaneously in a
particular landscape as many layers of the same structure. Taylor (2008) emphasised
that connections between landscape and identity and hence memory are fundamental
to understanding landscape and the human sense of place.
The Lycians created their houses for the afterlife using the distinguished
inspiration of their real houses in a most logical way, being fitted into the local
topography and on to the limestone rock faces. However, while remaining part of the
living cultural heritage, the recognition of local vernacular constructions are
inextricably connected to the past via the types of cultural interface defined and
analysed here. The most notable example of the sense and spirit of place (genius loci)
of ancient Lycia is the rock tomb and its reflections in vernacular artefacts. The key
to this is the persistence and the continuity of the original design and construction
techniques utilised in the tombs yet visibly functional today in the granaries, beehives
and chimneys. With preservation, authenticity is one of the major concerns (Palang
& Fry, 2003) and the authenticity of the Lycian landscape emerges from a unique
 18 M. Atik et al.

agreement between past and present on land sharing the same knowledge and forms
based on associative cultural and visual values.
Rowntree and Conkey (1980) pointed out that cultural landscape is in one sense
created and transformed by symbolic human action. The rock tombs in the Lycian
landscape are distinctive examples expressing the symbolic interaction between man
and nature, past and present, culture and space, the spiritual and the visual. Farina
(2008) presumed that landscape is a semiotic interface between organisms and
resources which simply introduces a new way to evaluate attributes that increase our
confidence and knowledge about this complex subject.
Landscape can be like a book, one which tells us who we are and how we arrived
at this place that we call the modern world, and which can tell us about human
origins and history and social progress (Fairclough et al., 2002). Landscape studies
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

search for the way in which people in the past shaped nature consciously or
unconsciously depending on the interaction of many factors. Using ‘the interface’ as
the mode of interpretation in order to comprehend and read the cultural landscape
was our aim in this study which we hope will improve the integration of cultural
history with landscape research.
Because analysis of cultural landscape history enhances the possibilities of creative
practice in conservation, design and planning, analysis of the different interfaces can
be used as an effective tool. Here, studying landscape is an interdisciplinary mission
in which landscape architects, planners, historians, archaeologists, geographers and
other related professionals need to cooperate for the evaluation and understanding
of the meanings behind the landscapes that we see. In this respect, the Lycian
landscape is interwoven with perception, architecture and artistic work, local
knowledge, vernacular artefacts and natural settings as a result of cultural and
historical processes which are simultaneously autonomous and culture-bound and
must be handled using interdisciplinary approaches.
Connectivity and persistence are important for protecting unusual examples of
past experiences and knowledge and relates to landscape management issues. Jones
et al. (2007) wrote of the great diversity and the quality of the landscapes that we
have inherited and how we should seek to preserve or even enhance their diversity
and quality, instead of allowing them to decline.
The application of the concept of interfaces can be used as the basis for informing
landscape protection and management policies and practices. The interface can be
located at the junction presented by the present, where we look backwards into the
past and forwards into the future. Demonstrating recent patterns and forms of the
landscape originating from the past will have many subjective and objective values to
offer for the future in maintaining cultural continuity. At this point cultural
interfaces can help communication in landscape design and planning and help to
strengthen the basic knowledge of historic landscape protection and management.
As special places, monuments are imbued with a symbolic value and act as
landmarks that allow orientation in space and time (Atik et al., 2010). According to
Palang and Fry (2003) landscapes have a role to play in the shaping of local, regional
and national characters, and there is a tendency towards landscape as a cornerstone
of regional and national identities. Lycian rock tombs, as demonstrated by this
research, reflect the unique identity and individuality of the Lycian region in the
Turkish Mediterranean. Today the entire Lycian landscape is still dotted with
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 19

numerous funerary monuments and rock tombs, and their vernacular reflections in
granaries, beehives and chimneys, with different functions and meanings.
Palang and Fry (2003) stated that time and space is an important interface for the
development of our understanding and for theory development in the realm of
cultural landscape analysis and management. The research described in this paper,
exposing the interface approach to the analysis and interpretation of a specific
landscape, suggests that the concept has much to offer and that it should help to
provide a strong connectivity and persistence among different landscape aspects in
spatial, temporal, spiritual and cultural terms.

Acknowledgements
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

This study was supported by the Administration Unit of Scientific Research Projects
of Akdeniz University. The authors would like to thank the Research Institute on
_
Mediterranean Civilisations of the Suna-Inan Kıraç Foundation for their kind
assistance and Nevzat Çevik, Burak Takmer, Muhammet Güçlü, H. Onur Tıbıkoglu
and Fehmi Gürel for their valuable contributions to the study.

References
_ (2007) Akdeniz Uygarlıkları: Lykia, Pamphylia, Kilikya (Istanbul: Akşit Kültür ve Turizm
Akşit, I.
Yayıncılık).
_ (2008) The Land of Light LYCIA (Istanbul: Akşit Kültür ve Turizm Yayıncılık).
Akşit, I.
Akurgal, E. (2008) Anadolu Kültür Tarihi (Ankara TÜBITAK _ Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştırma
Grubu Popüler Bilim Kitapları Yayınları).
Antalya Valili _ Özel Idaresi
gi (2004) Antalya Kültür Envanteri (Kaş) (Antalya Valiligi Il _ Kültür Yayınları
2004/2, Envanterler Dizisi 4, Siyah Grafik & Matbaacılık Ltd. Sti.).
ASLA (2003) GLOSSARY Landscape Architecture Terms. ASLA (American Society of Landscape
Architects), available at http://www.asla.org/nonmembers/publicrelations/glossary.htm (accessed
January 2011).
Atik, M., Danacı, H. M. & Erdogan, R. (2010) Perception of plants in ancient times and their use as motifs
revealing aspects of the cultural landscape in Side, Turkey, Landscape Research, 35(3), pp. 281–297.
_
Barışcan, H. (1997) Likya Efsaneleri (Istanbul: _
Inkılap Kitapevi).
Bayburtluo glu, C. (2003) Yüksek Kayalı gın Yanındaki Yer: ARYKANDA (Istanbul: Homer Kitapevi ve
Yayıncılık).
Bayburtluo glu, C. (2004) LYKIA _ (Istanbul: Homer Kitapevi ve Yayıncılık).
Bean, G. E. (1997) Lykian Turkey. Eskiça gda Lykia Bölgesi, trans. Kökten, H. (Istanbul: Arion Yayınevi).
Bektaş, C. (2005) Halk Yapı Sanatından Bir Örnek ANTALYA. Anadolu Evleri Dizisi-2 (Ankara: Bileşim
Yayınları).
Bell, S. (1999) Landscape: Pattern, Perception and Process (London: Spon Press).
Bell, S. (2001) Landscape pattern, perception and visualisation in the visual management of forests,
Landscape and Urban Planning, 54, pp. 201–211.
Birnbaum, C. A. (1994) Protecting cultural landscapes planning, treatment and management of historic
landscapes. US Department of Interior National Park Service, Technical Preservation Service,
Washington, DC, available at www.nps.gov/history/hps/tps/briefs/brief36.htm (accessed May 2010).
Borchhardt, J. (1999) LIYMRA Zemuri Taşları Likya Bölgesi’nde Limyra Antik Kenti’nin Gizemli
Sularında Yapılan Arekolojik Araştırmalar (Istanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları).
Council of Europe (2000) European Landscape Convention (EST No. 176), available at http://www.coe.int
(accessed April 2010).
_
Çevik, N. (2002) Taşların Izinde _
LIKYA (Istanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları).
Çevik, N. (2009) Myra, Current World Archaeology, 41, pp. 18–25.
_ & Bulut, S. (2009) Rhodiapolis, as a unique example of Lycian urbanism, ADALYA,
Çevik, N., Kızgut, I.
XIII, pp. 29–63.
 20 M. Atik et al.

Dee, C. (2001) Form and Fabric in Landscape Architecture: A Visual Introduction (London: Spon Press).
Deubzer, H. (2005) Building culture: magic and identity of place, in: H. Braun & D. Grömling (Eds),
Research and Technology Buildings: A Design Manual, pp. 17–20 I (Basle: Birkhäuser Verlag).
Efendio glu, T. (2010) Helenistik ve Roma Ça glarında Likya’da Yerel Tanrı ve Tanrıçalar (Istanbul:
Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları).
Fairclough, G., Rippon, S. & Bull, D. (2002) Europe’s Cultural Landscape: Archaeologists ad the
Management of Change, EAC Occasional Paper 2. European Archaeologiae Consilium and English
Heritage, Brussels.
Farina, A. (2008) The landscape as a semiotic interface between organisms and resources, Biosemiotics, 1,
pp. 75–83.
Feliu, C.A. (2003) Cultural landscapes: Evaluating the interaction between people and nature, in:
UNESCO, Cultural Landscapes: The Challenges of Conservation, pp. 37–39 (Paris: UNESCO World
Heritage Centre).
Güçlü, M. (2007) Antalya’nın Türkler Tarafından Fethinin 800.Yıl Dönümü Anısına (5 Mart 1207–5
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

Mart 2007) Selçuklulardan Cumhuriyet’e Kumluca (Antalya) Bölgesi-Kumluca (Antalya) Region from
the Seljuks period until to the Turkish Republic, Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, pp. 219–240.
Günay, R. (2008) ELMALI ve Yöresel Mimarlı gı (Istanbul: Ege yayınları).
Harvey, S. & Fieldhouse, K. (2005) The Cultured Landscape: Designing the Environment in the 21st Century
(Abingdon: Routledge).
_
Idil, V. (1998) LIKYA _
LAHITLER I._ Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu, Türk Tarih Kurumu
Yayınları Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara.
Islamo glu, G. (2007) Alternatif Rota: Beydagları ve Dinamitlenen Antik Şehir. Available at: http://www.
guvenislamoglu.com (accessed May 2010).
Johansen, P. G. (2004) Landscape, monumental architecture, and ritual: A reconsideration of the South
Indian ashmounds, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 23, pp. 309–330.
Jones, M., Howard, P., Olwig, K. R., Primdahl, J. & Herlin, I. S. (2007) Multiple interfaces of the
European Landscape Convention, Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift—Norwegian Journal of Geography, 61,
pp. 207–215.
Joyce, R. A. (2009) Ritual and symbolism, archaeology of symbolism, in: International Encyclopedia of the
Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 13371–13375 (Amsterdam: Elsevier).
Kamiya, T. (2000) Lycian influence to the Indian cave temples. Available at http://www.kamit.jp/07_lycia/
liki_eng.htm (accessed May 2010).
Katlenborn, B. P. & Bjerke, T. (2002) Associations between landscape preferences and place attachment:
A study in Røros, southern Norway, Landscape Research, 27(4), pp. 381–396.
Krönert, R., Steinhardt, U. & Volk, M. (2001) Landscape Balance and Landscape Assessment (New York:
Springer-Verlag).
Kunar, S. (1995) MYRA St Nicholas; Kekova, Simena, Kyaenai, Antiphelos (Izmir: NET Turistik
Yayınları).
Lloyd, S. (2000) Türkiye’nin Tarihi; Bir Gezginin Gözüyle Anadolu Uygarlıkları, trans. Varinoglu, E.
(Ankara: TÜBITAK _ Popüler Bilim Kitapları).
Masetti, L. N. (2002) Ancient apiaries of the Iberian peninsula: From the Tajo basin to the meanders of
the Ebro, American Bee Journal, 142(1), pp. 42–44.
Menzies, D. & Titchener, A. (2009) Cultural landscapes and indigenous peoplesi, IFLA Newsletter, 81,
pp. 13–15.
Nakata, M. (2002) Indigenous knowledge and the cultural interface: Underlying issues at the intersection
of knowledge and information systems, IFLA Journal, 28, pp. 281–291.
Nassauer, J. I. (1995) Culture and changing landscape structure, Landscape Ecology, 10(4), pp. 229–237.
Önen, Ü. (1989) LYCIA Western Section of the Southern Coast of Turkey (Izmir: NET Turistik Yayınları).
Özdilek, B. & Çevik, N. (2009) New discoveries in rural north east Lycia: Scenes of daily life on Roman
rural sarcophagi, in: C. Özkan Aygün (Ed.) SOMA 2007 Proceedings of the XI Symposium on
Mediterranean Archaeology, pp. 284–290 (Oxford: Archaeopress).
Palang, H. & Fry, G. (2003) Landscape interfaces, in: H. Palang & G. Fry (Eds) Landscape Interfaces.
Cultural Heritage in Changing Landscapes (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers).
PECSRL (2006) European rural future: Landscape as an interface, 22nd Conference of the Permanent
European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape, 4–9 September, Berlin/Brandenburg,
available at: http://www.geog.fu-berlin.de/*pecsrl/index.html (accessed October 2009).
 Understanding Cultural Interfaces in the Landscape 21

Ramirez, J. A. (2007) Gaudi’den LeCorbusier’ye Ari Kovanlari Metaforu (Ankara: Dost Kitapevi
Yayınları).
Rowntree, L. B. & Conkey, M. W. (1980) Symbolism and the cultural landscape, Annals of the Association
of American Geographers, 70(4), pp. 459–474.
_
Şahin, S. & Adak, M. (2002) Likya Incelemeleri I, Epigrafi ve Tarihsel Cograya Dizisi 1 (Antalya: Akdeniz
Dil ve Kültürlerini Araştırma Merkezi Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları).
Schama, S. (1995) Landscape and Memory (New York: Vintage Books).
Sheppard, W. S., Shoukry, A. & Kamel, S. (2001) The Nile honey bee—The bee of ancient Egypt in
modern times, American Bee Journal, 141(4), pp. 42–44.
Spiegel, S. (1997) Landscape of memory, in: J. Brouwer & C. Hoekendijk (Eds) Interfacing Realities
(Rotterdam: V2 Organisatie), available at: www.v2.nl/archive/articles/landscape-of-memory (accessed
January 2011).
Spirn, A. W. (1998) The Language of Landscape (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press).
Stephenson, J. (2008) The cultural values model: An integrated approach to values in landscapes,
Downloaded by [Akdeniz Universitesi] at 22:25 23 February 2012

Landscape and Urban Planning, 84, pp. 127–139.

Strabon (2005) ANTIK 
_ ANADOLU COGRAFYASI, trans. Pekman, A. (Istanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat
Yayınları).
Swaffield, S. (2005) Landscape as a way of knowing the world, in: S. Harvey & K. Fieldhouse (Eds), The
Cultured Landscape: Designing the Environment in the 21st Century, pp. 3–24 (Abingdon: Routledge).
Taylor, K. (2008) Landscape and memory: Cultural landscapes, intangible values and some thoughts on
Asia, in: 16th ICOMOS General Assembly and International Symposium: ‘Finding the spirit of place –
between the tangible and the intangible’, 29 September–4 October, Quebec, Canada, available at: http://
www.international.icomos.org/quebec2008/cd/toindex/77_pdf/77-wrVW-272.pdf (accessed June 2010).
Txier, C. (2002) KÜÇÜK ASYA Co grafyası, Tarihi ve Arkeolojisi, trans. Suat, A. (Ankara: Enformasyon
ve Dokümantasyon Hizmetleri Vakfı).
Umar, B. (1999) Lykia Bir Tarihsel ve Co _
grafya Araştırması ve Gezi Rehberi (Istanbul: Inkılap Kitapevi).
Wardell-Johnson, A. (2007) People in context: Critical social dimensions in complex landscape systems,
unpublished PhD thesis, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, available at: http://researchre
pository.murdoch.edu.au/476/1/01Front.pdf (accessed May 2010).
Yunkaporta, T. Y. & McGinty, S. (2009) Reclaiming Aboriginal knowledge at the cultural interface,
Australian Educational Researcher, 36(2), pp. 55–72.
Zoro _
glu, L. (2005) Daglık Klikya ve Likya’da Ölü Gömme Gelenekleri ve Mezar Mimarisi Ilişkileri
Üzerinde Bir Deneme in Uluslararası Likya Sempozyumu: Sempozyum Bildirileri, II. Cilt, pp. 917–929,
07-10 Kasım, 2005 Antalya.

View publication stats